CE 362

Open Channel Flow Sessional

(Lab Manual)

Department of Civil Engineering

Stamford University Bangladesh

 Preface

Rivers and canals are the examples of open channel flow. Discharge measurement
in open channel is different from closed conduit which is important to design and
maintain many different water-related structures. So, the main objective of this course
is to teach the student how to measure discharge in an open channel and to give an
idea about some terms and phenomena of an open channel flow which will be used
by them in future in practical field.

This Lab manual was prepared with the help of some famous books written by
renowned authors on Open Channel Flow, Lab manual of Open Channel Flow
Sessional of Bangladesh University of Engineering and Technology (BUET) and
some other colleagues motivated us to update the lab manual.

Prepared By:

Mohsena Lopa
Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering
Stamford University Bangladesh

Rizvan Ahmed Rafsan

Lecturer, Department of Civil Engineering
Stamford University Bangladesh
 INDEX

Exp.
Experiment Name Page
No.
Determination of state of flow and critical depth in open
1
channel

2 Flow over a broad-crested weir

3 Flow through a Venturi flume

4 Flow through a Parshall flume

5 Flow through a cut-throat flume

6 Flow beneath a sluice gate

7 Study on hydraulic jump

Development of generalized specific energy and specific force

8
curves

9 Velocity distribution in open channel

Determination of discharge and mean velocity of an open

10
channel

Appendix-1: Lab report format

References

Derivation of Related Formulae

 Experiment No. 1

DETERMINATION OF STATE OF FLOW AND

CRITICAL DEPTH IN OPEN CHANNEL

1.1 General
The state of open channel flow is mainly governed by the combined effect of
viscous and gravity forces relative to the inertial forces. This experiment mainly deals
with determination of the state of flow in an open channel at a particular section.
The state of flow is very important, as the flow behavior depends on it. To construct
different structures in rivers and canals and to predict the river response, the state of flow
must be known. The experiment also deals with determination of critical depth, which
is very useful in determining the types of flow in practice.

1.2 Theory

1.2.1State of flow
Depending on the effect of viscosity relative to inertia, the flow may be laminar,
turbulent or transitional. The effect of viscosity relative to the inertia is expressed by
the Reynolds number, given by

VR
Re 


Where, V is the mean velocity of flow, R is the hydraulic radius (=A/P), A is the
wetted cross-sectional area, P is the wetted perimeter and is the kinematic viscosity
of water. Kinematic viscosity varies with temperature. The values of kinematic
viscosity of water at different temperatures are given in Table 1.1. The value of υ at
200C (=1.003x10-6 m2/s) is normally used to compute the Reynolds number of open
channel flow.

When, Re < 500 the flow is laminar

500 ≤ Re ≤12,500 the flow is transitional
Re > 12,500 the flow is turbulent

When the flow is dominated by the gravity, then the type of flow can be identified
by a dimensionless number, known as Froude Number. Given by

V
Fr = (1.2)
gD
Where, V is the mean velocity of flow, D is the hydraulic depth (= A/T), A is the cross-
sectional area, T is the top width and g is the acceleration due to gravity (= 9.81 m/s 2).
Depending on the effect of gravity relative to inertia, the flow may be subcritical,
critical or supercritical-

When, Fr<1; the flow is subcritical

Fr =1; the flow is critical
Fr>1; the flow is supercritical.

The flow in most rivers and canals is subcritical. Supercritical flow normally
occurs downstream of a sluice gate and at the foot of drops and spillways. The Froude
number of open channel flow varies over a wide range covering both subcritical and
supercritical flows and the state or behavior of open channel flow is primarily
governed by the gravity force relative to the inertia force. Therefore, the Froude
number is the most important parameter to indicate the state or behavior of open
channel flow.

Depending on the numerical values of Reynolds and Froude numbers, the

following four states of flow are possible in an open channel:

i) Subcritical laminar Fr<1, Re<500

ii) Supercritical laminar Fr>1, Re<500
iii) Subcritical turbulent Fr<1, Re>12,500
iv) Supercritical turbulent Fr>1, Re>12,500
The first two states of flow,
subcritical laminar and supercritical laminar, are not commonly encountered in
applied open channel hydraulics. Since the flow is generally turbulent is open
channel, the last two states of flow are encountered is engineering problems.

Table 1.1 Kinematic viscosity of water at different temperatures

Temperature, 0C Kinematic viscosity, 10-6, m2/s

0 1.781
5 1.518
10 1.307
15 1.139
20 1.003
25 0.890
30 0.798
40 0.653
50 0.547
60 0.466
70 0.404
80 0.354
90 0.315
100 0.282
 1.2.2 Critical depth
Flow in an open channel is critical when the Froude number of the flow is equal
to unity. Critical flow in a channel depends on the discharge and the geometry of
channel section. For a rectangular section, the critical depth is given by:
Q2
yc  3
gB 2
Where, yc is the critical depth, Q is the discharge and B is the width of the channel.
When the depth is greater than the critical depth, the flow is subcritical. When
the depth is less than the critical depth, the flow is supercritical.

1.3 Objectives of the experiment

1) To measure water depth both upstream and downstream of a weir.
2) To determine the Reynolds number (Re) and the Froude number
(Fr).
3) To determine the state of flow.
4) To determine critical depth (yc).
5) To observe the subcritical and the supercritical flows.

1.4 Experimental setup

To develop different states of flow, the following laboratory setup is used.

1 2

Tail gate
In flow Broad-crested weir
Flow measuring unit (Water meter)

Out flow
Reservoir
Pump

Fig. 1.1 Schematic diagram of experimental setup

1.5 Procedure
i) Measure the depth of flow at sections 1 and 2 by a point gage.
ii) Take the reading of discharge.
iii) Calculate the velocity at both the sections.
iv) Calculate Re and Fr for both the sections using Eqs. (1.1) and
(1.2) and determine the state of flow.
v) Calculate the critical depth yc using Eq. (1.3).

1.6 Assignment
1. Why the state of flow and the critical depth of a river or canal need
to be determined?
2. How can you determine that the flow in a river is subcritical,
critical or supercritical without taking any measurement?
3. State why the Froude number is more significant than the
Reynolds number to determine the state of open channel flow.
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Discharge, Q = m3/s Flume width, B = m

Critical depth, yc = m Temperature = C

Kinematic viscosity, ν= m2/s

Depth of Hydraulic Hydraulic

Section

Perimeter Velocity Froude Reynolds State

flow Area Radius Depth
P=(B+2y) V=Q/(By) number number of
y A=By R=A/P D=A/T
2 (m) (m/s) Fr Re flow
(m) (m ) (m) (m)

Course Teacher :

Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 2

FLOW OVER A BROAD-CRESTED WEIR

2.1 General
A broad-crested weir is an overflow structure with a truly level and horizontal
crest. It is widely used in irrigation canals for the purpose of flow measurement as
it is rugged and can stand up well under field conditions.
But practically some problems arise with the weir, as there exists a dead water
zone at the upstream of the weir and the head loss is more comparable to other
devices. By virtue of being a critical depth meter, the broad crested weir has the
advantage that it operates effectively with higher downstream water levels than a
sharp crested weir.
This experiment deals with measurement of discharge using the broad-
crested weir and calibration of the weir.

2.2 Theory

2.2.1 Description of the weir

The broad-crested weir has a definite crest length in the direction of flow. In
order to maintain a hydrostatic pressure distribution above the weir crest, i.e. to
maintain the streamlines straight and parallel, the length of the weir is designed such
that 0.07 H1/L 0.50 where H1 is the head above the crest and L is the length of the
weir (Fig. 2.1). Under this condition, critical flow occurs over the weir at section A-A
and the weir provides an excellent means of measuring discharge in open channels
based on the principle of critical flow. The upstream corner of the weir is rounded in
such a manner that flow separation does not occur.

Fig. 2 .1 Flow over a broad-crested weir

2.2.2 Theoretical discharge
Consider a rectangular broad -crested weir shown in Fig. 2.1. Based on th e
principle of critical flow (Fr = 1), the theoretical discharge Qt over the weir is given by:
Qt  g Byc1.5

Where, B is the width of the weir, yc is the critical depth and g is the acceleration due
to gravity.
The usual difficulty in u sing Eq. (2.1) for computing discharge lies i n locating
the critical flow section and measuring the critical depth accurately. This difficult y is,
however, overcome by measuring the depth of flow upstream of the weir where the
flow is not affected by the presence of the weir. With reference to Fig. 2.1, neglecting
the frictional losses and applying the energy equation between the upstream section
and the critical flow section, we obtain

Vc2
H1  yc 
2g

Where, yc is the critical velocity. Since at the critical state of flow, the velocity head
is equal to one-half of the hydraulic depth (D) and for a rectangular channel, D = y,
the above equation gives:

Vc2 y 3
H 1  yc   yc  c  yc
2g 2 2

so that
2
yc 
H1
3
and Eq.(2.1) becomes

2
Qt  ( )1.5 g BH11.5
3

2.2.3 Coefficient of discharge

Due to the assumptions made in the derivation of the governing equation, the
theoretical discharge and the actual discharge always vary from each other. So, the
coefficient of discharge is introduced. If Qa is the actual discharge, then the coefficient
of discharge, Cd, is given by

Qa
Cd 
Qt
So,
2
Qa  Cd ( )1.5 g BH11.5
3
 The coefficient of discharge for a broad-crested weir depends on the length of
the weir and whether the upstream corner of the weir is rounded or not. Normally, in
a field installation it is not possible to measure the energy head H1 directly and
therefore the discharge is related to the upstream depth of flow over the crest, y1, by
the equation

2
Qa  Cv Cd ( )1.5 g By11.5
3

Where, Cv is the correction coefficient for neglecting the velocity head in the approach
channel. Generally the effect of Cv is considered in Cd and finally the governing
equation becomes:

2
Qa  Cd ( )1.5 g By11.5
3

2
Qt  ( )1.5 g By11.5
3

2.2.4 Calibration
Calibration is the act of obtaining a definite relationship for the measuring
device using the sets of known data. For a broad-crested weir, the Eq.2.7 can be
expressed as a relationship between the upstream depth and the discharge, i.e. Q =
ky1n. This relation is known as stage discharge equation for discharge measurement.
So, calibration deals with determination of coefficient k and exponent n using the sets
of experimental data and develop the equation Q = ky1n so that the equation can be
useful for flow estimation. The plotting of the calibrated equation is known as
calibration curve for the measuring device. There are two different ways to develop a
calibration equation. These are

i) Plotting best fit line by eye estimation.

ii) Developing best fit line by regression.

