STAMFORD UNIVERSITY BANGLADESH

Department of Civil Engineering

Course : CEN 331‐Environmental Engineering‐1

Title : Water Supply Engineering

Lecture 2 : Water Resources- Hydrological Cycle, Surface Water

and Ground Water

Lecture by
M. Feroze Ahmed Ph.D., FIE, FBAS, MASCE
Professor Emeritus
Stamford University Bangladesh

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LEARNING OBJECTIVES

 Water availability
 Hydrological Cycle
 Surface Water
 Ground Water

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Availability of Water on Earth
Water exists in solid, liquid and gaseous forms. Oceans and
seas are the main sources of water on earth, but this water
is salty. The fresh liquid water sources on land surfaces
and ground constitute less than 1% of the total water on
earth.

97% Saline water in Seas and Oceans (Not suitable for Drinking)

2.07% Ice Cap and Glaciers (NA for water supply)

3% Fresh Water 0.90 Groundwater (Partly available for water supply)
0.01% Surface Water (Available for water supply)
0.02% others (available in atmosphere, ground
moisture and living things etc.)
Fig. 2.1 Distribution of water on Earth (Our Blue Planet)

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Hydrological cycle
Hydrological cycle refers to the circulation of water in its liquid,
vapor or solid states from oceans to air, air to land, over land surfaces
or underground, and back to the oceans as shown in figure 2.2.

Ice & Snow

Rain Fall

Transpiration
E v a p o r a t I o n
River
Lake

Impermeable Formation Sea

Fig. 2.2 : Hydrological Cycle

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Hydrological Cycle Contd…..

Evaporation takes place from the surface of oceans, seas and open water
bodies and evapotranspiration from plant surfaces, resulting in the transfer
of water vapour to the atmosphere. Under certain conditions this water
vapour condenses to form clouds, which subsequently release water as
precipitation in the form of rain, hail, sleet or snow. The water reaching the
ground wets it and runs off into surface streams, finally discharging into
the oceans. Another part infiltrates into the ground and percolates to join
existing groundwater and ultimately flows to the ocean. The water
accumulated as snow and ice on hills and mountains also melts to join
surface and groundwaters.

Most of the liquid fresh water, amounting to 8,000,000 km3, is in

groundwater storage, of which about 6,000,000 km3 is available within a
depth of about 50m below the ground surface. The remainder is available
at greater depths. The fresh water contained in surface water sources
amounts to 200,000 km3 and the atmosphere contains only about 13,000
km3 of fresh water
5
Surface water
Surface water is abundant in the wet season in Bangladesh. An
estimated 795,000 Million cubic meter (Mm3) of surface water is
discharged through the Ganges-Brahmaputra system, in the
downstream of the confluence of the Ganges and the Brahmaputra
Surface waters are polluted by agricultural, industrial, domestic and
municipal sources.
In Bangladesh, ground and surface water sources are dependent on each
other. Many streams receive a major portion of their flow from
groundwater. Elsewhere, water from surface streams is the main source
of recharge for groundwater.
People's unsanitary practices have greatly contributed to the deterioration
of the quality of surface water sources. The faecal coliform concentration
in most surface water sources lies in the range of 500 to several
thousand per 100 ml. The rivers and surface water sources around
densely populated urban areas are four to ten times more polluted than
the similar water sources in the countryside. The use of surface water for
drinking purposes requires clarification and disinfection by elaborate and
extensive treatment processes. 6
Groundwater
Groundwater: The water available in the saturation zone (pores completely
filled with water) is known as groundwater.
Aquifer: The soil strata which contain groundwater and will readily yield it
to wells are called aquifers. . An aquifer has interconnected pores filled
with water which may be considered as a network of interconnected pipes
through which water flows at a very slow rate. These interconnected pores
provide both storage and flow, or conduit functions in an aquifer. The
storage function of an aquifer is related to two important properties known
as porosity and specific yield. The porosity of a formation is the percentage
of the total volume of the formation, which consists of openings or pores.
specific yield, defined as the volume of water released from a unit volume
of aquifer materials when allowed to drain freely or by gravity. The
remaining volume of water, which cannot be removed by gravity drainage,
is held by capillary forces and by other forces of attraction and is called
specific retention. An aquifer with a porosity of 0.25 or 25% and specific yield
of 0.15 or 15% has a specific retention of 0.10 or 10%.
Aquiclude: The impervious formations or strata containing very little
groundwater are termed aquicludes. 7
Conduit function
The property of water related to the conduit function is known as
permeability. Permeability is the measure of the capacity of an aquifer to
transmit water. The velocity of flow under laminar or non-turbulent
conditions is related to the slope of the hydraulic gradient by the
following equation, known as Darcy’s Law:

