Chapter - 1

Traditional Crops

1) Wheat

1) Botanical name – Triticum species

Triticum aestivum – soft wheat
Triticum durum – Hard wheat
Triticum dicoccum – Hard wheat

2) Origin – Soft wheat– North West India

Hard wheat – Abyssinia (Ethiopia)
*Family – Gramineae

3) Uses –
i) Wheat is important staple food mainly consumed in the form of Chapati.
ii) Wheat grain contains starch, proteins, fats, vitamins and minerals.
iii) Soft wheat used for making bread, cake, biscuit and other bakery products.
iv) Hard wheat is used for preparation of rawa, suji and sewai.
v) Wheat straw is used as fodder as well as mulching purpose.
vi) Wheat has good bread making quality due to gluten content

4) Soils –
i) Wheat can be cultivated from light soils to heavy clay soils.
ii) Soil should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should have good water holding capacity.
iv) The rainfed crop in Maharashtra is generally grown on heavy soils.
v) The optimum PH range is 5.5 to 7.5

5) Climate –
i) It is temperate crop.
ii) It requires cool, dry and clear weather.
iii) Optimum temperature range for its growth is 70C to 210C
iv) Average annual rainfall requirement is about 750-1600 mm.
v) High humidity with cloudy wheather is harmful

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6) Preparatory tillage –
i) Tillage operation carried out before sowing of the crop is called as
preparatory tillage.
ii) Give one deep ploughing.
iii) Crush the clods with the help of norvegian harrow.
iv) Collect the stubbles and burn.
v) Give 2 to 3 crosswise harrowing.
vi) For rainfed crop one deep ploughing is given once in a three years.
vii) After sowing ‘saras’ or flat beds are prepared with the help of ‘sara yantra’

7) Sowing season – Rabi season (Oct. – Nov.)

& Time – (Last week of October to first week of November)

8) Sowing direction – Sowing of Wheat should be done north-south direction to get

Maximum interception (utilization) of sunlight.

9) Methods of Sowing – a) Drilling

b) Broadcasting.

10) Depth of Sowing - a) Irrigated Wheat – 3 to 5cm

b) Rainfed Wheat – 8 to 10cm
c) Dwarf Variety – 5 to 6cm

11) Seed rate& Spacing – a) Dwarf varieties - 100 to 125 kg/ha

b) Bold seed variety - 125 to 150 kg/ha
c) Rainfed Wheat - 75 to 80 kg/ha
Spacing - a) Irrigated crop – 22.5 cm
b) Rainfed crop – 30 cm
12) Seed treatment –
i) Seeds are dried under sunheat for two days to control loose smut.
ii) Seed is treated with carboxyl vitavax 1 to 1.25 gm / kg of seed to control
loose smut.
iii) Seeds are also treated with organo mercurial fungicides like thirum 2 to 3
gm/kg of seed to control flag smut

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13) Manures & Fertilizers –
i) Well decomposed FYM / compost are added @ 10 to 15 tons/ ha at the time of
land preparation.
ii) Chemical fertilizers are added as follows.
a. Rainfed - 50 : 25 : 25 NPK kg/ha.
b. Irrigated wheat - 120 : 60 : 60NPK kg / ha
* For irrigated crop half dose of N and full dose of P, K are applied at the time of land
preparation while reaming half dose of N is applied one month after sowing.

14) Irrigation –
i) Wheat requires 5 to 6 irrigations under irrigated condition.
ii) First presowing irrigation is given for better germination.
iii) Remaining irrigations are given at critical growth stages i.e.
a) Tillering stage b) Jointing stage
c) Flowering stage d) Grain filling stage
iv) Rainfed wheat crop is grown on moisture of soil and dew.

15) Inter cultivation –

i) Tillage operation carried out after sowing of crop is called as
intercultivation.
ii) One hoeing followed by two hand weeding are given
iii) The herbicide like bentazone is also effective to control weed.

16) Crop rotation

1. Mung / udid / soybean /→wheat (rabbi)
(kharif)
2. Paddy / bajra / jowar / maize /→ wheat
(kharif) (rabi)

17) Intercropping :Inercropping of wheat with mustard, potato, gram and pea is

The ideal.

18) Harvesting and Yield/ha –

i) Wheat crop is ready for harvesting after 4 to 4.5 months of sowing.

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 ii) The crop is harvested when grain is fully developed with 18 to 22%
moisture & straw become dry.
iii) Harvesting is done by cutting the plant close to the ground level sickle.
iv) The plants are tied in bundles and dried in sunlight for 2 to 3 days.
v) Threshing is done by using mechanical threshers.
19) Yield - a) Rainfed crop – 6 to 9 q/ha
b) Irrigated crop – 25 to 40 q/ha
c) Mexican varieties – 40 to 50 q/ha

20) Pest of wheat –

Sr. No. Nature Nature of Damage Control Measures
1) White ants 1) Feed on developing roots 1) Destroy termitoria by
(Termites) and stem. digging or fumigation.
2) It causes wilting or 2) Drill aldrine @ 65 kg /
drying of plants. ha
2) Cut worms Caterpillars cut plants and Apply 5 % aldrine powder
feeds on them during night @ 125 kg / ha. before
hours. sowing
3) Stem borer or Larvae bore into stem and 1) Collect and destroy
Pink borer causes death of central shoot dead hearts.
locally known as Dead heart. 2) Spray quinolphos on
crops.
4) Rat 1) Rats cut the plants, ears, 1) Hunting, trapping,
and feeds on developing flooding and ultra sonic
grains. sound
2) Use of zinc phosphide
and selphos tablet

21) Disease of wheat -

Sr. No. Nature Symptoms Control Measures
1) Yellow or Small yellow spots appear 1) For all kinds of rust
stripe rust on leaves later on turn black. control grow resistant
2) Black Stem Reddish brown spots appear varieties.
rust on leaves and stems, later on 2) Spray zineb
these spots turn black. atanintervalof15days

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 3) Brown leaf rust Small Round range coloured
spots appear on leaves later
on these sports turn black
4) Flag smut 1) Gray black spots appear 1) Early sowing of crop
on the leaves and good crop rotation.
2) Infected plants are 2) Seed treatment with
stunted in growth. thiruam 3 gm/kg of seed
before sowing.
5) Loose smut The grain is replaced by 1) Sun heat (Solar heat)
black powdery mass of treatment to seed
fungal spores. 2) Seed treatment with
benlate fungicide.
6) Foot Rot Yellowing of plant followed 1) Grow resistant varieties
by death of plant. 2) seed treatment with
thirum

2) Paddy (Rice)
1) Botanical name – Oryza Sativa
Family – Gramineae
2) Origin – South Asia
3) Uses –
i) Rice is the staple food of 60% population of the world.
ii) It contains carbohydrates, protein, fats, minerals, vitamins.
iii) Rice bran contains 18 – 20% oil.
iv) Paddy straw is used as manuring, munching as well as padding material.
v) Rice bran, Paddy husk& stalks are used as a fodder.
vi) Inferior quality rice is used as poultry feed.
vii) Rice by products murmure (Parched rice) Pohe (beaten rice) are prepared.
4) Soil –
i) It requires Alluvial to lateritic soil.
ii) It is also grown on khar lands and basalt soil.
iii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iv) PH should be 5.5 to 7.0
5) Climate –
i) It is a tropical crop.

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 ii) Optimum temperature range is 20-370c
iii) It requires warm and humid climate.
iv) Rainfall requirement of Rainfed Paddy is more than 1000mm.

