39

Fn:AE157IrrigReqC3.wpd CHAPTER 3

WATER REQUIREMENT

How much amount and when to apply depends on capacity of the source to supply water, the
capacity of the soil to store water and the crop water requirement. Some irrigated areas have a
limited water supply during the irrigation season, but an abundant of water during wet season.
Farmers cannot always apply water when the crop is most in need sometimes to save water they
must apply it even though the crop does not need it, provided the soil has the capacity to store
additional water. Therefore, crop needs, available water supply, and storage capacity of the soil must
be considered in a discussion of the proper time to irrigate.

Basic Flow Equation

General flow equation as we know from fluid mechanics is given by q = va, where a is the
area perpendicular to the direction of flow velocity v. When a depth of water (d) is applied into the
soil for a time duration (t), the velocity (v) and volume flow rate (q) of water into the soil through
an area (a) is

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.0)

The equation is homogeneous and if d is in m, a in m2, and t in seconds; then q would be in m3/sec.
The convenient units for depth of water applied is in cm, the farm area a to be irrigated in hectares,
time of application of water in hours and flow or discharge in liters per second; then the above
equation becomes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.0a)

See procedure for converting one equation into an equivalent equation of different units, or from
an english equation to its metric equivalent or vice versa in Appendix.A.

Sample Problem 3.1: A farmer desires to irrigate a border which is 100 m wide and 150
m long. He wants to apply a stream of 0.15 m3/s into his field in 1 hours. How much amount of
water did he apply to his field in ha-mm/ha or mm?
Given: W = 100 m, L = 150 m
q = 0.15 m3/s = 150 lps, t = 1 hr = 3600 s
Required: d
Solution: Substitute given values into equation 3.0 for depth d, we have
 40

Using equation 3.0a, we also get:

where a = 100 x 150 = 15,000 m2 = 1.5 ha.

Sample Problem 3.2: In Problem 2.2, determine the canal flow rate required to irrigate 10
ha of upland crop to bring the moisture content back to field capacity when all the readily available
moisture has been consumed by the crop. Assume that water is applied for a duration of 24 hours
with an application efficiency of 75%.
Given: a = 10 ha, t = 24 hr, Ea = 75%
Required: q
Solution: From sample Problem 2.2, the depth of water needed to raise the depleted soil moisture
back to field capacity dn = 11.7 cm. Thus, the depth of water to be applied would be da = dn/Ea =
11.7/0.75 = 15.6 cm. Substitute given values into equation 3.0a to obtain the required flow

Lowland Irrigation
Diversion Requirement- Diversion requirement is defined as the total quantity of water
diverted from a source for consumptive use (CU) or evapotranspiration (ET), percolation (P), farm
waste (Dr), farm ditch losses (FDL) and conveyance losses (CL) in the main (m) and lateral (L)
canals up to farm turnout, less effective rainfall (Re) in the field. These quantities are all expressed
in equivalent depth per unit time (e.g. mm/day). Relationship among the terms are:

Consumptive Use (CU) = Evaporation (E) + Plant Uptake (U) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.1)

Evapotranspiration (ET)= E + Transpiration (T) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.2)
Water Requirement (WR) = ET + P . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.3)
Irrigation Requirement (IR) = WR + Dr - Re . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.4)
Farm Turnout Requirement (FTR) = IR + FDL = WR + Dr - Re + FDL . IR . . . . . . . (3.5)
Lateral Delivery Requirement (LDR) = FTR + CLL = WR + Dr - Re + FDL + CLL . . (3.6)
Diversion Requirement (DR) = LDR + CLm = WR + Dr - Re + FDL + CLL + CLm . . (3.7)

Although the terms CU and ET are interchangeably used, both have different meaning
because water uptake U is the amount taken up by the plant through its roots while T is that water
transpired from its leaves of the plant. Not all water uptake will transpire through the leaves. Water
retained in the plant cells is utilized for plant growth and maintain turgor. Thus, U is slightly higher
than T. Evaporation, a component in both terms, is the amount of water lost from the soil adjacent
to the plant through evaporation process. Since the difference between U and T is negligible, CU
. ET.
 41

Deep percolation (P) is the term used for water in the soil profile that moves vertically
downward beyond the root zone and usually reaches the groundwater. Effective rainfall (Re) is that
portion of the total rainfall that is trapped in the soil root zone and therefore available to crop. It can
be expressed as percentage of total rainfall.

Farm wastes (Dr) are applied water that goes beyond field boundaries as runoff or drainage
and seepage. Farm ditch losses (FDL) include canal water evaporation, percolation, seepage and
leakages through dikes. FDL may be considered small since most of these losses are trapped and
utilized in the adjacent farm. Conveyance losses (CL) (which include evaporation, percolation and
seepage (lateral movement) through the canal embankment/dike) at the lateral and main are also
small. However, losses can be significant in canals constructed on porous or light soils. With
limited supply from the source and high conveyance losses, this necessitates lining or concreting
of canal to minimize this loss. Conveyance losses can be estimated from the formula:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.8)
where Cl is the rate of conveyance loss for a particular type of canal soil, usually expressed in m3
of water loss per m2 of the surface area (As) of the canal per day, and a is the area served by the
canal.

Capacity of irrigation canal (q) for the farm ditch, lateral and main can be computed using
equation 3.0 as follows:

a) Farm ditch; . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.9)

b) Lateral canal: . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.10)

c) Main canal: , . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.11)

where T, t and a are frequency or interval of irrigation, time of water application and service area
of each farm ditch, lateral and main canal. The above equations are applicable to intermittent or
rotational method of application. For continuous method of irrigation application, T= t.