By eye estimation
As log Q = log k + n log y1, so if Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper, the line
will represent a straight line. Different sets of Q and y 1 are plotted in a log log paper
keeping y1 along the x axis and Q along the y axis. The best fit line is drawn by eye
estimation. The slope of the line gives the value of n. Then for any value of y the
corresponding value of Q is found from the best fit line. Using these values of y, Q
and n, the value of k can be found form the equation Q = ky1n.

By regression
From Q = ky1n, we have
log Q = log k + n log y1
Putting log Q = Y, log k = K and log y1 = X, we obtain

Y = K + nX
Then

N ( XY )  ( X )( Y )
n
N (  X 2 )  ( X 2 )

K
 Y  n X
N

k = antilog K
where N is the number of sets of Q and y1 plotted. The correlation coefficient r is
given by

N ( XY )  ( X )( Y )
r
( N (  X 2 )  ( X ) 2 )( N ( Y 2 )  ( Y ) 2 )

For a perfect correlation, r = 1.0. If r is between 0.6 and 1.0, it is generally taken as
a good correlation.
2.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To determine the theoretical discharge of the weir.

ii) To measure the actual discharge and hence to find
out the coefficient of discharge.
iii) To calibrate the weir.

2.4 Experimental setup

The experimental setup for this experiment is given below.

Fig. 2.2 Set up for flow over a broad-crested weir

2.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of
discharge
i. Measure the upstream water level over the weir y1 at three points, then find
the average depth and determine the theoretical discharge using Eq. (2.7).
ii. Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (2.3).

To calibrate the weir by eye estimation (should be done by students having odd
student number)
i. Plot the actual discharges against the corresponding upstream depths in a
log log paper and find the value of n and k as discussed in Art. 2.2.4.
ii. Develop the relationship Q = ky1n.
To calibrate the weir by regression (should be done by students having even
student number)
i. Form a table having columns for Q, y1, X, Y, XY, X2, Y2 as discussed in Art.
2.2.4 and find the value of n, k and r .
ii. Compare the equation with that obtained by the eye estimation method.

2.6 Shape of Q vs y graph

In a plain graph paper, the plot of Q = kyn is non-linear. But in a log log paper
Q = kyn plots as a straight line since log Q = log k + n log y which is an equation of a
straight line (of the form y = mx + c).

2.7 Assignment

1. What are the advantages, disadvantages, and uses of a broad-crested weir?

2. Why is it necessary to calibrate a broad-crested weir?
3. A broad-crested weir is designed so that 0.07 ≤ H1/L ≤ 0.50. What do the
upper and lower limits of H1/L signify?
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Depth of water Theoretical Actual Coefficient

over weir discharge discharge of discharge
crest Qt Qa Cd
(m) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Calibration of the weir

i) By eye estimation

Actual discharge, Qa Depth of water above weir crest, y1

(cm3/s) (cm)
ii) By regression

y1 Qa X=log y1 Y=log Q XY X2 Y2

∑X= ∑Y= ∑XY= ∑X2= ∑Y2=

Summation

Course Teacher :

Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 3

FLOW THROUGH A VENTURI FLUME

3.1 General
Although weirs are an effective method of artificially creating a critical section
at which the flow rate can be determined, a weir installation has at least two
disadvantages. First, the use of weirs results in relatively high head loss. Second,
most weirs create a dead water zone upstream of it which can serve as a settling
basin for sediment and other debris present in the flow. Both disadvantages can
be overcome with an open flume having a contraction in width which is sufficient to
cause the flow to pass through a critical depth.
Venturi flume is an open flume used widely in irrigation canals for measuring
discharge, but Venturi flumes have a disadvantage that there is relatively small head
difference between the upstream section and the critical section, especially at
low Froude numbers. This experiment deals with measurement of discharge
using a Venturi flume and calibration of the flume.

3.2 Theory

3.2.1 Description of the flume

Venturi flume has a con verging section, a throat section and a diverging
section. The bed level is kept horizontal. The streamlines run parallel to each other
at least over a short distance upstream of the flume.

Fig. 3.1 Flow through a Venturi flume

3.2.2 Theoretical discharge at free flow condition

Considering that critical flow occurs at the throat section of the flume, the
theoretical discharge at free flow is given b y

Qtf= AV = AcVc
Where, Ac and Vc are the area and velocity at the critical flow section of the flume.
For critical state of flow,

𝑣2𝑐
𝐹 =1 ⇒ = 1 ⇒ vc = 𝑔𝐷𝑐
𝑔𝐷𝑐
 Fig. 3.2 Free flow condition

Now, for a rectangular flume, Ac = byc and Dc = yc, where b is the width of the
Venturi flume at the throat section. Hence, the theoretical discharge at free flow
given by

Qtf  AcVc  byc gyc

For a rectangular channel at critical condition there exists a relationship betwe en
total head and the critical depth as

3
H yc
2
2
Hence, putting, yc  H in Eq. (3.1), we obtain:
3
2
Qtf  ( )1.5 gbH 1.5
3

Where, H is the head measured sufficiently upstream of the flume.

3.2.3 Theoretical discharge at submerged flow condition

1 2

1 2
Fig. 3.3 Submerged flow condition

No critical flow section exists at submerged flow condition. Considering Fig 3.3,
applying the energy equation between sections 1and 2 neglecting frictional losses,
we obtain:
V12 V2
y1   y2  2
2g 2g

𝑽𝟐
which gives, 𝑽𝟐𝟐 (𝟏 − 𝑽𝟏𝟐) = 𝟐𝒈(𝒚𝟏 − 𝒚𝟐 )
𝟐
If A and a are the wetted areas at sections 1 and 2, respectively, then using the
continuity equation AV1 = aV2; we obtain:

V1 a

V2 A

Now, if we assume

V1 a
M  
V2 A
Then,

V22 (1  M 2 )  2 g ( y1  y2 )
So that

2 g ( y1  y2 )
V2 
1 M 2

2𝑔(𝑦 − 𝑦 )
𝑄 = 𝑎𝑉 = 𝑎
1−𝑀

3.2.4 Coefficient of discharge

Due to the assumptions made in the derivation of the governing equation, the
theoretical discharge and the actual discharge always vary from each other. So, the
coefficient of discharge Cd is introduced. If Qa is the actual discharge, then the
coefficient of discharge at free flow condition, Cdf, is given by

Cdf  Qa / Qtf

Normally, in a field installation it is not possible to measure the energy head H directly
and therefore the discharge is related to the upstream depth of flow y1 by the
equation:

2
Qa  Cv Cdf ( )1.5 gby11.5
3

Where, Cv is the correction coefficient for neglecting the velocity head in the approach
channel. Generally, the effect of Cv is considered in Cd and finally the governing
equations become

2
Qa  Cdf ( )1.5 gby11.5
3
And

2
Qtf  ( )1.5 gby11.5
3
The coefficient of discharge at submerged flow condition, Cds is given by

Cds = Qa/Qts (3.8)

3.2.5 Calibration
Calibration is the act of obtaining a definite relationship for the measuring
device using the sets of known data. For a broad-crested weir there is a definite
relationship between the upstream depth and the discharge, i.e., Q = ky1n. This
relation is known as the calibration equation for the device. So, calibration deals with
determination of k and n and develop the equation Q = ky1n. The plotting of the
calibration equation is known as calibration curve. There are two different ways to
develop a calibration equation. These are

i. Plotting best fit line by eye estimation.

ii. Developing best fit line by regression.

By eye estimation
As log Q = log k + n log y1, so if Q and y1 are plotted in a log log paper, the line
will represent a straight line. Different sets of Q and y 1 are plotted in a log log paper
keeping y1 along the x axis and Q along the y axis. The best fit line is drawn by eye
estimation. The slope of the line gives the value of n. Then for any value of y the
corresponding value of Q is found from the best fit line. Using these values of y, Q
and n, the value of k can be found form the equation Q = ky1n.
By regression

From Q = ky1n, we have

log Q = log k + n log y1
Putting log Q = Y, log k = K and log y1 = X, we obtain

Y = K + nX

Then

N ( XY )  ( X )( Y )
n
N (  X 2 )  ( X 2 )

K
 Y  n X
N

k = antilog K
Where, N is the number of sets of Q and y 1 plotted. The correlation coefficient r is
given by

N ( XY )  ( X )( Y )
r
( N ( X 2 )  ( X ) 2 )( N (  Y 2 )  (  Y ) 2 )
For a perfect correlation, r = 1.0. If r is between 0.6 and 1.0, it is generally taken as
a good correlation.
3.3 Objectives of the experiment
i. To determine the theoretical discharge of the flume at free flow and
submerged flow conditions.
ii. To measure the actual discharge and hence to find out the coefficient of
discharge at free flow and submerged flow conditions.
iii. To calibrate the flume.

3.4 Experimental setup

The experimental setup for this experiment is given below.

Fig. 3.4 Setup for flow through a Venturi flume

3.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of
discharge at free flow condition
i. Measure the depth of flow sufficiently upstream of the flume and determine
the theoretical discharge using Eq.(3.7).
ii. Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (3.4).