6) Methods of Paddy cultivation –

1) Dry Cultivation 2) Wet cultivation
3) Semidry cultivation 4) Intensive or Japanese method of Paddy cultivation
1) Dry cultivation –
i) It is followed in areas of unadequate and uncertain rainfall where irrigation
facilities are not available.
ii) Deep black soils with good water holding capacity is used.
iii) Field is ploughed immediately after the harvest of previous crop.
iv) Early maturing varieties are sown to a greater depth by drilling method.
2) Semidry cultivation –
i) In this method some part of lifecycle of crop passes under dry condition and
some part under wet condition.
ii) Some protective irrigation are given at critical growth stages. i.e. Tillering,
Flowering and Grain filling.
iii) This methods helps in suppressing the weed growth.
iv) In short in this method the crop grown on moisture available in bunded
field.
3) Wet method or cultivation –
i) In this method land is ploughed and puddled with 3-5 cm standing water.
ii) Seedllings are raised in nursery and later on transplanted in puddled field.
iii) If it is not possible to raise seedling, sprouted seeds are directly broadcated
in puddled field.
iv) Plant population is more uniform and requires less seed rate than other
method.
v) Weeds are buried at the time of puddling
vi) Losses due to pest & diseases are reduced.
4) Intensive or Japanese method –
i) This method is followed in the areas of assured water supply.
ii) Farmer can adopt plant protection measures and can apply heavy doses of
fertilizers.
iii) Seedlings are grown on raised beds and 3 to 4 seedlings are transplanted at
each spot in arrow.

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 iv) It requires less seedrnte and crop stand is uniform.
7) Preparatory tillage –
i) Give one summer ploughing.
ii) Crush the clods with the help of norvegian harrow.
iii) Collect the stubbles and burn.
iv) Give 2 to 3 cross wise harrowing.
v) Compost / Fym is added before last harrowing.

8) Season and Time –

Season Time
Aus or Autmn Paddy May to June
Aman or Winter Paddy June to July
Boro or spring Paddy December to January
Summer Paddy February to March

9) Seed rate / ha –
i) Transplanting - 25 to 40 kg / ha
ii) Drilling - 60 to 70 kg / ha
iii) Broadcasting - 80 to 100 kg / ha
iv) Dibbling - 50 to 60 kg/ha
10) Seed selection and seed treatment –
i) Seed should be selected from high yielding varieties.
ii) It should be clean and viable.
iii) Seed should be soaked in 1% KCL solution for 12 hours to improve
germination.
iv) The seed is also treated with 3% brine solution to prevent blast and blight
disease.
v) Hot water treatment at 520c ti 540c for half an hour to control diseases.
11) Paddy Nersery
A) Wet nursery
i) The land for nursery is ploughed twice during summer
ii) Then it is puddled by giving 3 to 4 ploughings in standing water.
iii) Well decomposed compost or f.y.m is added @ 10 tons/ha
iv) After puddling the field is leveled and divided into small beds of 1 m width and
suitable length.
v) Y2 m (half) wide channels are used for good drainage

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 vi) Sprouted seeds are then broadcasted in field.
vii) Seed rate required is 350 to 450 kg for raising one hectarenersery.
viii) The seedling obtained from one hectarenersery are sufficient for planting 10 to
12 hactare of land.
B) Dry nersery –
i) It is followed in the regions of non assured water supply.
ii) The land is prepared by 4 to 5 plougings.
iii) Well decomposed f.y.m. is added and raised beds are prepared (1 to 1.5 m wide
and 10 cm high.)
iv) Drainage is provided by opening 30 cm wide channels.
v) Sowing is done during second week of June.
vi) The seed rate needed for growing one hactarenersery is 250 to 400 kg.
vii) The seedling obtained from one hactarenersery are sufficient for planting 10 to
12 ha area.
C) Dapog Nursery -
i) This is followed in areas of assured water supply
ii) Nursery is prepared on concrete floor or on raised bed covered with polythene
paper.
iii) Pregerminated (sprouted) seeds are used for sowing .
iv) In this method seedling become ready for transplanting in 14 to 16 days after
sowing.
v) Nursery of 30 to 40 Sq.m. is sufficient for raising, seedling for planting one
hectare land.
12) Transplanting
i) At each spot 3 to 4 seedlings are transplanted
ii) Planting distance / spacing
a) Early variety - 15 x 15 cm
b) Medium variety - 20 x 15 cm
c) Late variety - 20 x 20 cm
13) Manures and fertilizers –
i) f.y.m. or compost is added @ 12.5 tons / ha
ii) Fertilizers
N. P K
a) Local improved Var - 50 50 25kg/ha
b) High yielding var -100 50 25kgK/ha
14) Irrigation –

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 i) Paddy is semi aquatic crop and requires more water
ii) A low land paddy requires more water than upland paddy.
iii) The average water requirement of Paddy is 1240 mm
iv) Tillering, Flowering,Grain filling period is most sensitive to water
requirement.
15) Intercultivation –
i) Use rice rotary weeder, This helps is weeding stirring and aerating the soil.
ii) Interculturing should be prepeated 3 to 4 times at an interval of 15 days.
iii) Recommended herbicides like Almixand oryzaline.
16) Intercropping –
i) Paddy can be intercropped with green gram, sesamum black gram and
groundnut.
17) Harvesting&Yield / ha –
i) Paddy is harvested when ears are nearly ripe and straw is still slightly green.
ii) Timely harvesting prevent the loss of yeild due to grain shedding.
iii) The crop is harvested by cutting plants with sickle.
iv) The plants are tied in to bundles and allow to dry for 2 to 3 days.
v) Small size paddy thresher is used for threshing or nowdays mechanical
harvesters are available.
Yield –
a) Early varieties - 40 to 50 q/ha
b) Late varieties - 60 to 70 q/ha
18) Varieties of Paddy – Indrayani, Basmati,Sahyadri, Ratna, Ambemohar-157,
Ambermohor-159,Krishna, Sabarmati,Karjat-3,
Phule Samruddhi,IR-8, IR-20, IR-22
19) Pest of Paddy - 1) Yellow stem borer 2) Rice bug
3) Rice hispa 4) Paddy Gall fly
5) Paddy Grass hopper. 6) Rats & crabs
* Paddy Gall fly –
Nature of Damage -
i) Maggot bores into stem and attack the base of growing point and produces
silvery shoot.
ii) Affected tillers do not produce any panicle
Control –
i) Burn the grass and wild rice.
ii) Apply 10% Thimetgrandules @ 10kg/ha

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 iii) Use pest resistant variety e.g. Phalgun.
20) Disease of Paddy -
i) Paddy Blast
ii) Bacterialleaf blight
iii) Foot rot / stem rot
Paddy Blast Disease –
a) Symptoms
i) Spindle shaped brown to reddish brown spots appears on leave.
ii) The spots on leaves and grains are darker
iii) There is rotting of neck resulting dropping of earheads.
b) Control measures –
i) Grow resistant varieties
ii) Treat the seed with cupravit
iii) Spray crop with benlate.
3) Groundnut

1) Botanical name – Arachis hypogaea

2) Family – Leguminosae
3) Origin – South America (Brazil)
4) Uses –
i) Groundnut contains 45 to 55% oil.
ii) Oil and vegetable ghee are used as a cooking medium.
iii) Kernels are rich in protein , vitamins A,B and B2
iv) Oil is also used for preparation of soap and cosmetics.
v) Groundnut cake is used as a cattle feed as well as manure.
vi) Groundnut Vines are fed to cattle.
5) Soil –
i) Groundnut requires loamy to sandy loam soils.
ii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should have good water holding capacity
iv) Heavy and stiffy clay soils are not suitable.
v) It is acid tolerant crop with PH range is 5 to 5.5
6) Climate –
i) It is usually grown in tropical and subtropical regions.
ii) Average temperature range is 24 to 330c