Land Soaking Requirement- Large amount of water is also needed for land soaking before
tillage commences. Land soaking requirement (LSR) is the total quantity of water required for
soaking a lowland rice area. Soaking is done by first saturating the soil and maintain a ponding
depth for about a week before primary tillage starts. It is a function of the residual soil moisture
content (Pwi), saturation point (Psat), apparent specific gravity of the soil (As), evaporation (E),
percolation (P), ponding depth (dp), soil depth (D) and time of soaking (T). E and P are both in
equivalent depth per unit time. LSR is expressed in equivalent depth by the following equation:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.12)
 42

Farm ditch flow rate or discharge requirement (qf) for this purpose would be:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.13)

System Water Duty (qd) - This is the term used by NIA (National Irrigation Administration)
to estimate the total volumetric flow rate per hectare basis required by an irrigation system, and this
can be computed based on continuous method of application as:

qd = DR x 10,000 m2/ha . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.14)

If DR is expressed in mm/day and qd in lps/ha, equation 3.14 becomes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.14a)

Depending on the soil type, water duty ranges from 1.2-1.5 lps/ha.

Upland Irrigation
Consumptive Use. Like lowland irrigation, the daily water requirement of upland crop is
basically the consumptive use or evapotranspiration of the particular crop plus water losses through
conveyance and application. Consumptive use of water which is influenced by climatic factors as
temperature, humidity and wind speed; irrigation practices, length of growing season, and other
factors has been the subject of many studies. Water, energy and mass balance or combination of
these approaches have been used to estimate ET for consumptive use. Field
studies like inflow-outflow for large area, soil moisture monitoring, lysimeter
or tank method are examples that uses water balance (continuity) equation
to estimate ET. The use of energy and mass balance approaches require
expensive and sophisticated instruments for such study.

Simplest among the methods to approximate ET of a particular crop

is by pot method which will be discussed here to appreciate the application
of the continuity equation. Figure 3.1 is a typical set-up of a potted plant
system showing all possible water inflow and outflow variables under field
conditions. Variable I is irrigation or water applied. Other variables in the
water balance are as previously defined. Continuity equation (see derivation
in Appendix A) for the system of Figure 3.1 gives

Inflow - Outflow = change in storage Figure 3.1. Potted

R + I - (P + ET) = )S = S2 - S1. plant system
showing all
Thus, ET = R + I + S1 - S2 - P. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.15) components of
water balance.
All dimensions are in equivalent depth of water. The change in storage of
 43

water )S in the pot is simply the change in equivalent depth of water , if Pw1

and Pw2, the initial and final soil moisture content are given. The change in storage, however, can
be evaluated accurately be weighing the pot at every beginning and end of the time intervals instead
of moisture content measurements. Percolation water at the bottom of the pot can also be measured
by weighing at the end of each time interval. If the change in storage and percolation are expressed
in weights, then equation 3.15 becomes

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.15a)

where W1, W2, Wp, and Dp are initial, final storage weight, weight of percolation water, and diameter
of pot surface. If no rain and water applied during the time interval, then ET would just be the
change in storage.

Sample Problem 3.3: A potted-plant system, 30-cm diameter and 40 cm depth, placed in
an open field was used to estimate the consumptive use of water by the crop. At the beginning of
the day, the weight of the pot was 33,700g. Shortly after watering with one liter of water at midday,
one mm rain fell on the ground. At the end of the 24-hour day percolation water collected at the
bottom of the pot was about 0.4 liter and the final weight of the pot was 33,983 g. Determine the
amount of water consumed by the plant from the beginning to the end of the day in mm and in liters
of water.

Given: Dp = 30 cm, D = 40 cm, R = 1 mm = 0.1 cm, Vp = 0.4 liter = 400 cm3

VI = 1 liter = 1000 cm3, W1 = 33,700 g, W2 = 33,983 g
Required: ET, VET
Solution: Substitute relevant data into equation 13.5a which was modified to express I and P in
volume, we get ET and VET per day as follows:

= 0.548 cm = 5.48 mm.

Depth of Water to be Applied. The equivalent depth of water to be applied (d) for upland
crop irrigation depends on the method of irrigation. The maximum depth of water to be applied to
the field is based on the storage capacity of the soil given by the equation
 44

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.15)
where dn is the depth of water needed by the crop, and Pi = Pfc - RAM. The readily
available moisture (RAM= Pfc - Pi) is that part of the total available moisture
(TAM= Pfc - Pwp) easily extractable by the plant roots, usually about 60 to 75% of
the TAM. TAM is the difference in percent soil moisture between field capacity
(Pfc) and wilting point (Pwp) (dry-weight basis). Pi is the critical soil moisture content
below which the plant begins to suffer moisture stress; therefore, this is the moisture
level before irrigation application. As and D are the apparent specific gravity and
depth of the soil (usually the plant root zone depth). Application efficiency (Ea)
accounts for deep percolation and runoff or drainage across field boundaries. The
relationship between Pfc, Pi, Pwp, TAM and RAM is shown by the schematic
diagram.

Plant Root Zones. Assuming a favorable unrestricted root zone, the depth
of rooting increase during the vegetative and flowering period. The hotter the climate or the longer
the growing period, the deeper the roots will penetrate. Crops requiring only 2 months to mature
generally do not penetrate more than 30 to 80 cm. Crops requiring 3 to 4 months to mature penetrate
90 to 150 cm. Crops requiring 6 months to mature may penetrate 180 to 300 cm or more. As a
rough guide, depth of rooting varies from 30 to 45 cm depth per month of active growth, depending
upon the crop and climate. There exists a tendency to underestimate the depth of rooting.