To determine the theoretical and the actual discharges and the coefficient of
discharge in submerged flow condition
i. Measure the flow depths at sections 1 and 2 shown in Fig. 3.3 and
determine the theoretical discharge using Eq.(3.3).
ii. Take the reading of actual discharge and hence find the coefficient of
discharge using Eq. (3.8).
To calibrate the flume (for free flow condition only) by eye estimation (should be
done by students having even student number)
i. Plot the actual discharge against the corresponding upstream depth in a log
log paper and find the values of n and k as discussed in Art. 3.2.5.
ii. Develop the relationship Q =ky1n.
To calibrate the flume (for free flow condition only) by regression (should be done
by students having odd student number)
 i. Form a table having columns for Q, y1, X, Y, XY, X2, Y2 as discussed in
Art.3.2.5 and find the values of n, k and r.
ii. Compare the equation with that obtained by the eye estimation method.

3.6 Shape of Q vs y graph

In a plain graph paper, the plot of Q = kyn is non-linear. But in a log log paper
Q = kyn plots as a straight line since log Q = log k + n log y which is an equation of a
straight line (of the form y = mx + c).

Fig. 3.5: Qa (actual discharge) vs y (upstream depth of water) graph

3.7 Assignment
i. What are the advantages, disadvantages, and uses of a Venturi flume?
ii. What is the difference between free and submerged flows? How can you
produce submerged flow in a laboratory flume? What is the effect of
submergence on the flow?
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Channel width, B= m Throat width, b = m

Actual Free flow condition Submerged flow condition

discharge, y1 Qtf Cdf y1 y2
Qa M Qts Cds
(m3/s) (m) (m3/s) (m) (m)

Calibration of the flume:

i) By eye estimation

Depth of water at upstream, y1

Actual discharge, Qa (m3/s)
(m)
 ii) By regression

y1 Qa X=log y1 Y=log Qa XY X2 Y2

∑X= ∑Y= ∑XY= ∑X2=

Summation

Course Teacher :

Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 4

FLOW THROUGH A PARSHALL FLUME

4.1 General

The problem with a Venturi flume is that there is a relatively small head
difference between the upstream section and the critical section. This problem
can be overcome by designing a flume which has a contracted throat section in which
critical flow occurs followed by a short length of supercritical flow and a hydraulic jump
at the exit section. A flume of this type was designed by R.L. Parshall and is widely
known as the Parshall flume.
Practically this type of flume is used in small irrigation canals for flow
measurement purpose. It is better than all other devices discussed before as it is
more accurate, can withstand a relatively high degree of submergence over a
wide range of backwater condition downstream from the structure and it acts as a
self-cleaning device since high velocity washes out the debris and sediments
present in the flow. However, when a heavy burden of erosion debris is present in
the stream, the Parshall flume becomes invalid like weir, because deposition of debris
will produce undesirable result. Another problem which arises with this flume is that
the fabrication is complicated and fabrication should be done as per
requirement. This experiment deals with the measurement of discharge using a
Parshall flume.

4.2 Theory

4.2.1 Description of the flume

A Parshall flume consists of a broad flat converging section, a narrow

downward sloping throat section and an upward sloping diverging section. The
reason of downward sloping throat section is to increase the head difference between
the upstream section and the critical section. The upward slope in the diverging
section is given to produce a high tailwater depth which reduces the length of the
supercritical flow region.

4.2.2 Theoretical discharge

The Parshall flume is a calibrated device i.e. there exists a definite depth-
discharge relationship for the flume. So, analytic determination of theoretical
discharge is not required for this flume. Similar to other types of devices, the
discharge through a Parshall flume is given by

Qt = KHan (4.1)
Where, K is a constant which depends on the system of units used, n is an
exponent and Ha is the upstream depth measured at the location shown in Fig. 4.1.
 Fig. 4.1 Flow through Parshall flume

The values of K and n depend on the throat width and are given in Table 4.1.
According to this table, for free flow condition, the depth-discharge relationship of a
Parshall flume of 6” throat width which is normally used in the laboratory, as
calibrate d empirically, is given by:

.
Q = 0.3812H

Where, Qtf is in m3/s and Ha is in meters.

Fig. 4.2 Free flow and submerged flow condition

Table 4.1 Values of K and n for different throat widths, W

W (ft) K n
1/4 0.1771 1.550
1/2 0.3812 1.580
1 0.6909 1.522
2 1.4280 1.550
4 2.9530 1.578
8 6.1120 1.607
20 14.450 1.600
50 35.410 1.600
4.2.3 Coefficient of discharge

The actual discharge always varies with the theoretical discharge of the flume.
So the introduction of a coefficient of discharge is necessary. If the actual discharge
Qa is measured by the water meter, the coefficient of discharge is given by:

Cdf= Qa/Qtf (at free flow condition) (4.3)

Cds= Qa/Qts (at submerged flow condition) (4.4)

4.2.4 Percentage of submergence

The percentage of submergence for the Parshall flume is given by 100*H b/Ha,
where Hb is the downstream depth measured from the invert datum. When the
percentage of submergence exceeds 0.6, the discharge through the Parshall flume
is reduced. The discharge of Parshall flume then equals
Qts = Qtf - QE (4.5)
where, Qts = corrected discharge due to submergence
Qtf = theoretical free flow discharge
QE = correction of discharge as found from the attached figure.
The correction of discharge for a 6” Parshall flume is given in Fig 4.3

4.3 Objectives of the experiment

i. To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition.
ii. To determine the theoretical discharge at the submerged flow
condition.
iii. To determine the coefficient of discharge Cd for both the free
and submerged flow conditions.
iv. To verify the values of K and n.

4.4 Experiment setup

The experiment setup is given below.

Fig.4.3 Setup for flow through a Parshall flume

 8

Correction Discharge, QE×10-3 m3/s

Upstream head Ha (m)

Fig.4.3 The submerged flow for Parshall flumes of various sizes

4.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition
i. Measure the head, Ha.
ii. Compute Qtf using Eq. (4.2).

To determine the theoretical discharge at the submerged flow condition

i. Measure the heads Ha and Hb.
ii. Compute Qtf using Eq. (4.2).
iii. Find the % of submergence, 100Hb/Ha.
iv. If the % of submergence exceeds 60%, find correction QE using Fig 4.3
v. Find Qts using Eq. (4.5)

To determine the coefficient of discharge, measure the actual discharge from the
water meter and calculate Cdf and Cds using Eqs. (4.3) and (4.4).
To verify the values of K and n
i. Plot Qavs Ha in a log-log paper.
ii. Slope of the plotted line gives the value of n.
iii. Using the value of n for any set of values of Qa and Ha, find K using Eq.
(4.1).

4.6 Shape of Q vs Ha graph

In a plain graph paper, the plot of Q = KHan is non-linear. But in a log-log paper
Q = KHan plots as a straight line since log Q = log K + n log Ha which is the equation
of a straight line (of the form y = mx + c).

Fig. 4.4 Q (actual discharge) vs Ha (upstream depth of water) graph

4.7 Assignment

1. What are the advantages, disadvantages, and uses of a Parshall flume?

2. Why are a downward narrow section and an upward diverging section

provided in a Parshall flume?
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Throat width, W = m Actual discharge, Qa = m3/s

Free Flow Submerged Flow Condition

Condition

Ha Qtf Cdf Ha Hb % Qtf QE Qts Cds

Submergence=
(m) (m3/s) (m) (m) 100*Hb/Ha (m3/s) (m3/s) (m3/s)

Verification of K and n

Actual discharge, Qa Ha
(m3/s) (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 5

FLOW THROUGH A CUT-THROAT FLUME

5.1 General
Although a Parshall flume gives very accurate measurement of discharge, the
problem of the flume is that the fabrication of such a flume is complicated and
also the fabrication should be done as per requirement. The cut-throat flume is
an attempt to improve on the Parshall flume mainly by simplifying the construction
details. So, the flume is economical and normally used in straight sections of small
irrigation channels for flow measuring purpose.
The angles of divergence and convergence remain same for all flumes.
So, the size of the flume can be changed by merely moving the vertical walls in or
out. This experiment deals with the measurement of discharge using a cut-throat
flume and calibration of the flume.

5.2 Theory

5.2.1 Description of the flume

The Cut-throat flume has a flat bottom, vertical walls and a zero-length throat
section. The details of the standard shape of a cut-throat flume are shown in Fig 5.1.
It can operate either as a free or submerged flow structure. Under free flow condition
critical depth occurs in the vicinity of the neck. Any flume length from 45 cm to 3 m
can be used while neck widths between 2.5 cm and 1.8 m have been investigated .

Fig. 5.1 Flow through a cut-throat flume

5.2.2 Theoretical discharge at free flow condition
The theoretical discharge through cut-throat flume for free flow condition is given by

Qtf = CHan (5.1)

Where, C is the free flow coefficient given by
C=KW1.025 (5.2)

K is the flume length coefficient, W is the width of the neck, n is an exponent and H a
is the upstream flow depth, measured at a distance of 2L/9 form the throat, as shown
in Fig. 5.1. The values of K and n are obtained from Fig.5.3 for a given flume length.

5.2.3 Submergence ratio and submerged flow condition

In order to ensure free flow condition, the ratio between the water depths at
the exit and entrance, i.e., the submergence ratio (Hb/Ha) should not exceed a
certain limit, called the transition submergence, St, which can be determined from Fig.
5.3. If the submergence ratio exceeds the transition submergence, the flow condition
is said to be submerged flow condition.

5.2.4 Coefficient of discharge

The actual discharge always varies with the theoretical discharge of the flume.
So the introduction of a coefficient of discharge is necessary. If the actual discharge
Qa is measured by the water meter, the coefficient of discharge is given by

Cdf= Qa/Qtf (at free flow condition) (5.3)

5.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To determine the theoretical discharge at the free flow condition.
ii) To determine the submergence ratio and to check the effect of
submergence.
iii) To determine the coefficient of discharge Cd.
iv) To verify the values of coefficient C and exponent n.

5.4 Experiment setup

The experiment setup is given below.