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 iii) Frost and drought conditions are harmful.
iv) Annual rainfall requirement is 500-1250 mm.
7) Preparatory tillage –
i) Groundnut requires deep loose and fine seed bed.
ii) Give one deep ploughing.
iii) Crush the clods with the norvegianharrow.
iv) Give 2 to 3 crosswise harrowing.
8) Sowing season and time –
a) Kharif season - Last week of June to first week of July
b) Summer season - January to February
9) Method of Sowing –
i) Drilling
ii) Dibbling.
10) Seed rate/ha - a) Errectvarieties- 100 – 120 kg/ha
b) Semi spreadingvarieties- 80 – 100 kg/ha
c) Spreading- 60 – 80 kg/ha
11) Spacing - a) Errectvarieties - 25 x 15 cm or 30 cm apart
b) Semi spreading varieties - 45 x 15 cm
c) Spreading varieties - 60 x 15 cm
12) Seed Treatment –
i) Ground seeds are treated with Rhizobium culture @ 250gm / 10 kg seed to
increase nitrogen fixation.
ii) Seeds are also treated withagrason orthirum@ 20gm/kg of seed to control
root rot disease.
13) Crop rotation –
i) Groundnut rotated with cotton Jowar bajara Gram and Paddy
ii) It is also rotated with potato chilli garlic ginger and origin.
14) Inter cropping –
i) Jowar,bajara and maize are grown as intercrop with groundnut.
ii) Cotton, pea, seasmum sunflower green gram are also grown as an intercrop
with groundnut
15) Manures and fertilizers –
FYM N P K
a) Rainfed crop - 10 tons 10 kg 20 kg - ha
b) Irrigated crop - 12.5 tons 20 kg 40 kg - ha
16) Irrigation –

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 i) Average water requirement ranges between 450 to 650 mm.
ii) In Kharif season irrigation is given according to rainfall.
iii) In summer season 8 to 10 irrigations are given.
iv) Irrigation should be given at critical growth stages i.e.
a) Peg formation stage.
b) Flowering stage
c) Pod development stage.

17) Inter cultivations –

i) The crop is generally given one hand weeding and two hoeing before Peg
formation.
ii) Herbicides such as alachlor is effective for weed control.
iii) Earthing up operation is given for supporting and covering small pod.
iv) In erect type varieties drum rolling is carried out for easy penetration of
pegs into the soil,it increases 15% yield of groundnut.
18) Harvesting and yield / ha –
The time of harvesting is determined on the basis of following signs of maturity.
i) Yellowing of top leaves.
ii) Blackening of inner side of the shell.
iii) Hardening of pods.
iv) Development of natural colour of Kernels i.e. Red
v) Crop age
After judging the maturity by above Criteria –
vi) Harvesting is done by pulling the vine from soil with pods in erect and semi
spreading varieties.
vii) In case of spreading type the harvesting is done by ploughing the field and
then collecting pods.
Yield :- Rainfed condition –
a) Errect Var - 8 to 10 q/ha
b) Semi spreading Var - 10 to 12 q/ha
c) Spreading Var - 15 to 17 q/ha
* Under irrigated conditions average yield is 30 q/ha.
19) Varieties –
A) Errect or Bunch type – SB-11, Kopergaon-3, AK-12-24, TMV-2, TMV-7, TMV-
9, TMV-11, JL-24, JL-220, Konkan gaurav

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B) Semi spreading – Kopergaon -1, TMV-6, TMV-8, TMV-10, AK-8-11,
C) Spreading - Karad-4-11, TMV-1, TMV-3, TAG-24, TAG-303
20) Pest of Groundnut – i) Aphids ii) Root grub iii) Leaf roller
21) Disease of Groundnut –i) Leaf spot (Tikka)
ii) Collar rot
iii) Root rot
* Leaf spot (Tikka disease) –
Symptoms – i)Circular or irregular dark spots surrounded by yellow ring appears on
the leaves.
Control –
i) Use disease resistant varieties.
ii) Adopt proper crop rotation.
iii) Dust sulphur powder @ 15-20 kg/ha.

4) Soyabean
1) Botanical name – Glycine max
2) Origin – Asia (China)
3) Family – Leguminosae
4) Uses –
i) Soyabean is important oil seed as well as pulse crop.
ii) Average oil content is 20%
iii) It is also rich in protein content 41%
iv) Oil is used for preparation of soap,cosmatics, paints, plastics and candles
etc.
v) It is used in the form of green beans, flour cooking oil and soya milk.
vi) It is used as aanimal feed.
vii) Being leguminous crop it helps in nitrogen fixation.
5) Soils –
i) It is grown on light to sandy loam soil.
ii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should have good water holding capacity.
iv) Optimum PH range is 6.0 to 6.5
v) It is sensitive to water logged condition.
6) Climate –
i) It is a tropical crop.

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 ii) It requires dry and clear weather.
iii) Average temperature range is 20 to 350c
iv) Average rainfall requirement is 600-1000 mm.

7) Preparatory tillage –
i) Give one deep ploughing.
ii) Crush the clods with the norvegion harrow.
iii) Give 2 to 3 cross wise harrowing.
iv) Collect the stubbles and burn.

8) Sowing season and time– a) Kharif (June - July)

b) Rabi (October - November)
9) Sowing Method – a)Drilling
b) Dibbling
10) Seed rate / ha – The average seed rate is 65 to 75 kg/ha
11) Seed treatment –
i) Soyabean seeds are also treated with Rhizobium culture for increased
Nitrogen fixation.
ii) Seeds are also treated with thirum@ 3 gm / kg of seed to prevent fungal
diseases.
12) Inter cropping – Soyabean is grown as a intercrop with Jowar, Maize and Bajara,
Groundnut
13) Crop rotation – Soyabean is rotated with wheat tobacco and potato
14) Manures and fertilizers –
i) 15 cartloads / ha fym is added at the time of last harrowing.
ii) Fertilizers dose –25 kgN + 50kgP + 40kg/ha
15) Irrigation –
i) Soyabean is grown as a rainfed Kharif crop.
ii) Water requirement is 450 to 750 mm.
iii) 2 to 3 irrigations are given at flowering stage and grain filling stage.
16) Inter cultivation –
i) Normally weed control is done two weeding followed by one hoeing.
ii) Spray herbicides such as alachlor.
17) Harvesting –
i) Soyabean matures in 90 to 120 days after sowing.

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 ii) It is harvested when leaves turn yellow and starts dropping.
iii) The pods turn yellow and dry.
iv) Harvesting is done either by pulling the plants or cutting them near ground
level.
v) The plants are heaped and dried for 2 to 3 days.
vi) Thereshing is done by using mechanical threhser.
Yield –
i) Pure rainfed crop - 10 to 15 q/ha.
ii) Irrigated crop – 35 to 40 q/ha
iii) Mixed crop – 3 to 4 q/ha
18) Varieties – Brag, Clark, Punjab-1, Soyabean no-4, MACS-13, Phule Kalyani
19) Pest of Soyabean – i) Stem borer ii) Aphids iii) White fly
20) Disease of Soyabean – i) Bacterial blight
ii) Mosaic
iii) Leaf spot
iv) Downey mildew.