Table 3.1 gives typical rooting depths for various crops in fertile soil under unrestricted
conditions. The figures in the table should be taken only as guides because root patterns depend
much on local soil conditions and water availability. Shallow soils must contain shallow root
systems. Excessive irrigation, maintaining a high water-table will also tend to produce shallow
roots, whereas drought conditions with water available only a considerable depth will encourage
deep roots.

Table 3.1. Typical root-zone depths (depths in meters at full growth).

Shallow Medium Deep

Beans 0.5-0.7 Barley 1.0-1.5 Alfalfa 1.0-2.0
Broccoli 0.4-0.6 Carrots 0.5-1.0 Cotton 1.0-1.7
Cabbage 0.4-0.5 Clover 0.6-0.9 Deciduous orchards 1.0-2.0
Grass pasture 0.4-0.6 Eggplant 0.9-1.2 Maize 1.0-2.0
Lettuce 0.3-0.5 Grains (small) 0.9-1.5 Sorghum 1.0-2.0
Onions 0.3-0.5 Peas 0.6-1.0 Sugar cane 1.0-2.0
Potatoes 0.4-0.6 Peppers 0.5-1.0
Rice Sweet potatoes 1.0-1.5
Spinach 0.3-0.5 Tomatoes 0.7-1.5
Water melons 1.0-1.5
 45

Source : FAO Irrigation and Drainage Paper No. 24, Crop Water Requirements, Table 39.

Canal Flow Rate Requirement. Canal flowrate (qf) needed for the farm is given by equation
3.0 or

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .(3.0)

Substitution of equation 3.15 into equation 3.0, we get

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.16)

Frequency or timing of Irrigation. Number of days (T) required to deplete the soil moisture by
consumptive use or evapotranspiration (ET) down to the moisture level Pi, would be

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.17)

T is also equivalent to the frequency or interval of irrigation. Frequency of irrigation depends largely
on the depth of root zone. Shallow rooted crops such as vegetables require small application depth
but more frequent than deep rooted crops. For a particular crop, depth of water application increases
with growth with peak application during flowering stage. During fruiting period, irrigation is
gradually decreased and stopped when fruits start to mature.

Methods of Application
Methods of water application can either be continuous, intermittent or rotation by area.
Continuous application allows irrigation water to supply the field continuously for 24 hours a day
without stopping. This method is applicable for unlimited and inexpensive water supply but wasteful
since water control is not being observed by farmers. In the intermittent method, water is applied
for a shorter period, say one or two days, to irrigate the entire area good for several days supply.
Irrigation is repeated until the store water in the field is depleted to the desired level. This method,
however, requires large discharge and therefore large main and laterals as compared to the other two
methods. Rotational method can be rotation of irrigation by farm ditch, by lateral or by main. Thus,
in the rotational by farm ditch, only one farm ditch per lateral will be supplied at a time. In this case
all laterals will be supplied with flow equivalent to one farm ditch. For rotation by two farm ditches,
only two farm ditches per lateral will be served at a time. This will be followed by the next two
ditches, and so on until rotation is completed within each lateral.

Sample Problem 3.4: Consider an irrigation system of one main canal with 6 laterals, and 8
farm ditches per lateral. Given qf as the computed capacity of the farm ditch on a continuous basis.
Determine the canal flow rate in the farm ditch, lateral and main in terms of qfc if the method of
application is by: a) continuous, b) intermittent, c) rotational by farm ditch, d) rotational by two farm
ditches at a time, and e) rotational by lateral. Assume application time to be 1 day and the interval
or frequency of application is 9 days for both intermittent and rotational.
 46

Given: qfc, nf = 8/lateral, nL = 6, t = 1 day, T = 9 days

Required: qfc, qLc, qmc, qfi, qLi, qmi, qfr, qLr, qmr
Solution:

For continuous method of application:

1. qfc = qf
2. qLc = nf (qfc) = 8 qfc
3. qmc = nL (qLc) = 6(8 qfc) = 48 qfc

Intermittent:
4. qfi = (T/t) qfc = 9 qfc
5. qLi = nf (qfi) = 8 (9)(qfc) = 72 qfc
6. qmi = nL (qLi) = 6 (72 qfc) = 432 qfc

Rotational by farm ditch:

7. qfr = (T/t) qfc = 9 qfc
8. qLr = qfr = 9 qfc
9. qmr = nL (qLr) = 8 (9 qfc) = 72 qfc

Rotational by 2 farm ditches:

10. qfr2 = (T/t) qfc = 9 qfc
11. qLr2 = 2 qfr2 = 2(9 qfc) = 18 qfc
12. qmr2 = nL (qLr2) = 8(18 qfc) = 144 qfc.

Rotational by lateral:
13. qfrL = (T/t) qfc = 9 qfc
14. qLrL = nf (qfrL) = 8(9 qfc) = 72 qfc
15. qmrL = qLrL = 72 qfc

Evaluating Irrigation Efficiencies

In a world where water is such a precious resource, no man has the right to waste water which
another man needs. Efficient use of irrigation water is an obligation of each user. However,
efficiency of use will vary from locality to locality. In areas where water is scarce and costly,
available water is generally used carefully. Whereas, in areas of abundant water, the value is less
and the tendency is to waste water. Also, efficiency is influenced by cost and quality of labor, ease
of handling water, crops being irrigated, and soil characteristics.