Fig. 5.2 Setup for flow through a cut-throat flume

Fig. 5.3 Generalized free flow coefficients and exponents and S t for cut-
throat flumes
5.5 Procedure
To determine the theoretical discharge for the free flow condition
i) Measure the head Ha.
ii) Determine the values of K and n from Fig. 5.2.
iii) Determine the value of C using Eq. (5.3).
iv) Determine the theoretical discharge using Eq. (5.1).

To determine the submergence ratio and check the effect of submergence

i) Measure t he heads Ha and Hb and determine the subm ergence ratio
Hb/Ha.
ii) Determine the transition submergence St from Fig. (5.3).
iii) If submer gence ratio exceeds St, the flow is submerged.

To determine the coefficient of discharge, measure the actual discha rge from the
water meter and calculate Cdf using Eq. (5.3).

To verify the values of C and n

1. Plot Qavs Ha in a log log paper.
2. Slope of t he plotted line gives the value of n.
3. Using the value of n for any set of values of Qa and Ha, find C using Eq.
(5.1).

5.6 Shape of Q vs Ha graph

In a plain graph paper the plot of Q = CHan is a non-linear. But in a log -log
paper Q = CHan plots as a straight line since log Q = log C + n log Ha which is the
equatio n of a straight line (of the form y = mx + c).

Fig. 5.4 Q (actual discharge) vs Ha (upstream depth of water) graph

5.7 Assignment

1. What are the advantages, disadvantages, and uses of a cut-throat flume?

2. Which one of the four flow measuring devices, viz. broad-crested weir, Venturi
flume, Parshall flume and cut-throat flume, seems to be the best in an irrigation
project of Bangladesh? Justify your answer.
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Student’s Name :
Student’s ID :
Year/ Semester :
Section/ Group :

Throat width, W = m;Actual discharge, Qa = m3/s

Flume length, L = m; From graph, K = n= St =

Ha Qtf Cdf Hb Submergence Comments

Ratio on
m (m3/s) m Hb/Ha submergence

Verification of C and n

Actual discharge, Qa Ha
(m3/s) (m)

Course Teacher :
Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 6

FLOW BENEATH A SLUICE GATE

6.1 General
Sluice gate is a classic example of the application energy and momentum
principle. Sluice gate is used in open channel to control and regulate the flow as
well as to measure the discharge in the channel. Sometimes it is used to raise the
water level and maintain a constant operating level in irrigation canals. Sluice
gate is also used for draining the excess water for both urban areas and rural
agricultural areas.
This experiment deals with the measurement of discharge beneath a sluice
gate.

6.2 Theory

6.2.1 Description of the sluice g ate

The simple form of a sluice gate consists of a horizontal channel bed having
a vertical gate which can be lifted vertically up and down.

Fig . 6.1 Flow beneath a sluice gate

6.2.2 Theoretical discharge

The Bernoulli equation m ay be applied in those cases where there is a
negligible loss of total head from one section to another or where the magnitude of
the head loss is already known. Flow under a sluice gate is an example of converging
flow where the correct form of the equation for discharge may be obtained by equating
the energies at sections 1 and 2 as shown in Fig. 6.1. As the energy loss between
the sections is negligible, we have:
 H1= H2 (6.1)

and therefore

(6.2)

Expressing the velocities in terms of Q, the above equation becomes

(6.3)

Where, b is the width of the sluice gate. Simplifying and rearranging the terms, we
obtain

(6.4)

or alternatively

(6.5)

The small reduction in flow velocity due to viscous resistance between sections 1
and 2 may be allowed for by a coefficient C v. Then

(6.6)

The coefficient of velocity, Cv, varies in the range 0.95 <Cv< 1.0, depending on the
geometry of the flow pattern (expressed by the ratio yg/y1) and friction.
The downstream depth y2 may be expressed as a function of the gate opening, yg ,
i.e.
y2 = Ccyg (6.7)
Where, Cc is the coefficient of contraction whose commonly accepted value of 0.61
is nearly independent of the ratio yg/y1. The maximum contraction of the jet occurs
approximately at a distance equal to the gate opening. Thus, Eq.(6.6) becomes

(6.8)

The above equation can also be written as

(6.9)

Where, Cd is the coefficient of discharge and is a function of Cv, Cc, b, yg, and y1 .
Therefore

(6.10)
Equation (6.9) may also be written as

Qa= CdQt (6.11)

So that
(6.12)
Where, Qt and Qa are the theoretical and actual discharges, respectively.

6.2.3 Forces on a sluice gate

The momentum equation may be applied to the fluid within any c hosen control
volume where the external forces are known or can be estimated to a sufficient
degree of accuracy. The horizontal components of these forces acting on the fluid
within the control volume shown in Fig. 6.1 are the resultants of the hydrostatic
pressure distributions at sections 1 and 2, the viscous shear force on the bed and the
thrust of the gate. It should be noted that the equation permits the resultant gate thrust
(Fg) to be determined even though the pressure distribution along its surface is not
hydrostatic. Over a short length of smooth bed, the contribution of the shear force
may be neglected. The resultant force applied to the fluid within the control volume in
the downstream direction is given by

(6.13)

The effect of this force is to accelerate the fluid within the control volume in the
downstream direction. Hence

(6.14)
Substituting for Fx and gathering terms, we obtain

(6.15)

Simplifying and eliminating Qa, we get

(6.16)

The pressure distribution on the gate cannot be hydrostatic, as the press ure must be
atmospheric at both the upstream water level and at the point where the jet springs
clear of the gate. Note that, the thrust on the gate, FH, for a hydrostatic pressure
distribution is given by

(6.17)

6.3 Objectives
i) To determine the discharge beneath the sluice gate.
ii) To determine Cv, Cc and Cd.
iii) To plot y1vsQa for different values of yg in a plain graph paper.
iv) To determine Fg a nd FH and hence to find the ratio Fg/FH.
6.4 Experimental setup
The experimental setup is given below.

In flow
Sluice gate

Out flow
Reservoir Pump

Fig. 6.2 Setup for flow beneath a sluice gate

6.5 Procedure
To determine discharge
i) Measure y1, y2 and yg.
ii) Calculate the theoretical discharge using Eq. (6.12).
iii) Take the reading of actual discharge from the water meter.

To determine Cv, Cc and Cd

i) Calculate Cc using Eq.(6.7).
ii) Using the value of Cc calculate Cv from Eq. (6.8)
iii) Using the value of Cc and Cv calculate Cd using Eq. (6.10).
Plot y1vsQa for different values of yg in a plain graph paper.

To determine Fg and FH and hence to find the ratio Fg/FH

i) Determine y2.
ii) Determine Fg using Eq. (6.16).
iii) Determine FH using Eq. (6.17) and calculate the ratio Fg/FH
6.6 Shape of y1 vs Qa graph
In a plain graph paper, the plot of Qa = ky1n is a parabola. Now, if yg increases,
for same value of y1, Q increases. So, the y1vsQ a graph for a higher value of yg lies
below the same graph for a lower value of yg.

Fig. 6.3 Shape of y1vsQagraph

6.7 Assignment
1. Explain why the pressure distribution along the surface of the gate is not
hydrostatic.
2. What does happen when the gate opening is more than the critical depth?
3. When does the submergence occur and what is its effect on flow beneath a
sluice gate?
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :
Experiment Date :

Width of the sluice gate, b = m

Gate opening yg = m

y1 y2 Qt Qa Cv Cc Cd Fg FH Fg/FH
(m) (m) 3
(m /s) (m3/s) (N) (N)

y1vs Q graph

yg y1 Qa
(m) (m) (m)

Course Teacher :

Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 7

STUDY ON HYDRAULIC JUMP

7.1 General
In an open channel when a supercritical flow is made to change abruptly to
subcritical flow, the result is usually an abrupt rise of the water surface. This feature
is known as the hydraulic jump. It results when there is a conflict between upstream
and downstream controls which influence the same reach of the channel. For
example, if the upstream control causes supercritical flow and downstream control
dictates subcritical flow, then this conflict can be resolved by a hydraulic jump, which
passes the flow from one flow regime to other.

This experiment deals with observation of hydraulic jump in a horizontal

rectangular channel and development of different relationships between height,
length, efficiency and energy loss of a jump.
Hydraulic jump is useful in:
• Dissipation of excess energy in flows over dams, weirs, spillways, and other
hydraulic structure to prevent scouring.
• Maintaining high water level in channels for irrigation and distribution purpose.
• Increasing discharge of a sluice gate and thus increasing the effective head
across the gate.
• Mixing chemicals for water purification or wastewater treatment.
• Increasing aeration of flows and de-chlorination of wastewater.
• Identification of special flow conditions.

Fig. 7.1 Hydraulic Jump in a horizontal rectangular channel

7.2 Theory

7.2.1 Types of hydraulic jump

Depending on the Froude number before the jump (F1), the United States
Bureau of Reclamation (USBR) classified the hydraulic jumps in horizontal
rectangular channels into the following five categories:
Type 1: F1 = 1 ~1.7 Undular jump
Type 2: F1 = 1.7 ~2.5 Weak jump
Type 3: F1 = 2.5 ~4.5 Oscillating jump
Type 4: F1 = 4.5 ~9.0 Steady jump
Type 5: F1>9.0 Strong jump
7.2.2 Initial and sequent depths

The depth of flow before the jump is known as the initial depth (y1 ) and the depth
after the jump is known as the sequent depth (y2 ). Consider a hydraulic jump
occurring in a horizontal rectangular channel (Fig. 7.1). Since the jump takes place in
a short reach of the channel, Ff 0 and since the channel is prismatic, we can assume
that 1 = 2 = 1. The hydrostatic forces Fp1 and Fp2 may be expressed as

𝑭𝒑𝟏 = 𝜸 and 𝑭𝒑𝟐 = 𝜸𝒛𝟐 𝑨𝟐

Where, 𝒛 and 𝒛𝟐 are the vertical distances of the centroids of the respective water
areas A1 and A2 from the free surface. Now applying momentum equation between
sections 1 and 2, we obtain

+ 𝒛𝟏 𝑨𝟏 = + 𝒛𝟐 𝑨𝟏 (7.1)

Since for a rectangular channel,

Q  AV
1 1  A2V2 , A1  By1 , A2  By2 , z1  y1 / 2 and z2  y2 / 2 gives,

=( − ) = (𝑦 − 𝑦 ) (7.2)
Where, q (= Q/B) is the discharge per unit width. Using q= y1V1 = y2V2, Eq. (7.2)
may be recast as

V12 1 y2 y2
 F12  (  1) (7.3)
gy1 2 y1 y1

Equation may be solved to yield

𝒚𝟐 𝟏
𝒚𝟏
= 𝟐 ( 𝟏 + 𝟖𝑭𝟐𝟏 − 𝟏) (7.4)

Where, y2/y1 is known as the ratio between the sequent and the initial depths.