5) Gram
1) Botanical name – Cicerarietnum
2) Family – Leguminosae
3) Origin – South West Asia
4) Uses –
i) It contains carbohydrates, proteins, vit. A,E.
ii) Tender leaves used as a vegetble
iii) It is consumed in the form of dal, besan cooked grain, salted or unsalted
grain.
iv) It is also used for preparation puranpoli and laddu
v) Malic acid and oxalic acid (amb) collected from gram leaves have medicinal
value for intestinal disorder.
vi) Grains as well as husk are used as a horse feed.
vii) Germinated grains are recommended to cure scurvy disease.
5) Soils –
i) Sandy loam to clay loam soil is most suitable.
ii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should have good water holding capacity.

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 iv) Optimum PH range is 6.0 to 7.5
v) Water logging, saline, alkaline conditions are harmful
6) Climate –
i) It is a tropical crop.
ii) It requires dry and clear weather.
iii) Average temperature range is 25 to 300c
iv) Rainfall requirement is 400-700 mm.
v) Cloudy weathers and frost is harmful.
7) Preparatory tillage –
i) Gram is hardy crop
ii) One deep ploughing is given.
iii) Followed by1 to 2harrowings to prepare seed bed.
iv) For moisture conservation planking is done.

8) Sowing season and time– Rabi (15thOctoberto15thNovember)

9) Sowing Method – a)Drilling
b) Dibbling
10) Seed rate and spacing –
a) Deshi varieties – 65 to 70 kg/ha 30 x 10 cm
b) Kabuli varieties – 80 to 90 kg/ha 45 x 10 cm
11) Seed treatment –
i) Seeds is treated with thirum+ Bavistin @2 to 3 gm / kg of seed to control
will diseases.
ii) Gram seeds are also treated with Rhizobium culture before sowing @ 250
gm/10 kg of seed to increase Nitrogen fixation.
12) Manures and fertilizers –
i) 12 to 15 cartloads / ha fym is added.
Fertilizers dose –
a) Rainfed crop - 10 : 40 : 20 NPK
b) Irrigated crop - 20 : 60 : 40 NPK
13) Irrigation –
i) Generally gram crop is grown as a rainfed crop on residual moisture.
ii) Depending upon soil type the water requirement is 300 to 400 mm.
iii) If irrigation facility is available it is given at sowing, branching,
floweringanbd pod formation stage.
14) Inter cultivation –

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 i) One hand weeding followed by one hoeing is given to control weed growth.
ii) Herbicides used – bentazon.
15) Nipping / Topping in gram –
i) Tips are nipped off or tips of the young branches are removed called as nipping
or topping.
ii) It is done when the crop is at Grand growth stage or 10 – 15 cm height or 3 to 4
weeks old.
iii) It increases number of branches per plant.
iv) Nipped young shoots are used as a vegetable.
16) Collection of malic acid (Amb)-
i) When plants are 40 to 60 days old leaves secretes malic acid and oxalic acid
locally known as amb.
ii) These acids dissolves in dew which occumulates on leaf tips.
iii) These acids can be collected by running cotton cloth on the crop early in the
morning and squeezing it in bucket.
iv) It contains 90 – 95% malic acid and 5 – 10 % oxalic acid.
v) These acids believe to have medicinal value against intestinal disorder.
vi) Near about 5-7 lit. of malic acid can be collected from one hactare area of gram
crop.
17) Crop rotation – Gram crop is rotated with cereals and vegetable crops in Kharif
season.
18) Inter cropping – It is grown as a inter crop with Wheat, Rabi Jowar, Sffllower
linseed and mustard.
19) Harvesting and yield / ha –
i) Gram crop matures in about 3.5 to 4 months after sowing.
ii) At maturity leaves turn yellow and the plant dry.
iii) Harvesting is done cutting the plants close to the ground level with sickle.
iv) The plants are dried for one week under sun heat.
v) Thereshing is done by threhshing machine.

Yield –
i) Rainfed crop - 5 to 6 q/ha.
ii) Irrigated crop – 10 to 12 q/ha
20) Varieties – Chafa, Warangal, Vijay vikas (Phule-G-1) Digvijay vishwas (Phule-G-
5), B-D-N-9-3, N-31, n- 59
21) Pest of Gram – i) Gram podborer ii) cut worm

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* Gram pod borer
i) Larvae bores in to buds and flowers result in shedding of buds and flower.
ii) After pod formation it bores into pods and feeds on developing grains.
Control –
i) Give deep ploughing.
ii) Use light or pheromone trap
iii) Dust the crops with malathion 5% carbary 5% phospalone 4% @ 20 to 25
kg/ha.
22) Disease of Gram – * Gram wilt
Symptoms –
i) It is a fungal disease.
ii) It attacks root system result in decomposition of root.
iii) Stunted grwoth with pale yellow leaves.
Control –
i) Follow clean cultivation crop rotation.
ii) Grow disease resistant varieties.
iii) Spray bordequex mixture.

*****

Page 18
 Chapter - 2

Commercial Crops

1) Sugarcane

Sugarcane

1) Botanical name – Saccharum officinarum

Saccharum spontaneum
* The Indian came is result of natural hybridization between Saccharum
officinarumand Saccharum spontaneum
2) Family – Gramineae
3) Origin – a) Saccharum officinarum - Indo Myanmar China border
b) Saccharum spontaneum- India
4) Uses / Economics importance –
i) Sugarcane is mainly grown for the manufacture of sugar.
ii) Jaggary khandsari sugar is also prepared from sugarcane.
iii) Green tops of plant are used as a fodder for cattle.
iv) Stubbles are used as a fuel in rural areas.
v) The factory by-products namely bagass, molasses press mud cake and wax
are obtained.
vi) Bagass is used in paper industry, molasses is useful for preparation of acetic
acid and alcohol.
vii) Press mud cake is used as a manure.
viii) Sugar it self is used as sweetener in food products and ingredient for hair
tonics.
ix) It is also used in tanning leather.

5) Soil –

i) It requires medium black to alluvial oil.

ii) Moderataly heavy and medium deep loam soil is most suitable.
iii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iv) It should have good water holding capacity with optimum PH range 6.5 to
7.5

Page 19
6) Climate –

i) It is a tropical crop.
ii) It requires warm and humid climate for growth while cool and dry climate at
ripening.
iii) Average temperature range is 30 to 350c
iv) Germination does not take place when temperature goes below 7 0c
v) Severe cold arrest the growth of the plant while hot weather increases attack
ot stem borer.
vi) It does best with 750 – 1200 mm annual rainfall.
8) Preparatory tillage–Tillage operation carried out before sowing or planting of the
crop.
9)
i) Give two ploughing.
ii) Crush the clods with the help of norvegian harrow.
iii) Collect the stubbles and burn.
iv) Give 2 to 3 cross wise harrowing.
v) Land is levelled with the help of planker and beds are prepared.

8) Planting season and time-

Name of the season Planting time Duration in

months
i) Suru (Seasonal) January - February 12
ii) Presasonal October – November 15
iii) Adsali July to August 18

9) Layout of land for planting and irrigation of sugarcane –

A) Small beds with ridges and furrow –
i) Sugarcane is planted in furrows.
ii) Furrows are opened at distance of 105 to 120 cm.
iii) This method does not allow inter cultivation by bullock drawn
implements.
iv) This method is popular among the farmers as more water can be applied
at a time.
B) Serpentine method –
i) This method is adopted on slopy lands.