V=Ki (16.2)

Where V is the velocity of flow, i is the hydraulic gradient, and K is

known as the coefficient of permeability (often referred to simply as
permeability). Thus, coefficient of permeability can be referred to as the
velocity under unit hydraulic gradient and usually expressed as m/day.
The quantity of flow per unit time Q, through a given cross-sectional
area A, may be obtained by multiplying the velocity in equation (16.2)
by the area as:

Q = AV = K A i (16.4)

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The flow per unit width of the aquifer having a thickness of m can be written
from the equation (16.4) as:

q = Kmi (16.5)

The product Km in equation (16.5) is termed as coefficient of transmissibility

or transmissibility T of the aquifer. The coefficient of transmissibility is,
therefore, defined as the rate of flow through a vertical cross-section of an
aquifer of unit width and whose height is the total thickness of the aquifer
when the hydraulic gradient is unity. The unit of transmissibility is expressed
in m2/day.

Aquifers may be classified as water table and artesian aquifers. A water table
aquifer is one, which is not confined by an upper impermeable layer. Hence,
it is also called an unconfined aquifer. Water in this aquifer is under
atmospheric pressure and the upper surface of the zone of saturation is called
the water table. An artesian aquifer is one in which the water is confined
under a pressure greater than the atmospheric pressure by an overlying,
relatively impermeable layer. Where the piezometric level lies above ground
level, water will flow automatically and it is referred to as a flowing artesian
well. 9
Ground Water table
Piezometric well
level Non‐ Flowing level
flowing artesian well
artesian Discharge Water
well table

Confining layer

Artesian aquifer

Bed rock

Fig.: 2.3 : Water Table aquifer, Piezometric level, Artificial Aquifer,

Artesian aquifer
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Flow Toward Well in Unconfined Aquifer
When the well is at rest, the water level in the well is called the static
water level, which coincides with the water table of a water table aquifer
and the piezometric surface of an artesian aquifer. Pumping the well
causes lowering of the pressure and induces a flow from all directions
into the well due to the difference in pressure

Again according to Darcy’s law, the hydraulic gradient varies directly

with the velocity. The increasing velocity towards the well is therefore
accompanied by an increasing hydraulic gradient. The water surface or
the piezometric surface develops a steeper slope towards the well and
takes the form of an inverted cone called the cone of depression. The
lowest water level in the well is known as the pumping water level. The
difference between the static water level and the surface of the cone of
depression is called the drawdown.

Dupits’s formula for the flow into an ordinary well is based on Darcy’s
law, presented in equation 16.4. The hydraulics of flow for a well through
an unconfined aquifer is presented in figure 16.3. 11
 Diameter of Circle of Influence = 2R
Ground surface Well of radius, r

Water table

x P
Drawdown dy
dx D‐d
curve
y Drawdown
D

Impervious layer

ure 16.3: Hydraulics of flow in a well through unconfined aquifer

It is assumed that the flow of groundwater is horizontal and radial
towards the centre of the well. The slope of the cone of depression and
area of flow at a distance x from the centre of the well is respectively
given by:

i 
dy
A  2 xy
dx 12
Substituting these values in equation (16.4)
dy
Q  2 Kxy OR Q
dx
 2Kydy (16.6)
dx x
by integration Q Logex = Ky2 + C where C is a constant.
For y = d at x = r, r being the radius of the well and y = D at x
= R , R being the radius of the circle of influence or distance of
the outer boundary from the centre of the well, the equation
(16.6) becomes
K (D 2  d 2 ) (16.7)
Q 
R
lo g e ( )
r
Where Q = well discharge, m3/d
K = coefficient of permeability, m/d
D = depth of the aquifer, m
d = static head, m
R = radius of circle of influence, m 13
r = radius of the well, m
The equation 16.7 shows that if the term (D-d) is small as compared to (D+d),
the flow Q varies approximately as (D-d) for a well installed in a particular
aquifer. This linear relationship between the rate of flow and drawdown leads to
the definition of specific capacity of a tubewell installed in an aquifer. Specific
capacity of a tubewell, therefore, is the rate of flow per unit drawdown, which
may be expressed as m3/d/m of drawdown.