7.2.3 Length of the jump (L)

The length of a hydraulic jump is the horizontal distance from the front face of
the jump to a point immediately downstream from the roller. This length cannot be
determined by theory. Silvester (1964) demonstrated that for free hydraulic jumps in
horizontal rectangular channels:
L
 9.75( F1  1)1.01 (7.5)
y1
7.2.4 Energy loss in the jump
The total loss of energy in the jump is equal to the difference in specific
energies before and after the jump. It can be shown that the total energy loss involved
in a hydraulic jump in a horizontal rectangular channel is given by

( y2  y1 )3
Htotal  Etotal  E1  E2  (7.6)
4 y1 y2

Where, E1 is the specific energy before the jump and E2 is the specific energy after
the jump. The kinetic energy loss in the jump is given by the difference in velocity
head before and
after the jump. Thus

1
EK .E .  (V12  V22 ) (7.7)
2g

Where, V1 is the velocity before the jump and V2 is the velocity after the jump.

7.2.5 Efficiency of the jump

The ratio of the specific energy after the jump to that before the jump (E2/E1)
is known as the efficiency of the jump. It can be shown that the efficiency of the
jump is given by

E2 (8F12  1)3/2  4 F12  1

 (7.8)
E1 8F12 (2  F12 )

7.2.6 Height of the jump

The difference between the depths after and before the jump is known as the
height of the jump. It is given by,

h j  h2  h1 (7.9)

The ratio of the height of jump to the specific energy before jump is known as the
relative height of the jump and is given by

hj 1  8F12  3
 (7.10)
E1 F12  2
7.3 Objectives of the experiment
i) To determine the type of the jump according to USBR classification.
ii) To measure the initial depth (y1), sequent depth (y2), length (L) and height
(hj) of the jump and compare them with the theoretical values.
iii) To determine the total energy loss, kinetic energy loss and efficiency of
the jump and compare them with the theoretical values.
iv) To develop the theoretical characteristic curves of the hydraulic jump.

7.4 Experimental setup

In this experiment the hydraulic jump is produced by introducing a sluice gate
in the flume. The experimental setup is given below.

In flow
Sluice gate

Flow measuring unit

Out flow
Reservoir Pump

Fig. 7.2 Setup for hydraulic jump

7.5 Procedure

i) Measure the depth of flow before the jump at three points and average them to
get the initial depth y1.
ii) Measure the depth of flow after the jump at three points and average them to get
the sequent depth y2.
iii) Determine the velocity before the jump (V1), then calculate F1 and find the type
of jump.
iv) Measure the length of the jump (L), then find L/y1 and verify Eq. (7.5).
v) Compute the height of the jump (hj) from Eq. (7.9), then find the value of h j/E1
and verify Eq. (7.10).
vi) Compute E1 and E2, then find the total energy loss E1- E2 and verify Eq. (7.6).
vii) Compute the kinetic energy loss in the jump using Eq. (7.7).
viii) Compute the efficiency of the jump E2/E1 and verify Eq. (7.8).

ix) Plot , , , vs F1 to get the characteristics curve.

7.6 Typical shapes of graphs
Characteristics graphs of hydraulic jumps are a combination of four graphs
shown in Fig. 7.3

𝑬𝟐 E2
i) vs F1 graph: From Eq. (7.8), at F1=1, . So the curve starts from (1,1) and
𝑬𝟏 E1
decreases with the increase in F1

hj hj
ii) vs F1 graph: From Eq. (7.10), at F1=1, = 0. So the curve will start from
E1 E1
hj
(1,0) and increase up to value of = 0.507 at F1= 2.77 and then decreases
E1
with F1.
iii) y1 and y 2 vs F1 graphs: At critical state, i.e. at F1 =1, y1 = y2 from
E1 E1
Eq.(7.4) . So both curves will start from a common point at F1=1.

y1 y2 2 y

Now, at critical state, E  1.5 y , So,  ; 2 vs F1 curve
E1 E1 3 E1
increases up to a value of 0.8 at F1= 1.73 and then decreases with
higher F1.
.

Fig. 7.3 Characteristics curves of hydraulic jumps in horizontal rectangular channels

7.7 Assignment
1. What are the different types of jumps according to USBR classification?
2. Why does the energy loss occur in hydraulic jumps? Is it really an energy
loss?
3. What is tailwater depth? Explain why a hydraulic jump moves upstream when
the tailwater depth is greater than the sequent depth and vice versa.
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Depth Velocity
F1 Type of
y1 y2 V1 V2 jump
(m) (m) (m/s) (m/s)

Verification of total energy loss Verification of efficiency

Kinetic
Comment
E1 E2 E1-E2 RHS of energy E2/E1 RHS of
Comment
Eq. (7.6) loss (m) Eq. (7.8)
(m) (m) (m)
(m)

Verification of length of jump Verification of height of jump

RHS of
L RHS of hj
Comment Eq.
(m) L/y1 Eq.(7.5) (m) hj/E1 Comment
(7.10)
 Characteristic curve:

E2 𝐡𝐣 𝐲𝟏 𝐲𝟐
F1 𝐄𝟏 𝐄𝟏
E1 𝐄𝟏

Course Teacher :

Designation :

Signature
 Experiment No. 8

DEVELOPMENT OF GENERALIZED SPECIFIC

ENERGY AND SPECIFIC FORCE CURVES
8.1 General
The concept of specific energy and specific force is extremely useful in the
solution of many problems in open channel flow. This experiment deals with the
development of generalized specific energy and specific force curves. These curves
are useful in determining the state of flow in a channel, i.e., whether the flow is
critical, subcritical or supercritical.
Flow is critical when the Froude number is equal to unity. When the depth of
flow is above the critical depth, the subcritical state of flow exists in the channel. When
the depth of flow is below the critical depth, the supercritical state of flow exists. Also,
the critical state of flow gives us several important conditions. For example, at critical
flow condition, the specific energy and specific force are minimum for a given
discharge, the discharge is maximum for a given specific energy and so on. All
these conditions are used in designing the various types of transitions and in
controlling the flow using different control structures, for example, in determining the
height of a weir, the width of a flume, opening of sluice gate, etc.

8.2 Theory

8.2.1 Specific energy

Specific energy is defined as the energy per unit weight of water at any section
of a channel measured with respect to the channel bottom. If the total energy at any
section is given by

v2
H  z y (8.1)
2g

then the specific energy at any section of a channel is obtained by putting z = 0 as

For a rectangular channel, A = by. So, Eq. (8.3) can be written as
v2
E  y (8.2)
2g
Since Q=Av, Eq can be written as

Q2
E  y (8.3)
2 gA2

For a rectangular channel, A=by. So Eq can be written as,

Q2
E  y (8.4)
2 gb2 y 2
8.2.2 Specific energy curve
For a given channel section and discharge, the specific energy is a function of
the depth of flow. When the depth of flow is plotted against the specific energy, a
specific energy curve is obtained. This curve has two limbs CA and CB (Fig.8.1).
From Eq. (8.4), when y→0, E→ ∞. So, the limb CA approaches the horizontal axis
asymptotically towards the right.
Also, at y→∞, E→∞ but at this moment E becomes equal to y which implies
that the limb BC approaches the E = y line (OD) asymptotically. As the slope of E=y
line is 1 so it a has an inclination of 45° and it passes through the origin

Fig. 8.1 Specific-energy curve

The curve shows that, for a given specific energy, there are two possible depths,
the low stage y1
and the high stage y2 which are called alternate depth of each other
Differentiating Eq. (8.3) with respect to y and simplifying, we obtain
dE v2
 1 
dy gD

Where, D is the hydraulic depth. At point C, the specific energy is minimum.

dE v2
 0 so =1 or, Fr 2 = 1 → Fr = 1
dy gD

This condition represents the critical state of flow. At this condition, the two
alternate depths apparently become one which is known as the critical depth yc. When
the depth of flow is greater than y c, the velocity of flow is less than the critical velocity
for the given discharge and hence the flow is subcritical. When the depth of flow is
less than the critical depth, the flow is supercritical. Hence, y1 is the depth of
supercritical flow and y2 is the depth of subcritical flow.
8.2.3 Generalized specific energy curve
If the discharge changes, the specific energy curve also changes, i.e. the curve
moves to right if the discharge is increased and vice versa. In order to develop a
generalized specific energy curve, i.e. to use one specific energy curve for different
discharges, the curve is to be made dimensionless with respect to the critical depth,
as the critical depth yc is constant for a given discharge. So dividing both sides of Eq.
(8.4) by yc and after simplification, we obtain

E y 1 y
  ( c )2 (8.5)
yc yc 2 y

Equation (8.5) is the generalized form of the relationship between specific energy
and depth of flow in which each term is dimensionless. The plot of this equation is
shown in Fig. 8.2.