Page 20
 ii) It consists of drawing ridges and furrows across the slope of the land.
iii) The ridges are opened at alternate end.
iv) The distance between ridges is 105 to 120 cm.
C) Long furrow method –
i) Ridges are opened at a distance of 120 cm.
ii) Ridging is straight.
iii) It allows interculturing operations by bullock drawn implements.
D) Contour furrow method –
i) Furrows are opened across the slope of the land.
ii) This method ensures proper soaking of water.
iii) More flow of water can be handled at a time.
iv) Initial cost of this method is more.
v) It reduce soil erosion and followed in slopyland.
E) Contour furrow method –
i) In this method two consecutive furrows are open 3 feet distance and
wide gap of 5 to 6 feet is kept before the next set of two consecutive
furrows.
ii) It helps in vigorous crop growth and increase yield due to proper
utilization of sunlight and air.
iii) Inter cultivation and plant protection measures are carried out easily.
iv) Helps in saving irrigational water and reduce weed population.
v) Inter cropping is also possible without affecting the growth of
sugarcane.

10) Planting methods of sugarcane –

1) Flat bed planting –

i) In this method shallow furrows are opened at 60-90 cm distance with
tractor drawn ridges.
ii) Sets are planted in the furrows end to end and covered with 3 to 5cm soil
and field is leveled.
iii) This method is useful in areas with shortage of irrigation but sub soil
moisture is abundant.
iv) Flat planting of cane is common in north India.
2) Planting in ridges and furrow –
i) Planting of sets is done in furrows opened at 105 to 120 cm distance.

Page 21
 ii) In light to medium soils furrows are irrigated first and then sets are
pressed in furrows to a depth of 2.5 to 5 cm. It is called as wet method of
planting.
iii) In heavy soils sets are planted in dry soil in the furrows and then
irrigation is given. It is called as dry method of planting.
3) Rayungan method –
i) It is adopted in river side areas to overcome the problem of flooding
during mansoon.
ii) Sets are planted vertically in high laying areas.
iii) Sprouted sets are then transplanted into the flood affected fields when
flood is over.
4) Trench of jawa method –
i) It is popular in jawa and Mauritius Islands.
ii) In India it is practiced in Assam.
iii) Trenches having a depth of 22 to 30cm are dug 90-120cm apart.
iv) The sets are planted in the centre of the trenches and covered with soil.
v) The clumps of canes later on tied together to prevent lodging.

11) Sets rate –

i) Sugarcane is propagated by vegetative method i.e. by using stem cuttings

called as sets
ii) Generally 25,000 to 30,000 sets of – 3 eye buds per hactare are required.
iii) 75000 – Single eye bud for one hactare area.

12) Selection of sets (Seed material)

i) Sets may be selected from well manured nursery.

ii) Sets should have 3 healthy eye buds.
iii) Select top portion of Sugarcane because buds on that portion germinate
earlier than lower portion due to more amount of glucose.
iv) Select the sets from mature crops and water shoots from adsali crops.
v) Select thick canes which germinate better produce more tillers and give
higher yield.

13) Sets treatment –

i) Sets are treated with organo mercurial compound to prevent seed borne
disease.

Page 22
 ii) Sugarcane sets are treated with hot water 500c 2 hours or at 540c for half an
hour to control grassy shoot and other viral diseases.
iii) Sugarcane sets are also treated with 1% fish oil rosin soap to control mealy
bugs and scale insect.
iv) Sugarcane sets are treated with agallol or areton to prevent rotting of sets.
v) Treat the sets with lime water for 24 hours to improve germination of dry
buds.

14) Manures and fertilizers –

Sugarcane is a heavy feeder and long duration crop requires more manuring.

Name of season F.Y.M. N (Kg/ha) P (Kg/ha) K (Kg/ha)

tons /ha
1) Suru (Seasonal) 25 250 125 125
2) Preseasonal 35 350 170 170
3) Adsali 50 450 170 170

15) Inter cultivation –The intercultural operations followed in sugarcane crop are as
follows.
a) Gap filling –
i) It is done after complete emergence of crop to fill the gaps.
ii) It is done about 6-8 weeks after planting.
b) Weed control -
i) 2 to 5 hand weedings should be given
ii) Use atrazine or alachlor Herbicide.
c) Hoeing –
i) 2 to 3 hoeings are given to remove the weed
ii) This operation is done at done month interval.
d) Tagarni or Bal bandhani -
i) Tagarani means a partial hilling of soil
ii) This operation is done when the crop is 3 to 4 months old.
iii) It is done twice at an interval of one months for loosening the soil,
pruning non functional roots and supress the growth of late tillers.
e) Earthing – up -
i) Earthing up means breaking the ridges and converting them in to furrows
ii) It done when crop is 5 to 5.5 months old and 2 to 3 internodes are visible.

Page 23
f) Detrashing - Removal of older leaves from sugarcane is known as detrashing.
g) Mulching – Cantrash can be used as mulching material to conserve soil moisture.
h) Propping – Means tieing of sugracae. This operation is done to prevent lodging of
cane crop.
16) Irrigation –

i) Irrigation requirement depend upon type of soil, season, and duration of

crop.
ii) In case of light to medium soil it is given at 7 days in summer and 15 days
in winter.
iii) In case of heavy soil the irrigation should be given at an interval of 10 days
in summer and 20 days in winter season.
iv) Irrigations should be given at critical growth stages i.e. tillering, grand
growth stage and early maturity stage.
17) Crop rotation –The common rotation are –
a) Paddy, sugarcane – Ratoon
b) Cotton, sugarcane – Ratoon – wheat
c) Paddy – groundnut – Jowar - Sugarcane
18) Inter cropping – onion, garlic coriander, potato gram are taken as intercrop in
sugarcane.
19) Harvesting and yield–

Harvesting - The sugarcane is said to be mature when the sucrose concentration goes
above 16% and the purity of juice is more than 85%.

Signs of maturity –

i) General yellowish colour of the whole crop.

ii) Metallic sound of cane after being tapped by hand.
iii) Breaking of cane at the node after being pressed.
iv) Cessation of plant growth and emergence of flowers.
v) Swelling of eye buds.
vi) Brix – saccharometer reading is 21 to 24 brix

Actual harvesting –

i) Sugarcane crop is harvested by cutting the cane at ground level with the
help of sharp chopper or knife.
ii) The dry leaves and roots are removed from the cane.

Page 24
 iii) The immature tops with leaves are also cut off.
iv) Cane is then bundled and taken to the factory for crushing.

Yield/ha – a) Adsali crop - 150 tons/ha

b) Preseasonal crop - 125 tons/ha
c) Suru/ seasonal crop - 100 tons/ha
Varieties –
CO-740, CO-775, CO-798, CO-419, CO-671, CO-7125 (Sampada), CO-7219
(Sanjivani),
Phule – 265, CO-86032, CO-10001,

Pest of Sugarcane –
i) Top shoot borer ii) Stem borer iii) Pyrilla
iv) Mealy bugs v) Termites vi) Wooty Aphids vii) Mites

 Sugarcane stem borer –

D.S. - Larvae
N.D. - Larvae bores into stem and feed internally causing death of central shoot
locally called as dead hearts.

Control - i) Collect and destroy dead hearts.

ii) Release egg larval parasite trichograma
iii) Spray endosulphan or malathion

 Pyrilla –
D.S. - Nymph and Adult
N.D. - i) Nymph and Adult suck the cell sap from leaves and stem.
ii) The affected leaves become yellow and dry up.
Control - i) Destroy egg masses.
ii) Spray the crop with malathion.