Worked Example
A 100 mm diameter tubewell is sunk 35 m below static groundwater level. The
depth of water in the tubewell while pumping is 33 m. The radius of drawdown is
30 m and the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer is 0.5 l/s/m2. Calculate the
probable discharge of the well.
K (D 2  d 2 )
Solution : Q
R
log e ( )
r

K = 0.5 lps/m2; D = 35m; d = 33m; R = 30m; r = 0.05m

Substituting the values in the above equation:

Q = 3.14 x 0.5 x ( 352 – 332 ) / Log e (30/0.05)

Q = 3.14 x 0.5 x 136/6.3969 = 33.4 lps
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 2R

Ground surface Well of radius, r

Confined steady flow: The
flow condition in an artesian Piezometric surface
or pressure well has been x P dy
illustrated in figure 16.4. Depressed dx
piezometric
In an artesian tubewell the surface
drawdown occurs in the D
Confining layer y
piezometric surface and the
depth of flow remains
constant and equal to the d m

thickness of the pressure or

artesian aquifer m. In the case
of an artesian tubewell Impervious layer

dy
i A  2  xm Figure 16.4: Hydraulics of flow in a well
dx through confined (artesian) aquifer
Substituting the value of i and A in equation (16.4)

dy dx
Q  2 Kxm( ) OR Q  2Kmdy 15
dx x
Where m is the thickness of the confined aquifer. Integrating equation
(16.8) between the limits x = r for y = d and x = R for y =D :
Putting the values 2 K m (D  d )
Q 
R
lo g e ( )
r
The rate of flow Q of an artesian well sunk in a confined aquifer is proportional
to the drawdown (D-d).
WORKED Out Example 2
A 100 mm diameter tubewell is sunk to withdraw water from a 10 m
thick confined aquifer having coefficient of permeability equal to 0.75
lps/m2. The depth of water below the piezometric level is 30 m and it falls
2 m in the tubewell while pumping. Calculate the discharge of the
tubewell when the radius of the circle of influence is 30 m.
2 K m ( D  d )
Solution Q 
R
lo g e ( )
r
K = 0.75 lps/m2; m = 10m; D = 30m; d = (30-2)m = 28m; R = 30m; r = 0.05m
Q = 2 x 3.14 x 0.75 x 10 ( 30 – 28 ) / ( loge 30/0.05)
Q = 94.2 / 6.3969 = 14.73 lps
Interference of well: Interference between two or more tubewells occurs
when their cones of depression overlap. Interference reduces the discharges
of the interfering tubewells. 16
Problems in groundwater development
Groundwater is the main source of water supply in urban and rural
areas of Bangladesh. Groundwater in Bangladesh is available
abundantly, but the availability of groundwater for drinking
purposes has become a problem for the following reasons:
 arsenic in groundwater;
 excessive dissolved iron;
 salinity in the coastal areas;
 lowering of groundwater level;
 hard rock/stony layers in hilly areas

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Rainwater
Bangladesh is a tropical country and receives heavy rainfall due to north-
easterly winds during the rainy season. Rainwater can be a potential source
of water supply in Bangladesh. . The average yearly rainfall in Bangladesh
varies from 2,200 to 2,800mm, 75% of which occurs between May and
September. The monthly variation and spatial distribution of normal rainfall in
Bangladesh is shown in figures16.11 and 6.12.
500

400
Rainfall Intensity,

300
mm/Month

200

100

00
J F M A M J J A S O N D

Month
Fig. 6.11: A Typical monthly distribution of Rainfall in Bangladesh

If average rainfall of a year is 2300 m, Bangladesh and get 2.3 m3 of water per
m2 of area. 18
 26oN
< 1,500 mm 2,100 ‐ 2,400 mm

1,500 ‐1,800 mm 2,400 ‐ 2,700 mm

1,800 ‐2,100 mm 2,700 ‐ 3,000 mm

25oN Meghalaya
> 3,000 mm
(India)

24oN

Tripura
(India)
23oN

West Bengal
( India )
22oN

BAY OF BENGAL Myan‐

mar
21oN

89oE 90oE 91oE 91oE

Fig. 6.12: Spatial distribution of Rainfall in Bangladesh 19

.

Questions:

1. What are the different sources of water for water supply in Bangladesh?
Mention the importance of groundwater for water supply in Bangladesh.
2. State the hydraulics of groundwater flow in wells. Deduce mathematical
expressions for yield of artesian as well as ordinary wells.
3. Describe the aquifer characteristics and groundwater situation in
Bangladesh.
4. What are the problems in groundwater development in Bangladesh?
5. A 150 mm diameter tubewell produces 100 lps with a drawdown of 3 m
and a circle of influence of 120 m in diameter. The static depth of water in
the well is 40 m. Calculate the coefficient of permeability of the aquifer in
which the tubewell is sunk

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