Fig. 8.2 Dimensionless specific energy curve

8.2.4 Specific force

Specific force is defined as the force at any channel section which is equal to
the sum of the hydrostatic force and momentum of the flow passing the section per
unit time. For a rectangular channel, the specific force is given by

1 Q2
F  gby 2   (8.6)
2 by
8.2.5 Specific force curve
For a given discharge and section, the specific force F is a function of the depth of
flow y only. Plotting the depth of flow y vs the specific force F produces the specific
force curve (Fig.8.3). This curve has two limbs CA and CB. At y→0, F→∞. So the
limb CA approaches the horizontal axis asymptotically towards the right. Now, at
y→∞, F→∞, but at this condition F becomes proportional y2. So the limb CB rises
upward and extend infinitely towards the right

yc

Fig. 8.3 Specific force curve

The specific force curve shows that, for a given specific force, there are two possible
depths, y1 and y2. These two depths constitute the initial and sequent depths of a
hydraulic jump.

Differentiating Eq. (8.6) with respect to y and simplifying, we get (considering at

point C, specific force in minimum), we get .

dF Q2 Q2 v2
 0 or, 𝜌gA=  or,  1 or, =1 so that , Fr 2 = 1 or, Fr = 1
dy AD gDA2 gD

which is the same criterion developed for the minimum value of specific energy.
Therefore, for a given discharge, minimum specific force occurs at minimum specific
energy or at the critical state of flow.

8.2.6 Generalized specific force curve

If the discharge changes, the specific energy also changes accordingly, i.e., the
specific force curve moves to right if the discharge is increased and vice versa. In
order to develop a generalized specific force curve, i.e., to use one specific force
curve for different discharges, the curve is to be made dimensionless with respect to
the critical depth as the critical depth yc is constant for a given discharge. So dividing
both sides of Eq. (8.6) by yc2𝜌gb and after simplification, we obtain

= + ( ) (8.7)
Equation (8.7) is the generalized specific force equation, and each term of this
equation is dimensionless. The plot of this equation is shown in Fig. 8.4.

Fig. 8.4 Dimensionless specific force curve

8.3 Objectives of the experiment

i) To observe the flow profile in the experimental setup which depicts the
variation of depth with change in energy?
ii) To plot the generalized specific energy and specific force curves from observed
data.

8.4 Experimental setup

To plot the generalized specific energy and specific force curves, we have to
observe the response of subcritical (slow) and supercritical (fast) flows to changes in
the energy and force of a stream. For this, the setup as in Fig. 8.5

Sluice gate
Broad crested weir

1 2 3 5 7

4 6

Fig. 8.5 Setup for development of generalized specific energy and specific force curves
8.5 Procedure
i) Determine depth of flow at three points as shown in Fig. 8.6 in each of the
sections 1 to 7. Find the average depth for each section.
ii) Determine the actual discharge from the water meter and compute yc.
iii) Compute E/yc and F/(y2c gb) for each of the sections using Eqs.(8.5) and (8.7),
respectively.
iv) Plot y/ycvs E/yc and y/ycvs F/(y2c gb) on plain graph papers to get the
generalized specific energy and specific force curves.

10"
6"
2"

y1 y2 y3

Fig. 8.6 Locations for measuring the depths

8.6 Assignment
1. How can you apply the dimensionless specific energy and specific force curves
for computing specific energy and specific force for different discharges?
2. Can you use the dimensionless specific energy curve to find the specific force
and vice versa? Explain.
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Q= m3/s

b= m

yc = (Q2 /gb2)1/3 = m
Section

y1 y2 y3 𝒚𝟏 + 𝒚𝟐 +
F
y= 𝒚𝟑 y/yc E/yc y2ρgb yc/y
(m) (m) (m) 𝟑
(m) c

Course Teacher:

Designation:

Signature
 Experiment No. 9

VELOCITY DISTRIBUTION IN OPEN CHANNEL

9.1 General
Velocity of flow is an important parameter in open channel flow. In order to
find out the channel discharge, the velocity distribution needs to be known. In an open
channel the velocity is not uniform over the cross-section. The velocity is zero at
the channel boundary and maximum at or near the free surface. This experiment
deals with the velocity distribution in an open channel and determination of the
energy and momentum coefficients. Practically the energy and momentum
coefficients are very useful, as the application of energy and momentum equations
requires these coefficients.

9.2 Theory

9.2.1 The boundary layer

When water enters a channel the velocity distribution across the channel section will
vary with distance due to the presence of boundary roughness as shown in Fig. 9.1.

Fig.9.1 Development of boundary layer

The effect on the velocity distribution due to boundary roughness is indicated by the
line ABC. Outside the surface represented by ABC, the velocity distribution is
practically uniform. Near the channel surface and within the region ABC, velocity
varies according to distance from channel surface. The region inside ABC is known
as boundary layer. At the beginning of the flow in the channel, the flow is entirely
laminar, and a laminar boundary layer is developed along the channel surface, as
shown by the curve AB. The velocity distribution in this layer is approximately
parabolic. As water travels further along the channel, the flow in the boundary layer
will eventually change to turbulent (at point B). Downstream from B a turbulent
boundary layer is developed, as shown by the curve BC. The velocity distribution in
this layer is approximately logarithmic. The turbulent boundary layer intersects the
free water surface at a distance where the flow is assumed to be fully developed.
Even in a turbulent boundary layer, there is a very thin layer near the boundary in
which the flow is laminar and is known as the laminar sublayer. The thickness of this
layer is given by

11.6v
0  ; where, Vf is the shear or friction velocity, given by V f  gRs
Vf
g is the acceleration due to gravity; R is the hydraulic radius; S is the slope of the
energy line (taken to be equal to the slope of the channel bottom) and is the
kinematic viscosity of water.

9.2.2 Surface roughness

The surface of a channel is composed of irregular peaks and valleys. The
effective height of the irregularities is called the roughness height k. If the
roughness height is less than the thickness of the laminar sublayer, the surface
irregularities will be so small that all roughness elements will be submerged in the
laminar sublayer and have no effect upon the flow outside the layer. Then the
channel is said to be hydraulically smooth. For hydraulically smooth channel

kV f
0  5 and K   0
v
However, if the roughness height k is greater than the thickness of the laminar
sublayer, the roughness elements extend their effects beyond the laminar
sublayer and the channel is said to be hydraulically rough. For hydraulically rough
channel

kV f
 70 and K   0
v
There exists a transition zone in which the channel is neither smooth nor rough. For
this zone

kV f
5  70
v

9.2.3 Velocity distribution in turbulent flow

The flow of water in open channel is turbulent and the bed is normally rough.
On the basis of Prandtl-von Karman logarithmic velocity distribution law, the velocity
distribution in an open channel having hydraulically rough surface is given by

30 y
v  5.75V f log
k
Where, v is the velocity at any point at a vertical distance of y from the channel bottom
9.2.4 Cross-sectional mean velocity
The velocity varies in the vertical direction as well as in the lateral direction due to
boundary friction. Cross-sectional mean velocity represents the average velocity over
the cross-section. Using the velocity distribution given by Eq.(9.6), the cross-sectional
mean velocity V is given by

R
v  V f (6.25  5.75log )
k

9.2.5 Velocity distribution coefficients

As a result of non-uniform distribution of velocity over a channel section, the actual
kinetic energy and momentum of flow passing a given cross-section are normally
greater than those calculated on the basis of average velocity given by Eq.(9.7). So,
the energy coefficient and the momentum coefficient are introduced in the energy
and the momentum equations, respectively. The numerical value of the energy
coefficient varies from 1.03 to 1.36 and the numerical value of the momentum
coefficient varies from 1.01 to 1.12. for fairly straight prismatic channels. The ratio
(  -1)/(  -1) varies from 2.8 to 3.
The energy and momentum coefficients are given respectively by


v dA  v A
3 2


V 3A V 2A


v dA  v A
2 2


V 2A V 2A

Where, V is the velocity of flow in an elementary area  A .

For a rectangular channel we can write

  v y
3

V 3Y

  v y
2

V 2Y

Where, Y is the total depth of flow and V is the cross-sectional mean velocity.
9.3 Objectives of the experiment
i. To determine the velocity distribution profile in the vertical.
ii. To calculate the channel roughness height k.
iii. To calculate the cross-sectional mean velocity V.
iv. To calculate the velocity distribution coefficients α and β.

9.4 Experimental setup

The setup for the experiment is given below. The longitudinal slope of the flume is 1
in 840.

Fig. 9.1 Setup for velocity distribution in open channel

9.5 Procedure
To determine the velocity distribution profile in the vertical
i) Place the current meter at the middle of the flume.
ii) Measure the depth of flow Y.
iii) Place the current meter at water surface, at 0.2Y, 0.4Y, 0.6Y and 0.8Y from
the water surface and near the bottom in the vertical plane and take the
reading of revolution of the current meter (N) and corresponding time (t) at
each depth.
iv) Calculate the point velocities at each depth by using the formula,
v = a(N/t) + b, where a and b are the current meter constants.
v) Plot the point velocity (v) against the distance from the channel bottom (y).

To calculate the channel roughness height k

i) For every set of point velocity (v) and distance from bottom (y),
roughness height (k) can be determined by using Eq.(9.6).
ii) Channel roughness height is obtained by averaging all values of k.

To calculate the cross-sectional mean velocity V

i) By using the average value of k, the cross-sectional mean velocity
V is calculated using Eq. (9.7).
To calculate the velocity distribution coefficients α and β
i) Divide the width of the channel (flume) into 5 horizontal strips of
equal width y.
ii) Find the average velocity (v) in each strip.
iii) Calculate v3 Δy and v2 Δy for each strip and sum them up.
iv) Using the cross-sectional mean velocity V, calculate and using
Eqs. (9.10) and (9.11).