 Field rats –
N.D. - Rat Nibbles out the cane and reduce crop yield.
Control - Poision baiting with zinc phosphide or selphos tablet is more effective.
Diseases of Sugarcane –
i) Whip smut ii) Rust iii) Red rot

Page 25
iv) Grassy shoot v) Mosaic vi) Twisted top

 Whip smut of Sugarcane –

C.O. - It is a fungal disease.
Symptoms - i) Long black whip like structure is produced from the apex of the
sugarcane.
ii) It is covered by powdery mass of fungal spores.
Control – i) Remove whip like structure with thick cloth and destroy it.
ii) Use healthy sets for planting.
iii) Give hot water treatment.

 Red rot of Sugarcane –

C.O. - It is a fungal disease.
Symptoms- i) Leaves turn yellow and dry up.
ii) Internal portion of cane becomes red and give alcoholic smell.
Control – i) Use disease resistant varieties.
ii) Avoid rationing of affected crops.
iii) Use healthy sets for planting.
iv) Treat the sets with agallol.

 Grassy Shoot of Sugarcane –

C.O. - It is a viral disease. (micoplasma)
Symptoms – i)It produces profuse tillers from the base of sugarcane as like grass.
ii) Tillers are light green to dark green in colour.
Control – i) Treat the sets with hot water 500c for 2 hours.
ii) Treat the sets with moist air at 540c
iii) Uproot and destroy affected clumps.
iv) Use disease resistant varieties.

Ratooning – Ratooning is the practice of allowing stubbles of previously harvested

crop to sprout and arown to raise a new crop.

Importance of ratooning –

i) Ratooning saves costs on preparatory tillage.

ii) It saves cost of seed material and planting of canes.

Page 26
 iii) It gets an advantages of residual manure.
iv) In all it saves 20 to 25% expenditure as compared to plant cane.
v) It also gives good yields if same cares is taken like planted cane

Management –

i) The cane should be harvested close to ground level.

ii) All trash and dried canes should be removed after harvesting.
iii) Irrigation is withhold for a period of 4 to 6 weeks.
iv) The emerging shoots and stubbles should be cut close to the ground level for
uniform stand of the crop.
v) Break the sides of the ridge and lose the middle portion with the help of
shovel tooth cultivator.
vi) Apply 250 kgN + 125kgP + 125kgK / ha.
vii) Then first irrigation is given 6 weeks after the harvest of previous crop and
then follow irrigation schedule.
viii) Inter cultivation and earthing up operation are similar as plant cane.
ix) Ratoon crop matures earlier than the plant cane.
x) The yield of adsali ratoon is higher than suru crop.

Preparation of Jaggery (GUL)

Jaggery is prepared a number of operations as given below.

i) Iron crusher operated by electric motor are used and cane is crushed to
obtain juice.
ii) The juice is then filtered through wire gauge and transferinto boiling pan.
iii) The juice is should be boiled within period of 6 hours after its extraction.
iv) Suspended impurities are removed by first heating for a period of 30 to 35
minutes. The scum is removed by long handled perforated ladle.
v) Bagass, trash or cotton stalk, etc. are used as fuel for heating.
vi) The juice in the course of heating is freed of all impurities by usingbhendi
mucilage. An emulsion made up of Groundnut and castor seed is water also
be used.
vii) Chemical clarificant like superphosphate solution is used in second course
of heating for removing impurities and for improving colour of jaggery.
viii) Kagzi lemon suspension is essential for avoiding saltish taste to the juice.

Page 27
 ix) Lime water solution is used to avoid problems in solidification of jaggary.
x) Striking point of liquid Jiggery is 1050c to 1070c temp. and for solid Jaggery
is 1160c to 1180c.
xi) Hot liquid Jaggery is then transferred to cooling pan.
xii) When juice reaches in semisolid stage, it is poured in moulding pans of
varying shapes and sizes.

2) Mango
Botanical name- Mangiferaindica
Family - Anacardiaceae
Origin - Indoburma region (South East Asia)

Uses –
i) It is good source of Vitamin – A, B and C
ii) Mango fruit have very high nutritive value.
iii) It is consumed as a fresh table purpose fruit.
iv) Many preserved products like Jam, Squash, canned pulp&slices, pickles and
amchur are also prepared.
v) Fresh fruits as well as preserved products are exported to earn foreign
exchange.
vi) Mango leaves and fruits are used in religions functions.
vii) Tanin is extracted from bark.

Soil –
i) Mango can grow on various type of soils from alluvial to lateritic soil.
ii) It prefers slightly acidic well drained deep loamy soil which is rich organic
matler.
iii) The range of PH should be between 5.5 to 7.5

Climate –
i) It is tropical crop
ii) It requires warm and dry climate.
iii) Optimum temperature range is 24 to 270c
iv) It can do well in an area of average rainfall of 250 cm.
v) Bright Sunny days and low humidity are ideal for mango cultivation.
Page 28
Propagation – Mango can be propagated by
a) Sexual method i.e. by using seed (stone)
i) Mango when propagated by seed does come true to type. Being highly
cross pollinated and heterozygous in nature.
b) Asexual method i.e. by means of Vegetative propagation.
1) Commercially mango is propagated by asexual method to get true to type
and early yielding plants.
2) It is propagated by grafting
i) Stone grafting ii) Approach grafting
iii) Veneer grafting iv) Side grafting

Plantationdistance spacing –
a) Dwarf varieties – 7 x 7 m
b) Tall varieties – 10 x 10 m

Planting Method -
i) Open the pits of the size – 90 x 90 x 90 cm during summer months.
ii) The pits are filled with 20 to 25 kg fym + top soil.
iii) 10 gm phorate should be mixed/pit to control termites.
Planting season – Rainy season
After care –
i) After planting unifor moisture level should be maintained.
ii) Water stagnation should be avoided.
iii) Use locally available material to protect seedling from hot and dry sun.
Manures – The manuring programme should be as follows
Age of the tree FYM (kg) N (gm) P (gm) K (gm)
1st Year 10 20 18 50
2nd Year 15 50 27 75
3-5th Year 25 100 36 100
8-10th Year 50 400 144 400
*Above 10 Years 75 500 360 750

Irrigation –
i) First irrigation is given just after the planting
ii) Irrigation interval depends upon type of soil and season

Page 29
 iii) Irrigation should be given at an interval of 2 to 3 days during summer in the
first year.
iv) Next 2 to 5 years irrigation should be given at an interval of 4 to 5 days in
summer.
v) Irrigation should be given at flowering and fruit development stage.
Inter cropping – Fruit crops like Papaya, Pineapple or vegetable crops can be grown
as intercrops if irrigation facilities are available during first 8 – 10 years.
Harvesting and yield –
Harvesting -Mango produces flowering in the month of November and continues till
February fruits become ready for harvest in the month of March. i.e. 4 to 5 months are
required from flowering to harvesting.
Signs of maturity -
a) Physical development of fruit.
b) Colour changes from dark green to light green
c) When one or two ripe fruits fall from the tree.
d) Specific gravity of fruit at maturity ranges between 1.01 to 1.02
e) Brix sachrometer reading at maturity ranges between 12 0 to 150 brix

Actual Harvesting –
i) When fruits are ready for harvesting fruit picker climbs on the tree and
collect fruits in bags.
ii) Recently konkankrishividyapeeth has developes a mango picker called as
nutanzola.
iii) Harvest the fruits carefully, do not damage the fruits during harvesting.
iv) Recently nutan Zola is used for Mango harvesting.