For these reasons irrigation efficiency is a broad general term which can be applied to
irrigation practices in a qualitative manner. The objective of these efficiency concepts is to show
where improvements can be made which will result in more efficient irrigation. Adequate control
and management of irrigation water requires that methods be available to evaluate irrigation
practices from the time water leaves the point of diversion until it is utilized by the plants.
 47

Water-Conveyance Efficiency- The earliest irrigation efficiency concept for evaluating water
loses was water-conveyance efficiency. Most irrigation water then came from diversions from
streams or reservoirs. Losses which occurred while conveying water were often excessive. Water-
conveyance efficiency formulated to evaluate this loss can be stated as follows:

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.18)

where Ec = water-conveyance efficiency.

Qf = water delivered to the farm
Qr = water diverted from the river or reservoir

Water-Application Efficiency- Having conveyed the available water to the farm through costly
diversions and conveyance structures, the need was apparent to apply the water efficiently. Often
considerably more water was applied to the soil than it could possibly hold. The following concept
of water application efficiency was developed to measure and focus attention upon the efficiency
with which water delivered was being stored within the root zone of the soil, where it could be used
by plants.

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.19)

where Ea = water-application efficiency

Qs = water stored in the soil root zone during the irrigation
Qf = water delivered to the farm

The concept of water-application efficiency can be applied to a project, a farm, or a field to

evaluate irrigation practice. Irrigation efficiencies can vary from extremely low values to values
approaching 100 percent. However, in normal irrigation practices, surface irrigation efficiencies
of application are in the range of 60 percent, whereas well-designed sprinkler irrigation systems are
generally considered to be approximately 75 percent efficient.

Common sources of loss of irrigation water from the farm during water application are surface
runoff from the farm (Ro) and deep percolation below the root zone soil (P).

Neglecting evaporation losses during the time water is being applied and immediately after, it
follows that Qf = Qs + Ro + P. Therefore,

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.20)
 48

Water-Use Efficiency- Having conveyed water to the point of use and having applied the
water, the next efficiency concept of concern is the efficiency of water use. What proportion of
the water delivered was beneficially used on the project, farm, or field can be calculated using
the following formulas:
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.21)
where Eu = water-use efficiency
Qu = water beneficially used
Qd = water delivered

Water-Storage Efficiency- This concept directs attention to how completely the needed water
has been stored in the root zone during the irrigation

. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.22)
where Es = water-storage efficiency
Qs = water store in the root zone during the irrigation
Qn = water needed in the root zone prior to the irrigation

Water-storage efficiency becomes important whenever insufficient water is stored in the root-
zone soil during an irrigation.

Water-Distribution Efficiency or Uniformity Coefficient- Another important characteristic of

irrigation is uniform distribution of irrigation water throughout the root zone. Under most
conditions, the more uniformly water is distributed, the better will be the crop response. Uneven
distribution has many undesirable characteristics. Drought areas appear in a field which is not
irrigated uniformly unless excess water is applied, which in turn results in a waste of water.

The formula for water-distribution efficiency, which evaluates the extent to which water is
uniformly distributed, is shown below.
. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (3.23)

where Ed = water-distribution efficiency

y = average numerical deviation in depth of water stored from average depth stored
during the irrigation.
d = average depth of water stored during the irrigation.

Sample Problem 3.5: A stream of 500 lps was diverted from the river and 450 lps were
delivered to the field. An area of 100 hectares was irrigated in 8 hours. The root-zone depth was
1.8 m. The runoff averaged 150 lps for 3 hours. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from
1.8 m at the head of the field to 1.2 m at the end of the field. Determine the water-conveyance,
water-application, water-storage and the water-distribution efficiencies.
 49

Given: Qr = 500 lps, D = 1.8 m

Qf = 450 lps D1 = 1.8 m
a = 100 ha for 8 hrs D2 = 1.2 m
Rf =150 lps for 3 hrs
Rqd: Ec, Ea, Es, Ed
Solution: Solution for Ec, Ea, Es, and Ed are as follows:

a)

b)

.
c)

d) Mean wetting depth,

Average numerical deviation from the mean, y would be

Thus,

Sample Problems
1. Determine the date and amount of the next irrigation for an upland crop if last irrigation was
applied on February 29. Evapotranspiration averaged 7 mm/day, effective rainfall was 10 mm
on March 5 and 5 mm on March 7, soil is a loam with root zone depth of 40 cm, and the
readily available moisture is 70% of the total available moisture. Assume that application
efficiency was 75%. Irrigation on February 29 brought the soil moisture level to field
capacity.
Given: ET = 7 mm/d RAM = 70% of TAM
Re = 10 mm on March 5 Pfc= 22% (dwb) for loam soil;
Re = 5 mm on March 7 Pwp= 10% Source: Hansen et al., (1980)
D = 40 cm As = 1.4
Required: Date and amount of next irrigation
Solution:
AM = 0.7(TAM) x As x D = 0.7(22 - 10) x 1.4 x400mm = 47 mm
 50

da = AM/Ea = 47/0.75 = 62.7 mm > Applied water

da - AM = 62.7 - 47 = 14.7 mm > Water application losses not available to the crop.

The following table shows the solution by water budget approach. At the beginning
of the day on Feb. 29, 62.7 mm of water was applied and of this amount 47 mm was available
to the crop. At the end of that day 7 mm was consumed, leaving only 40 mm available to the
crop the next day, and so on. Therefore, next irrigation was on March 9 with an application
depth of 48 mm/0.75 = 64 mm.