9.6 Shape of depth vs velocity graph

As the velocity distribution profile is logarithmic, the y vs v graph is logarithmic
as shown in the following figure. For logarithmic velocity distribution, the maximum
velocity occurs at the free surface. But in practice, the maximum velocity occurs below
the free surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the total depth.
y y

v v

Theoretical velocity distribution profile Actual velocity

distribution profile

Fig. 9.2 Velocity distribution profile

9.7 Assignment
1. What do you mean by hydraulically smooth and rough channels? What is the
criterion used to determine whether a surface is hydraulically smooth or
rough?
2. Explain why the velocity distribution over a channel section is not uniform.
3. State whether the numerical values of the energy and momentum
coefficients are higher or lower for turbulent flow than for laminar flow.
Explain the reason.
 DATA SHEET

Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Determination of point velocity and roughness height

Flume width, B = m Total depth of flow, Y = m

Slope of channel, S = Hydraulic radius, R = m

Shear velocity, Vf = m

Current meter constants, a = b=

Vertical location of
current Current meter reading
meter Point Roughness
Average
Depth Depth Revolution velocity height
No of Time of K
from from per v K
revolution observation (m)
Location water bottom second (m/s) (m)
N t
surface y n
(rev) (sec)
(m) (m) (rev/sec)
At top
surface
At 0.2 Y

At 0.4 Y

At 0.6 Y

At 0.8 Y
Near
bottom
Determination of energy and momentum coefficient:

Cross sectional mean velocity, V=

Average Thickness
velocity in the of the
No of (α-1)/
strip, strip, v2Δy v3Δy α β
strip (β-1)
v Δy
(m/s) (m)
1

∑=

Course Teacher:

Designation:

Signature
 Experiment No. 10

DETERMINATION OF DISCHARGE AND

MEAN VELOCITY OF AN OPEN CHANNEL
10.1 General
Measurement of discharge is a principal work in hydrographic surveying. In
order to design any river engineering work, the discharge and the mean velocity of
the river is required. This experiment mainly deals with the measurement of discharge
of a channel by the area-velocity method. Also, the values of Manning’s n and
Chezy’s C are derived which are required to compute the discharge using a
uniform flow formula. The relationship of n and C with the depth of flow is also
developed. The experiment also deals with the development of depth-discharge
relationship of the channel which is very useful to obtain the discharges of a channel
for different depths of flow.

10.2 Theory

10.2.1 Depth-mean velocity

The velocity along a vertical varies from zero at the stream bed to maximum
at or near the water surface (practically the maximum velocity occurs below the water
surface at a distance of 0.05 to 0.25 of the total depth). The average velocity in the
vertical is known as the depth-mean velocity. Generally, the average of the velocities
at 0.2 and 0.8 depths below the water surface is approximately equal to the mean
velocity in the vertical. The velocity at 0.6 depth below the water surface is also
approximately equal to the mean velocity in the vertical. Normally, when the depth of
flow is greater than 0.61 m (= 2 ft), the depth-mean velocity is determined by
averaging the velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths; otherwise, the velocity at 0.6 depth is
taken as the depth-mean velocity.
v v
So, the depth mean velocity, V  .2 .8  v.6 (10.1)
2

10.2.2 Discharge
Measurement of discharge in irregular channels like rivers is a complex one.
There are different methods and of them the area-velocity method is the familiar one.
In this method a channel section is subdivided into a number of segments or strips or
pockets by a number of successive verticals. The procedure for determining the mean
velocity in a vertical is given in Art.10.2.1. If Vi be the mean velocity in a vertical, then
discharge through a strip is given by

Qi = Vi A (10.2)

Where, A is the area of the strip. The sum of the discharges through all the strips is
the total discharge, i.e.

Q = Qi (10.3)
10.2.3 Mean velocity
The mean velocity of the whole section is equal to the total discharge divided
by the total area and is given by
Q
V
 A
10.2.4 Manning’s n and Chezy’s C
The velocity distribution in an open channel depends on the roughness height
k which is related to Manning's n or Chezy's C. When velocities at 0.2 and 0.8 depths
are known, Manning's n can be determined by the equation
1
( x  1) R 6
n
6.78( x  0.95)
V0.2
Where, x 
V0.8

With the value of n known, Chez y's C can be determined by the relation

1 16
C R
n
This equation provides an important relationship between Chezy's C and Man ning's
n. The variation of n and C with the de pth of flow is also significant. The values of n
d ecreases with the increase in depth of flow. On the other hand, the value of C
increases with the increase in depth of flow.

10.3 Objectives of the experim ent

1. To determine the total discharge and mean velocity of the flow.
2. To calculate Manning’s n and Chezy’s C.
3. To plot n and C against depth of flow and observe the relationship bet
ween n and C.

10.4 Experimental setup

The setup for the experi mental is given below. The longitudinal slope
of the flume is 1 in 840.

Fig.10.1 Setup for determination discharge and mean velocity of an open channel
10.5 Procedure
To determine the total discharge and the mean velocity of the flow
i) Divide the chann el section into 3 vertical strips.
ii) Measure the dept h of flow at the middle of each strip.
iii) Determine the me an velocity at each vertical using Eq. (10.1).
iv) Calculate the discharge through each strip using Eq. (10.2).
v) Calculate the total discharge using Eq. (10.3) and compare it with the actual
discharge.
vi) Calculate the mean velocity using Eq. (10.4).

To calculate Manning’s n and Chezy’s C

i) Compute the value of x at each vertical using Eq. (10.6) and find the average
value of x.
ii) Using this average value of x, calculate n using Eq. (10.5).
iii) With the value of n, calculate C using Eq. (10.7).

To plot n and C against depth of flow

i) Plot n vs depth of flow in a plain graph paper.
ii) Plot C vs depth of flow in a plain graph paper.
10.6 Shapes of the graphs

Manning’s n vs depth of flow y

The exact shape of the curve can not be explained analytically. But
experimental study shows that the value of n decreases with the increase in depth
of flow.
Chezy’s C vs depth of flow y
The exact shape of the curve can not be explained analytically. But
experimental study shows that the value of C increases with the increase in depth of
flow.
n C

y
y

Variation of n with y Variation of C with y

Fig. 10.2 Chezy’s C vs depth of flow y graph

10.7 Assignment

1. State the use(s) of the Chezy and the Manning formulas. State the type(s) of
flow for which these formulas are valid.
2. There is a limit to the number of strips or segments in determining the
discharge of a river by the area-velocity method. What is the limit and why is
this limit?
 DATA SHEET
Experiment Name :

Experiment Date :

Determination of total discharge

Flume width, B = m; Width of each strip = B/3 = m

Total depth of flow, Y= m; Area of each strip, A =(B/3)*Y= m2

Current meter constants, a = b=

Location of
Current meter reading Discharge Total
Current meter
No of Time of Revolution Point through discharg
Depth
velocity the strip e Q=∑Qi
Horizontal

revolutio observatio per second mean

Vertical

n n n (rev/sec) v (m/s) Q i=ΔA* Vi

velocity
N t (sec) Vi (m/s)
(rev) (m3/s) (m3/s)

At 0.2
At middle of

Y
first strip

At 0.6
Y
At 0.8
Y
At 0.2
second strip
At middle of

Y
At 0.6
Y
At 0.8
Y
At 0.2
At middle of

Y
third strip

At 0.6
Y
At 0.8
Y

So, mean velocity of the stream = V =

∑
 Calculation of n and C
Manning’s
Strip Point velocity X Average x Chezy’s C
n
v0.2
1
v0.8

v0.2
2
v0.8
v0.2
3
v0.8

Plotting n and C vs depth of flow

Depth of flow Manning’s n Chezy’s C

Course Teacher:

Designation:

Signature
 Appendix
Lab Report Format

1. All students must have a same-colored printed cover page. The design of cover
page is provided with the lab manual. Students have to compose only the course
teacher’s name and designation and their information.
2. An index is provided. It should be printed and set after the cover page. Table
may be filling up by pen during each submission after test.
3. Each report must have a common printed top page. Only the experiment name
and no. and the date may be filled up by pen. A top page design is provided.
4. A4 papers have to be used for preparing the lab report. Writing should be done
with pen. Pencil may be used for any kind of sketch.
5. In each experiment of the lab report the following points must have to be
present: Objective, Equipment, Procedure, Data Table (signed), Sample
Calculation, Result and Discussion.
 References

1. Chow, V. T (1957): Open Channel Hydraulics

2. Daugherty, R. L. and Franzini, J. B.: Fluid Mechanics with Engineering Applications

3. French, R.H (1980): Open channel Hydraulics

4. Henderson, F.M.: Open Channel Flow

5. Kraatz, D.B. and Mahajan, I.K.: Small Hydraulic Structures (FAO Irrigation and
Drainage paper)

6. Michael, A.M.: Irrigation Theory and Practices

7. Sutradhar, S.C.: Principles of Design of Drainage Sluice

8. BUET Manual

9. AUST Manual
 Derivation of Related Formulae

Experiment - 1

Inertia force ρVL VL

Reynolds number, Re = = =
Viscous force μ ν

Kinematic viscosity, ν = ; μ = Dynamic viscosity

Inertia force V V A
Froude number, Fr = = = L=D=
Gravity force gL gD T

Critical depth: F = 1
v
⇒ =1
gD
⇒ v = gD
⇒ v = gD

We know, Q = AV
Q
⇒V=
A

So, ( ) = g ×

×
so =g×
×

Q
⇒ =y
gB

Q
∴y =
gB
 Experiment - 2

At critical depth, y =

Q
⇒y =
gB
/
⇒y =
/
⇒Q= g×B×y
= gBy
Specific Energy:
2
Q
E=y+ 2
2gA
dE d Q d Q
⇒ = 1+ = 1+ ×A
dy dy 2gA dy 2g
Q 1 dA
= 1−2× ×
2g A dy
Q 1 dA
= 1−2× ×
2g A dy
2A V [as near the surface, dA = Tdy; = T]
= 1− ×T
2gA
V T
= 1−
gA
V
= 1− [Here, D = ]
gD
At critical depth,
dE V
=0 = 1−
dy gD
V
⇒ =1
gD
⇒ V = gD
But at critical depth,
2
⇒Vc =gDc
2
V c Dc y [As the channel is rectangular, Dc = yc]
⇒ = = c
2g 2 2

Now total energy at upstream,

2
Vc
H1 =yc +
2g
y
=yc + = 1.5y
2

So, y = H

. .
2 2 .
∴Q = gB H = gBH
3 3

Experiment – 3

Free Flow Condition [Works like broad crested weir’s eqn.]