Yield/ha –
a) up to 10 year age – 500 – 800 fruits / tree or 8 to 10 tons/ha
b) After 15 year – 1000 – 3000 fruits / tree or 12 to 20 tons/ha

Varieties –
1) Table purpose varieties –Alphanso, Kesar, Neelum, Totapuri, Dahseri,
Langada,
Ratna, Goa Mankur, AmrapaliMallika
2) Juicy varieties –Pairi, Dudhapeda

Page 30
 3) Pickle and preserve varieties - Karel – for Pickles and Gawasji Patel and
Aminifor preserves
4) Irregular bearing varieties – Alphanso, Pairi, Dasheri, Langda, Sindhu
(stoneless variety)
5) Regular bearing varieties –Neelum, Amrapali, Mallika,Ratna

Pest of Mango –
i) Mango hoppers ii) Mango stem borer iii) Mango fruit fly
iv) Mango mealy bugs v) Bark eating catterpiller.

Mango hoppers – It very destructive pest during flowering

D.S. - Nymph and Adult
N.D. - i) Nymph and Adult suck the cell sap from leaves, tender shoots, flowers and
fruits.
ii) They also secrete honey dew like substance on which black sooty mould
develops.
iii) Fruit setting is badly affected.

Control – Spray malathion or monocrotophos.

Spray 10% carbaryl at the time of flowering.

Mango stem borer –

D. S. - Larvae
N.D. – i) Larvae bores into main stem or particular branch of mango tree.
ii) Tree gets dried and finally die.

Control –
i) Clean the tunnel with hard wire and inject borer solution.
ii) Pour Kerosene oil inside the hole and plaster it with mud.

Disease of Mango –
i) Powdery mildew ii) Rust iii) Anthracnose

Laranthus –
i) It is stem parasite of mango
ii) It grown on the branches of mango and related the growth.

Page 31
 iii) It causes total failure of the crop.

Control – Cut the parasite affected branches.

Spongy tissue -
i) It is the problem of Alphanso variety
ii) The fruits after ripening develops some nonedible sour corky patches, air
pockets of whitish to yellow colour having fermented smell.
iii) The extent of damage varies from 1 to 3 cm but in the extreme case the
entire fruit is affected.
iv) The deficiency of calcium indicated as a cause of spongy tissue.

Remedies –
i) Grow spongy tissue resistant varieties e.g. Ratna, Sindhu
ii) Harvest the fruits 60 to 70% maturity.
iii) Use mulching and maintain vegetation in orchard.
iv) Give preharvest calcium dip to mango fruits.
v) Avoid exposure of fruits to direct sunlight after harvest.

A) Alternate or biennial bearing in Mango – It is natural tendency of mango tree to

bear heavily in one year and there is less or no crop during next one or two years is
called as alternate bearing.

Causes or factors affecting alternate bearing in Mango-

i) Genetic factor – The varietal characters are the genetic constituent of the
plant some varieties bear regularly e.g. Neelum, Ratna
ii) C. N. Ratio – Flowering depends upon carbon nitrogen content.
iii) Sex ratio – The variety with low percentage of perfect flower may turn into
off year.
iv) Age of the plant – Upto 10 years all most varieties are regular bearers.
v) Adverse climate condition – Very high temperature heavy rainfall and frost,
low humidity, strong wind at the time of flowering induce off year.
vi) Pest and diseases – Mango hoppers, powdery mildew affect fruit setting and
induce off year.

Remedies –

Page 32
 i) Spray cultar to induce flowering
ii) Soil drenching of cultar (5 to 10 kg / tree)
iii) Give booster dose of 1 kg N / tree during on year.
iv) Smudging (producing smoke) practice should be done.
v) Orchard should be kept free from pest and disease.
vi) Grow regular bearing varieties e.g. Ratna, Mallika, Amrapali.

3) Banana
Botanical name – Musa Cavendish
Musa Paradisiaca
Family - Musaceae
Origin - Mountain regions of Assam, Burma, Thailand and Indochina
Uses –
i) Banana is used for preparation of powder, weffers, chips, soft drink and
beer.
ii) It also contains vit. A, B and C
iii) Banana is rich source of minerals like phosphorus, calcium and magnesium.
iv) The unripe fruit is cooked as a vegetable.
v) Banana stem is used for extraction of starch and fiber.
vi) Both plants and fruits are extensively used in wedding and festivals.
Soils –
i) It requires deep black soil or deep sandy loam soil.
ii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iii) Soil should have one meter in depth with good organic matter content.
iv) Highly calcareous and lateritic soils are not suitable.
v) Optimum range of PH is 6 to 8
Climate –
i) Maharashtra have the most ideal climate for banana cultivation.
ii) It is a tropical crop.
iii) It requires warm and humid rainy climate.
iv) Average temperature range is 10 to 400c .
v) Heavy stroms, frost and low temperature 100c is harmful.
Propagation – Banana is mainly propagated by vegetative method. It is propagated by
rhizomes bits of rhizomes and sword suckers.
a) Rhizomes –

Page 33
 i) Conical rhizomes should be selected than flat rhizomes.
ii) The weight of rhizomes should be 500 to 800 gm and they should be 3
to 4 months age.
iii) Small rhizomes will give bigger size fruits with late flowering.
iv) Big rhizomes will give small size fruits with early flowering.

b) Suckers –
i) Sword shaped suckers having narrow sword like leaves is selected.
ii) 2 to 3 months old sword suckers with 30 cm height is ideal.
iii) Water suckers should be rejected.
c) Bits of Rhizomes–Banana is also propagated by bits it is a small cut piece of
rhizomes having at least one bud on it.
d) Now tissue culture seedlings are available which are true to type.
Planting Method -
– There are two methods of planting.
a) Pit method –
i) Pits of 45 x 45 x 45 cm are dug and the pits are filled with well
decomposed FYM.
ii) This method is very laborious and expensive.
b) Furrow method –
i) This is common method in which furrows of 25 cm depth are opened
by ridger and rhizomes are planted in furrows.
GenerallyJune to July is the most common time of planting.
Planting Season –
a) Mrig bag planting – Planting should be done at end of May to end of June.
b) Kandebag planting – Planting should be done at end of September to early
October.
Spacing – spacing / planting distance depends upon the variety climate, yield.
i) Tall variety – 3x3m
ii) Medium variety - 2.5 x 2.5 m
iii) Dwarf variety - 1.25 x 1.25 m
iv) Export quality banana – 1.75 x 1.75 m
Irrigation –
i) For one banana crop of 18 months 50 – 70 irrigation are required.
ii) The frequency of irrigation depends upon type of soil season and locality.
iii) In summer season irrigation should be given at an interval of 4 to 7 days.