Date AM at start R e , mm ET, AM at end of Remarks

of day, mm mm day, mm
Feb 28 7 0
Feb 29 47 0 7 40 Water applied = 62.7 mm

Mar 1 40 0 7 33
Mar 2 33 0 7 26
Mar 3 26 0 7 19
Mar 4 19 0 7 12
Mar 5 12 10 7 15
Mar 6 15 0 7 8
Mar 7 8 5 7 6
Mar 8 6 0 7 -1
Mar 9 48 0 7 41 Water applied = 64.0 mm

2. Compute the conveyance losses (in m3/day and in mm of water) from a farm ditch having the
following dimensions: b = 0.2 m, d = 0.3 m, z = 2:1. Canal length is 500 m and is serving 15
hectares of lowland rice. Soil is of clay loam having percolation & seepage loss of 0.05
m3/m2/day.
Given: Cl = 0.05 m3/m2/day, b = 0.2 m
L = 500 m d = 0.3 m
A = 15 hectares = 150,000 m2 z = 2:1
Required: QFDL, FDL
Solution: Solving for the canal surface area (As ) and conveyance losses (CL), we get
As = P.L =
Thus, QFDL = Cl (As) = (0.05)(771) = 38.6 m3/day, and FDL = Cl (As)/af = (0.05)(771)/150000
= 0.000257 m/day = 0.26 mm/day. Conveyance losses from farm ditches are usually recovered
and utilized by crop in the adjacent farm and therefore can be neglected.

3. Compute for the farm turnout requirement in mm/day and in lps for Problem 2 if ET = 6
mm/day, P = 2.5 mm/day, Re = 0 and FL = 25% of WR. Determine also the water duty(qd )
in lps/ha. Assume irrigation application to be continuous.
 51

Given: ET = 6 mm/day Re = 0
P = 2.5 mm/day FL = 25% of WR
2
af = 15 ha = 150,000 m
Required: FTR, qf, qd
Solution: First determine the farm turnout requirement (FTR), then farm ditch capacity (qf)
and water duty (qd ), and get

a. WR = ET + P = 8.5 mm/day
IR = WR + FL - Re = 8.5 + 0.25 (8.5) - 0 = 10.625 mm/day
FTR = IR + FDL . IR = 10.625 mm/day, assuming FDL are negligible

b. qf = (FTR)(af) = (0.010625 m/day)(150,000 m2) = 1593.75 m3/day = 18.45 lps

c. qd = qf/af = 18.45/15 = 1.23 lps/ha, or

= (FTR)(a1) = (0.010625 m/day)(10000 m2/ha) = 106.25 m3/day-ha
= 1.23 lps/ha

4. Supposing in problem 3 the method of irrigation application is intermittent at 7 days interval.

What is the capacity of the farm ditch in lps, assuming time of application of irrigation water
is 24 hours?
Given: T = 7 days, t = 24 hours = 1 day
Required: qfi
Solution: qfi = da/t = (FTR x T)(af)/(t) = qf (T/t) = 18.45 lps (7 days/1day) = 129.2 lps

5. A lateral canal, having dimensions of b = 0.8 m, d = 0.9 m, L = 1.2 km and z = 2.5:1, supplies
irrigation water to 6 farm ditches. Each farm ditch serves 15 hectares. Use the same FTR in
Problem 3. Determine the conveyance losses from the lateral (in m3/day and in mm/day),
lateral delivery requirement (LDR) (in mm/day) and the canal capacity (in lps) assuming
irrigation application to be a) continuous, b) intermittent at 7 days interval, and c) rotational
by farm ditches at 7 days interval. Assuming that time of application for intermittent and
rotational method to be 24 hours.
Given: b = 0.8 m, d = 0.9 m, LL = 1.2 km = 1200 m, z = 2.5 :1
aL = 15 ha x 6 = 90 ha = 900,000 m2, T = 7 days, t = 24 hours = 1 day
Required: LDR, ql, qli, qlr
Solution: Solving for As, CLL and LDR, we get
Canal surface area, As = P.LL =

a) QCLL = Cl (As) = (0.05)(5816.8) = 290.84 m3/day

CLL = QCLL/aL = 290.84/900000 = 0.000323 m/day = 0.323 mm/day

b) LDR = FTR + CLL = 10.625 + 0.323 = 10.948 mm/day

 52

c) Solving for capacity of lateral on a continuous irrigation application, get

ql = d (aL)/t = (LDR x T)(aL)/t = (LDR)(aL), since T = t for continuous irrigation

ql = (LDR)(aL ) = 0.010948 m/day (900000 m2) = 9853.2 m3/day = 114.0 lps

d) Capacity of the lateral under intermittent method of irrigation, we have

qli = (LDR)(aL )(T/t) = ql (T/t) = 114.0 lps (7 days/1 day) = 798.3 lps

e) For rotational method at one farm ditch at a time, using qf value from Problem 3, we get

qlr = qf (T/t) = 18.45 (7/1) = 129.2 lps

In this method, the qlr = qfi.