Qtf = AV = AcVc

At critical condition, Fr = 1

V
⇒ =1
gD

V
⇒ =1
gD

⇒V = gy

So, Qtf = by gy

.
= b gy

At critical point, y = H [Proved at exp. 2]

2
.
.
So, Qtf = gbH
3
Submerged Flow Condition:

v v
y + =y +
2g 2g

v v
⇒y −y = −
2g 2g

1
⇒y −y = (v − v )
2g

v
⇒ 2g(y − y ) = v (1 − )
v

From continuity equation, Av1 = av2

⇒ = = M (Let)

So,
⇒ 2g(y − y ) = v (1 − M )

2g (y − y )
⇒v =
1−M

2g (y − y )
⇒v =
1−M

( )
And, Qts = av2 = a [Where, a = area at submerged section]

Experiment – 04

Q = kH

K & n depends on Throat width [ Chapter 4: Open-channel Hydraulics, Ven Te

Chow]

Submergence = × 100

If submergence > 60 % , use chart;

2 types chart
 Direct Discharge.
 Correction Chart.
If correction chart is given:
Q =Q −Q

Experiment – 05

Q =kH
.
C=kW ; Use chart for k & n ; W= width of throat

Submergence ratio > from the value of chart, then the flow will be submerged.

Experiment -06

H =H (6.1)

⇒y + =y + ; [Q = Av ⇒ Q = by v = by v . So, v =
(6.2)
and v = ]

⇒y + =y + (6.3)

⇒y −y = −

⇒y −y = ( − )

⇒y −y = ( )

( )×( )
⇒ (y − y ) = ×

⇒ =

⇒Q = × 2gb
( )
Here, Q = = = (6.4)

Again, Q = = = (6.5)

F = [ ρgy − ρgy − F ] × b

F = ρQ V − ρQ V

∴ ρQ V − ρQ V = [ ρgy − ρgy − F ] × b

⇒ [ρQ V − ρQ V ] = [ ρgy − ρgy − F ]

1 1 1
⇒ F = [ ρgy − ρgy ] − [ρQ V − ρQ V ]
2 2 b
1 ρQ
= ρg(y − y ) − (V − V )
2 b
1 ρQ Q Q
= ρg(y − y ) − ( − )
2 b by by
1 ρQ 1 1
= ρg(y − y ) − ( − )
2 b y y
1 ρ y y y −y
= ρg(y − y ) − × × 2gb ( )
2 b y +y y y
1 y y y −y
= ρg(y − y ) − 2ρg × ×( )
2 y y y +y
1 y −y
= ρg(y − y ) − 2ρg × y y × ( )
2 y +y
1 y −y
= ρg{(y − y ) − 4y y × ( )}
2 y +y
1 (y − y ) × (y + y ) − 4y y × (y − y )
= ρg ×
2 (y + y )
1 ρg
= × × (y − y y + y y − y − 4y y
2 (y + y )
1 ρg
+ 4y y ) = × × (y − 3y y + 3y y − y )
2 (y + y )
1 ρg
= × × (y − y )
2 (y + y ) (6.16)

Trust on Gate,

F = { × ρg × (y − y )} × (y − y ) × 1
 Experiment 7

7.1:
F = γz A F = γz A

Q Q
+z A = +z A
gA gA

By u y By u y For rectangular channel,

⇒ + × By = + × By Q = A U = By u
gBy 2 gBy 2
Q = A U = By u
By u y B By u y B z = z =
⇒ + = +
gy 2 gy 2 Q = AU q=
q=y u q=y u
By u y B By u y B
⇒ + = +
g 2 g 2

Bqu By Bqu By
⇒ + = +
g 2 g 2

qu qu 1
⇒ − = (y − y )
g g 2

q×q q×q 1
⇒ − = (y − y )
gy gy 2

q 1 1 1
⇒ − = (y − y ) … … … (7.2)
9 y y 2

y u (y − y ) 1
⇒ × = (y − y )(y + y )
g y y 2

u y 1
⇒ × = (y + y )
g y 2

u y 1
⇒ × = (y + y )
gy y 2

u 1 y
⇒ ×= × × (y + y )
gy 2 y

u 1 y y
⇒ ×= × × y +1
gy 2 y y
 u 1 y y
⇒ ×= × × + 1 … … … … … (7.3)
gy 2 y y

1 y y
⇒ (Fr ) = × × +1
2 y y

y y
⇒ 2Fr = × +1
y y

7.2:
y y
⇒ 2Fr = +
y y

y y
⇒ + − 2Fr = 0
y y
if = x & Fr is a constant as it is only a function of y
⇒x +x+c =0
−b ± √b − 4ac
x=
2a
y −1 ± 1 − 4 × 1 × (−2Fr )
=
y 2×1
−1 ± 1 + 8Fr
=
2
y 1 1 + 8Fr
⇒ =− ±
y 2 2
y 1 1 + 8Fr y 1 1 + 8Fr
=− + or, =− −
y 2 2 y 2 2

1
= −1 + 1 + 8Fr
2

Empirical Formula Silverstar (1964)

= 9.75(Fr − 1) . (7.5)
Energy loss/ head loss
h =H −H
v v
= z +y +α − z +y +α If,
2g 2g
z =z
v v
= y + − y + α=1
2g 2g
= = =
v v
= (y − y ) + −
2g 2g
Q Q
= (y − y ) + −
2gb y 2gb y
Q 1 1
= (y − y ) + × −
2gb y y
Q y −y
= (y − y ) + ×
2gb y y

Q (y + y )(y − y )
So, h = y − y + ×
2gb y y

7.3:

Specific force for rectangular channel

Q Q
+ zA = + zA
gA gA
Q y Q y
⇒ + × by = + × by
gby 2 gby 2
Q by Q by
⇒ + = +
gby 2 gby 2
Q 1 1 b
⇒ − = (y − y )
gby y y 2

Q 1 (y y ) × (y + y )(y − y )
⇒ = ×
gb 2 (y − y )
Q 1 1
⇒ = × × (y y ) × (y + y )
2gb 2 2
 (y y ) × (y + y )
h = (y − y ) + × (y + y )(y − y )
(y − y )

(y + y )(y − y )
h = (y − y ) +
4y y

4y y − 4y y + y y + 2y y + y − y − 2y y − y y
=
4y y

y − y − 5y y + 2y y + 5y y − 2y y
=
4y y

y − 3y y + 3y y − y
=
4y y

(y − y )
=
4y y

7.4:
v v
ΔE ⋅ = −
2g 2g
Efficiency
v
E y +
2g 1
= = (2 + Fr )
y y 2
v
y +
E 2g 1 (1 + 8Fr ) − 4Fr +1
= =
y y 2 8Fr

E (1 + 8Fr ) − 4Fr + 1
=
E 8Fr (2 + Fr )

Height of jump
v
E y + 2g 1
= = (2 + Fr )
y y 2
h 1
= 1 + 8Fr − 3
y 2
h 1 + 8Fr − 3
∴ =
E 2 + Fr
 Experiment 8

8.1:

Total energy: H=z+y+

Specific energy: E=y+
=y+ [G= = AV; v = ]
=y+ [ Rectangle, A = by]

dE d a
=1+ y
dy dy 2gb
a 1
=1−2
2gb y
=1− [D = = ; b=y]
=1−

At critical point, =0
 0=1−

 =1
 Fr = 1

Q
E= y+
2gb y
 = +

= +
y b yc gyc
=+
yc 2gb y y
y b y gy
= +
y 2gb y yc
y 1y
= +
y 2y
So, = +
8.2:

Specific force is based on momentum principal:

(v − v ) = γ A − γ A
Q Gv
⇒ v +z A = +zA
g g

QQ QQ
⇒ +z A = +z A
gA gA

Q Q
⇒ +z A = + zA
gA gA

Specific energy = + zA
= + by
= +
= + by

Specific force, F = + ρgby

= + ρgby
= ρgby +
dF 1 ρa
= ρgb ⋅ 2y − y
dy 2 b
= ρgby −
= ρgA − ⋅

=ρgA −
= ρgA − [D = = =>̇ D = y]

At critical point, dF = 0
ρQ
So, ρgA − =0
AD
ρQ
⇒ ρgA =
AD
Q
⇒ =1
A Dg
A V
⇒ =1
A Dg
V
⇒ =1
gD
⇒F =1
8.3:
Generalized specific force:
F = ρgby +
v = gD
2
F ρgby2 β ⋅ b y2c ⋅ v2c
⇒ 2 = 2 + v = gD = gy
yc ρgb 2yc βgb by ⋅ yc2 ⋅ ρgb
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅
= + D= =
⋅
=y
⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ ⋅

= ⋅ +

So,

F y y
= +
y ρgb y y

Experiment 9
.
 Laminar Sublayer: δ0 =
Here, ν= Kinematic Viscosity
Vf = Shear/Fractional Velocity
Vf =√𝑔𝑅𝑆 (S= Slope of the channel basin)

Hydraulically Smooth Channel: 0 ≤ ≤ 5 and k<δ0

Hydraulically Rough Channel: ≥ 70 and k>δ0

 Velocity Distribution in Turbulent Flow:
V= 5.75Vf log
 Cross-sectional Mean Velocity:
V= Vf (0.25+5.75 log )
∫ ∑ △
 Velocity Distribution Coefficient: α= =
∫ ∑ △
β= =

∑ △
For rectangular, α=
∑ △
β=
 Experiment 10

Depth-Mean Velocity, V= . .
= V0.6
Q=∑ 𝑄
Qi =Vi △ 𝐴
V= ∑△ = Mean Velocity

( ) ^ /
Manning’s n, n= . ( . )
where, x= .
.

Chezy’z c, C= R1/6