6. A 720-ha lowland rice irrigation system with source from the river has 1 main canal, 8 laterals
and 6 farm ditches per lateral. The main canal has dimensions of b = 2 m, d = 1.8 m, L = 2
km and z = 2.5:1. Using the data in the previous problems for laterals and farm ditches,
determine the diversion requirement (DR) in mm/day and its capacity in lps assuming
irrigation application to be a) continuous, b) intermittent at 7 days interval, c) rotational by
farm ditches at 7 days interval, and d) rotational by 2 laterals at a time at 7 days interval.
Assuming time of application for intermittent and rotational method to be 24 hours. What is
the system’s water duty in lps per hectare?
Data: b = 2 m, d = 1.5 m, L = 2 km = 2000 m, z = 2.5 :1
am = 720 ha, aL = 15 ha/fd x 6 fd/Lat = 90 ha, NL = 8, NF = 6,
T = 7 days, t = 24 hours
Required: DR, qm for continuous, intermittent & rotational by 2 lat & by farm ditch; qd
Solution: Solving for the conveyance losses at the main canal (CLm), we get
CLm = Cl x As / am , where As = P.Lm = = 23,386.6 m2
CLm = 0.05 m3/m2-day x 23,386.6 m2/ 720 x 104 m2 = 0.000162 m/day = 0.162 mm/day

a) Thus, DR = FTR + CLL + CLm = LDR + CLm = 10.948 + 0.162 = 11.11 mm/day

b) Main canal capacity under continuous irrigation application (qmc) would be

qmc = DR x am = 0.01111 m/day x 720 x 104 m2 = 79992 m3/day = 925.8 lps

c) Main canal capacity (qmi) if application is intermittent at 7 days interval would be

qmi = qmc x T/t = 79992 m3/day x 7 days / 24 hours = 23,331 m3/hr = 6,480.8 lps
 53

d) Main canal capacity (qmf) for rotational by farm ditch at 7 days irrigation interval- Main
canal will serve 1 farm ditch per lateral x 8 laterals = 8 farms ditches at a time. Thus,

qmf = dDR (amf) /t = (DR x T) (af x Nfm ) / t = (0.01111 m/day x 7 days) (15 x 104 m2 x 8) /24
hr
= 3888.5 m3/hr = 1080.1 lps

e) For rotational by 2 laterals per application (NLi), the main canal discharge (qmL) will be

qmL = DR x aL x NLi x T/ t = 0.01137 m/day x (90 x 104 m2/lat x 2 lats) x 7 days/ 24 hr

= 5832.75 m3/hr = 1,620.21 lps

f) The system’s duty (qd) would be qd = qmc / A = 925.8 lps / 720 ha = 1.29 lps/ha

or qd = DR (a) = 0.01111 m/day x 10,000 m2/ha = 1111 m3/day-ha = 1.29 lps /ha.

7. Determine the amount of water required to soak a given area and the required flow rate of the
farm ditch for the following conditions: soil type is clay loam, depth of soil = 40 cm, area = 10
hectares, initial moisture content = 18% (dwb), ponding depth = 5 cm, soaking period = 7 days,
time of application = 20 hours, E = 6 mm/d, P = 2 mm/d.
Given: a = 10 hectares = 100,000 m2, D = 40 cm, Pwi = 18%
t = 20 hours, d = 5 cm
Required: LSR, q
Solution: From Table 3.1, Hansen et al. (1980), for clay loam soils, As = 1.35, porosity n =
49%. Assume soil saturation point, Psv . n = 49% (by volume) and convert Pwi into volume
basis or Pvi = Pwi As = 18 x 1.35 = 24.3%. Substitute data into the equation for LSR and qf
to obtain

20.48 cm

and the required discharge would be

8. The soil moisture at field capacity is 40% (volume basis) and at wilting point it is 16%. Allow
¼ of the total available moisture to be retained in the soil before applying irrigation water. For
a 1-m soil depth to be wetted, compute the:
 54

a. soil moisture content at the time of irrigation (or just before irrigation)
b. ha-cm/ha of water needed to bring the soil moisture back to field capacity.
c. amount of water (in cm) in the soil at field capacity,
d. amount of water (in cm) in the soil at the time of irrigation,
e. amount of water (in cm) in the soil at wilting point,
f. amount of water to be applied (in cm) if water application efficiency is
80%,
g. stream flow required in lps to irrigate 10 hectares in 12 hours,
h. number of days for the crop to consume the available moisture before
you apply another round of irrigation if rate of water consumption is 8
mm/day.
Given: Pvfc, = 40%, Pvwp, = 16% (vb)
RAM = (1- ¼) TAM = ¾ TAM
D = 1 m = 100 cm
Ea = 80% = 0.8
a = 10 ha = 100,000 m2
t = 12 hr
CU = 8 mm/day
Required: Pvi, dn, dfc, di, dwp, da, q, T
Solution: Refer to Figure above for the analysis of a) and b). Apply relevant equations to
obtain the required solution. Hence,
a)

b)

c)

d)

e)

f)

g)

h)
 55

Try to solve the same problem if soil moisture at field capacity and wilting point were given
in wet-weight basis rather than volumetric basis.

Questions and Problems

1. Define the ff: Consumptive use, evapotranspiration, effective rainfall, water conveyance losses,
application losses, water requirement, irrigation requirement, turnout, farm turnout
requirement, lateral delivery requirement, diversion requirement, water duty, farm ditch,
conveyance efficiency, application efficiency, storage efficiency, distribution efficiency or
coefficient of uniformity.
2. The equation qt = da is a basic and homogenous equation for flow (q) and depth (d) of
irrigation water applied into an area (a) for a specific time period (t). Derive the equivalent
equation such that q is expressed in m3/hr, t in hours, a in hectares, and d in cm. 7
3. The soil moisture at field capacity is 27% (dry-weight basis) and the moisture content at the
time of irrigating is 19.0%. The apparent specific gravity is 1.3 and the depth of soil to be
wetted is 1 m. How may ha-mm per ha of water must be applied. How long will it take to
irrigate 5 hectares with a 120-lps stream? Ans. 104 ha-mm/ha, 12.04 hr 7
4. A stream of 120 lps is used to apply 30 ha-mm of water per ha to a 4-ha field. How long will
it take to irrigate in hours? Ans. 2.78 hr 7
5. Show all possible water balance components (all express in equivalent depth of water) for a
potted plant having holes at the pot bottom placed in an open field. The plant is watered
regularly. Established the water balance equation (or continuity equation) for a given time
interval and solve for the water consumptive use of the plant explicitly.
6. Derive the evapotranspiration (ET) in equivalent depth of water from a potted plant for a given
time period under field conditions. The pot made of plastic is cylindrical of diameter D.
During this period rain (R) occurred and was measured by the raingage installed nearby.
Percolation (P) was also measured in volume through the bottom of the pot. The pot and the
plant was weighed at the beginning of the period as W1 and weighed again at the end of the
period as W2. Using the water balance approach express ET as a function of R, P, W1, W2 and
D for the day. 7 Ans.

7. In problem 6, the moisture content in the potted soil, 30-cm in diameter by 40-cm depth, is
15.2% (dry-mass basis) at the beginning of the day. At midday one liter of water was applied
to the soil. Two hours later one mm rain fell on the ground. At the end of the day percolation
water collected at the bottom of the pot was about 1/3 liter and at the same time the soil
moisture content as measured by the tensiometer was 16%. Assume the bulk density of the
potted soil to be 1.3 g/cm3. Determine the amount of water consumed by the plant from the
beginning to the end of the day in mm and in liters of water. Ans. 6.27 mm, 0.443 liters
8. Suppose in Problem 7 the following data were obtained to determine ET of the plant during the
24-hr period: D=30 cm, R=8 mm, Vp =100 cm3, W1=33818 g and W2=33930 g. What is the
approximate ET of the plant a) in mm and b) in cm3. Ans. 5 mm, 353 cm3 7
 56

9. Show all possible water balance components for an irrigated rice paddy of area, A, under field
conditions and establish the water balance equation for a given time interval, t. Express surface
and subsurface inflow (qi and qis) and surface and subsurface outflow (qo and qos) as L3T-1 while
all the rest of the variables in L dimension. Then solve explicitly the evapotranspiration of rice
plant. 7
10. In a lowland rice field experiment 3 lysimeter tanks (cylindrical drums) were installed to
simulate evaporation E, evapotranspiration ET, transpiration T, and deep percolation P of water
from the rice paddy. The first tank which has a bottom was not planted. The second has a
bottom but was planted to rice as the surrounding field. The third tank was without bottom but
also planted to rice. A raingage nearby was also installed to monitor rainfall. The water level
in the tanks was initially the same as in the surrounding area. Each tank was provided with
hook gage to measure the change in water storage. The following observed hook gage readings
were obtained at the beginning and at the end of the 24-hr day period:

Tank 1 Tank 2 Tank 3

Initial HG reading, mm 50 55 52
Final HG reading, mm 49 51.5 46.5

Rainfall during the period was 2.5 mm. Approximate E, ET, T and P from the paddy in mm
of water. Ans. 3.5 mm, 6 mm, 2.5 mm, 2 mm. 7
11. Calculate the consumptive use rate of a
crop that is just entering the wet fruit
stage of growth when the evaporation is
0.8 cm per day. If 9 days have elapsed
since the last irrigation, how much water
has been depleted from the soil? What
depth of water should be applied if the
irrigation efficiency is to be 60 percent?
Refer to Figure 3.2 in solving this
problem. Ans. 6.56 mm/day, 59.04 mm,
9.84 cm
12. Determine the date and amount of the Figure 3.2. Generalized curve comparing
next irrigation for an upland crop if the consumptive use- evaporation ratio to
last irrigation was January 31, relative growth of crop. (Source: Hansen et
evapotranspiration is 7 mm/day, al., 1980)
effective rainfall is 20 mm on February 5 and 15 mm on Feb 12, soil is a clay loam 1 m deep,
and the readily available moisture (amount of water to be depleted) is 65% of the total available
moisture. Ans. February 22. 7
13. Given the following field data:
Total irrigable area = 500 hectares
Area served by one lateral = 100 ha.
Area served by a farm ditch = 10 ha.
 57

Cl = Conveyance losses = 0.15 m3/m2-day (for silty clay loam soil)

Dfd = Farm ditch canal density = 60 m/ha
Ll = Total length of lateral = 1.2 km
Lm = Length of main canal = 5 km
Mean dimensions of canals: main- b = 1 m, d = 1 m, z = 2:1; lateral- b = 0.5 m, d = 0.5 m, z
= 2:1; farm ditch- b = 0 m , d = 0.3 m, z = 2:1
Determine the irrigation system conveyance losses in m3/day and in mm/day.
Ans. 12,604.1 m3/day. 2.52 mm/day.
14. Determine the total conveyance losses (in m3/day and in mm/day), farm turn-out requirement
(in mm/day), diversion requirement (in mm/day), and water duty of the irrigation system in
lps/ha based on the following data for silty clay loam soil in dry season:
Total service area = 1500 ha.
Area served by a lateral = 100 ha.
Area served by a farm ditch = 10 ha.
ET = Evapotranspiration = 7 mm/day (for dry season)
P = Deep percolation = 2 mm/day (for silty clay loam soil)
Ro = Runoff or drainage = 25% of the WR
Re = Effective rainfall = 0 (no rainfall)
Cl = Conveyance losses = 0.15 m3/m2-day (for silty clay loam soil)
Dfd = Canal density = 60 m/ha
Ll = Average length of one lateral = 1.2 km
Lm = Length of main canal = 5 km
Assumed dimensions of the canals: main- b = 1 m, d = 1 m, z = 2:1; lateral- b = 0.5 m, d
= 0.5 m, z = 2:1; farm ditch- b = 0 m , d = 0.3 m, z = 2:1
Ans. 29,604.1 m3/day, 1.974 mm/day, 12.46 mm/day, 13.23 mm/day, 1.53 lps/ha. 7
15. A 500-hectare lowland ricefield is to be irrigated by intermittent water application of 8 hrs/day.
Average area serve by a farm ditch is 8 ha. The daily maximum crop water consumptive use
is 7 mm, deep percolation losses 2.5 mm, farm waste is 25% of water requirement, effective
rainfall 0.5 mm, the system canal conveyance losses 0.5 mm, and farm ditch conveyance losses
0.1 mm. Determine the a) water requirement in mm/day, b) irrigation requirement in mm/day,
c) farm turnout requirement in mm/day and in lps, and d) diversion requirement in mm/day, &
in m3/hr. What was the water duty of the system (water duty is based on a continuous water
application basis) in lps/ha?
Ans. 9.5 mm/d, 11.375 mm/d, 31.9 lps, 11.875 mm/d, 11.475 mm/d, 7421.9 m3/hr, 1.37 lps/ha.
16. Consider the following data: total irrigation service area for lowland rice-500 hectares,
consumptive use- 5 mm/day, deep percolation losses- 2 mm/day, drainage losses- 25% of the
water requirement, effective rainfall- 1 mm/day, conveyance losses from canals- 0.1 m3/m2-day,
total surface area of the canals is 800 m2. Determine the following:
a) Losses due to conveyance in m3/day and in mm/day
b) Irrigation requirement in mm/day
c) Total diversion requirement in mm/day and lps considering continuous irrigation
application.
 58

d) Total diversion requirement in lps if water application is intermittent at 5 day interval.

Assume that water application period is 48 hours per irrigation. Ans. 80 m3/day, 0.016
mm/d, 7.75 mm/d, 7.766 mm/d, 1123.55 lps.
17. A 700-ha lowland rice field is to be irrigated by 1 main, 7 laterals (each lateral canal serves 100
ha), and 10 main farm ditches per lateral (each ditch services 10 ha). Water duty is 1.5 lps/ha.
Determine the total flow rate (in lps) in the main canal, lateral, and farm ditch for the following
application method: a) continuous irrigation, b) intermittent at 7 days interval with application
time of 24 hr, c) rotational by lateral at 7 days interval, with application period of 24 hr and d)
rotational by 2 farm ditches at 7 days interval and application time of 24 hr. Ans. 1050 lps,
150 lps, 15 lps; 7350 lps, 1050 lps, 105 lps; 1050 lps, 1050 lps, 105 lps; 1470 lps, 210 lps, 105
lps. 7
18. Determine the canal flow rate in the main, lateral and farm ditch in lps required for soaking a
land area of 300 hectares. Additional data are:
1 main canal, 6 laterals (each lateral serving 50 hactares), and 5 farm ditches/lateral
Irrigation method = rotation by lateral As = apparent sp. gravity = 1.3
T = Period of land soaking = 7 days E = Evaporation = 7 mm/day
t = time of application = 3 days P = Deep percolation = 2 mm/day
Psat = Saturation M.C. = 38% (dry-wt basis) dsw=Depth of standing water=20 mm
Ps = Soil M.C. before land soaking = 20% D = Depth of soil = 50 cm.
Ans. 385.8 lps, 385.8 lps, 77.16 lps. 7
19. Compute for the discharge at the outlet of canal to drain a waterlogged area of 100 ha.
Drainage coefficient (rate at which water is drained from the field per day) is 10 mm. Ans.
115.7 lps. 7
20. The soil of an irrigated farm is a clay loam of comparatively uniform texture to a depth of 1.8
m below which there is a coarse gravel of a great depth. Moisture determinations before
irrigation and again 48 hours after irrigation showed an average of 120 ha-mm per ha irrigation
water stored in the soil from an irrigation in which the irrigator used a stream of 85 lps
continuously for 24 hours on a 4-ha tract of tomato. Neglecting consumptive use between
completion of irrigation and the taking of samples for moisture determinations, what was the
water application efficiency? What was the efficiency considering that 7 mm per day was used
on each of the two days between irrigation and sampling? Ans. 65.4%, 73%
21. A farmer irrigates 2 has of wheat the first week in July when the average depth of rooting was
1.1 m. Two days after irrigation he takes a soil auger to the field and by boring holes into the
soil determines that the average depth of penetration in each 1/4 ha of the 2 hectares is as
follows: 0.82, 0.98, 1.1, 1.22, 1.07, 0.9, 0.85 and 1.1 m. a) What is the water-distribution
efficiency? b) What is the water-storage efficiency? Ans. 88.3%, 90 %7
22. Determine the water-application efficiency, the water-storage efficiency, and the water-
distribution efficiency for the following conditions: stream of 80 lps delivered to the field for
5-hours, runoff averaged 40 lps for 2.5 hr, depth of root zone was 1.8 m, depth of penetration
varied linearly from 1.8 m at one end to 1.0 m at the other end of the field. Ans. 75%, 77.8%,
71.4%
23. A stream of 180 lps was diverted from the river and 100 lps were delivered to the field. An
area of 25 has was irrigated in 8 hours. The root-zone depth was 1.8 m. The runoff averaged
 59

50 lps for 3 hours. The depth of water penetration varied linearly from 1.8 m at the head of the
field to 1.2 m at the end of the field. Determine the water-conveyance, water-application,
water-storage and the water-distribution efficiencies. Ans. 55.6%, 81.3%, 83.3, 80% 7