Page 34
 iv) While in writer season irrigation should be given at an interval of 10 to 15
days.
Manures and fertilizers –
i) The organic manures (FYM) 50 tons/ha should be applied before planting.
ii) The banana plant should be given 100 gm N + 40 gm P and 100 gm k /
plant.
iii) One additional dose of 50 gm nitrogen is given after fruit set for better
development of fruits.
Special cultural practices -
1) Desuckering –
i) Means removal of unwanted suckers from mother plant.
ii) These suckers complete with main fruiting plant for nutrient and soil
moisture.
iii) This can be done by cutting the suckers at ground level with the help of
crowbar.
iv) Similarly use of Kerosene on cut portion inhibit the growth of suckers.
v) Similarly start appearing from the base of plant after about 3 month of
planting.
2) Physiological disorder –
i) Dislodging of bunch caused mainly due to uneven irrigation, hot dry
wind and inadequate supply of potash.
ii) To protect the plant give proper irrigation and good supply of potash.
3) Protection against low temperature –
i) Banana is very sensitive to low temp. (below 70c)
ii) To protect the plant from low temp. Smudging and covering of bunches
is followed.
Harvesting –
a) Signs of maturity –
i) Drying of top leaves and fruit becomes round shaped.
ii) Change of fruit colour from dark green to light green.
iii) Fruit becomes plumpy and soft and tendency of floral end of fruit fall by
slightest touch by hand.
b) Actual harvesting –
i) Banana fruits mature 100 to 120 days after flowering.
ii) Bunches are harvested at 3/4th maturity for distant market and at full
maturity stage for local market.

Page 35
Yield –
a) Average yield of banana – 30 tons / ha
b) For Basrai dwarf – 40 to 45 tons / ha
Varieties –
a) Dwarf varieties – Basrai dwarf, Rasthalisonkel,
b) Semi tall varieties – Harishal or Bombay green, safedvelchi
c) Tall varieties – Lal velchi or Champa, Poovan Grand – 9
Pest of Banana – a)Stem border b) Banana Aphids c) Nematodes

Diseases of Banana –
i) Panama wilt ii) Bunchy top iii) Leaf spot for sigatoka disease.
1) Panama Wilt –
C.O. - It is a fungal disease
Symptoms –
i) Yellowing of lower leaves including leaf blade and petioles.
ii) Hanging of leaves around pseudo stem and withering of leaves.
iii) Bottle shape fruits are produced.
Control –
i) Grow disease resistant varieties like Basrai, Pavan, Robusta and Champa
ii) Use disease free suckers for planting.
iii) Infected soil mix with lime and sulphur.

2) Bunchy top of banana –

C. O. – It is a viral disease
Symptoms – i) This disease is transmitted through Aphids.
ii) Leaves remains small and it look like bunch.
iii) Plant show stunted growth.
Control – i)Destroy affected plant and clean cultivation.
ii) Use disease free suckers for planting and apply carbofuron to
soil at the time of planting.
iii) Spray malathion to control Aphids.
3) Leaf spot sigatoka disease of banana

Page 36
 4) Santra (Manderian orange)

Botanical name – Citrus reticuleta

Family – Rutaceae
Origin – South east Asia (India & China)

Economic importance / uses –

i) Santra is the most refreshing and health promoting juicy fruit.
ii) Fruit is excellent source of pectin, essential oils.
iii) It is rich sources of Vit. C
iv) Fruit also supply other vitamins, fruit, sugar fruit acid and minerals.
v) Fruit is also used for extraction of citric acid.
vi) Fruit is used for preparation of marmalade canned segments, squash, cordial
etc.

Soil –
i) Santra requires medium to light loamy soil.
ii) It should be fertile and well drained with good amount of organic matter.
iii) Soil containing lime nodules should be rejected.
iv) Optimum PH range is 6.5 to 7.5

Climate –
i) It is subtropical crop.
ii) It requires warm and humid climate with more rainfall (875 to 1125 mm)
iii) Average temperature range is 10 to 370c
iv) Severe cold is harmful for growth.
Propagation –
i) Oranges is commercially propagated by shield or 'T' buddingby using
Rootstock Jamberior Rangpur lime
ii) Rootstock of Rangpur lime is suitable for early bearing more and quality
fruits.
iii) It is free from tristeza virus.
iv) Speed of root stock are sown in bed during Oct- Nov. and seedling become
ready for budding during next year in Oct. – Nov.

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 a) Rangpur lime –
i) Trees on this root stock are moderate in height and produce
regular and good quality fruits.
ii) Suitable for heavy soil.
iii) Resistant to tristeza virus and root disease.
iv) Polyembryonic in nature.
v) In nursery do not attained the proper thickness for budding.
vi) In nursery root system is hard to develop.
b) Jamberi –
i) The trees on this stock are vigorous in growth.
ii) Suitable for light soil.
iii) Attend proper stem thickness in nursery for budding.
iv) Polyembryonic in nature.
v) Good spread of root system in nursery.
vi) Susceptible to phytophthora fungus and gummosis disease.

Planting Methods – Square method

a) Planting season – Rainy season
b) Planting distance – 6 x 6 m
c) Pit size – 1 x 1 x m

Irrigation –
i) Irrigation is given by ring system to avoid direct contact of water to stem.
ii) The frequency of irrigation depends upon type of soil age of the plant and
climatic conditions.
iii) During winter irrigation should be given at an interval of 8 to 10 days while
during summer 4 to 5 days.
iv) Irrigation should be given at the time of flowering and fruit development
stage.

Manures and fertilizers –

i) First year tree should be manured with 5kg FYM + 120 gm N + 60 gm P +
50 gm K + 0.25Kg Neem cake.
ii) The dose should be increased with age of the tree.
iii) After 10 years tree should be manured with50 kg FYM + 1200 gmN +
400 gmP + 400gmK + 2 Kg Neem cake.

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Bahar treatment –
i) Means forcing the tree to go to rest by checking water supply.
ii) Manderianorange starts bearing from 6th year onwards after planting and
produces two main bahars in a year.
Bahar Period of Period of Period of
bahartreatment flowering Harvesting
AmbiaBahar Nov. – Dec. Jan. – Feb. Oct. – Dec.
MrigBahar April – May June – July Feb. - March

Quality of Manderian orange fruits depdns upon type of bahar

A) AmbiaBahar –
i) Fruits are more juicy but less tasty
ii) It may be attacked by fruit sucking month.
B) MrigBahar –
i) Fruit develop with good colour sweet taste but less juicy.
ii) More market price than Ambiabahar fruits because quality of fruit is better.

Inter cultivation –
i) Remove weed at regular interval with loosening of soil.
ii) Loosening of basin is necessary.
iii) Avoid deep ploughing during flowering.
iv) Give bamboo stake support to heavy crop load.
v) Remove dried, diseased branches and excessive growth regularly.

Harvesting& Yield –
i) Fruit matures with in 8 to 9 months after flowering.
ii) Change in colour of fruit dark green to pale green is a sign of maturity.
iii) The fruits of Santra are harvested at a one time.
iv) The economically life of plant is 25 to 30 years.

Yield – 800 – 1600 fruits / tree or 10 tons / ha

Varieties –
i) Nagpur Santra ii) Khansi iii) Coorg Mandarin
iv) Kinnow (hybrid) v) Mudkhed seedless vi) Honey

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vii) Satsuma viii) Dancy ix) Emperior

Pest of Santra –
i) Lemon butter fly ii) Citrus Psylla
iii) Stem borer iv) Leaf minor

Diseases of Santra –
i) Citrus canker ii) Gummosis
iii) Foot rot or Collar rot iv) Kolshi
1) Citrus Canker –
C.O. – It is a bacterial disease.
Symptoms –
i) Minute water soaked spots appears on leaves, twigs, fruits and thorns.
ii) Yellow hole appears on leaves.
iii) Brown corking spots appears on fruits.
iv) The disease is serious in acid soil.
Control –
i) Prune affected part before monsoon
ii) Spray 1% Bordeaux mixture.
iii) Spray streptomycin sulphate @ 500 ppm + copper oxychloride.

2) Gummosis –
C.O. – It is a fungal disease
Symptoms – Profuse gumming on the surface of the affected bark of stem.
Control –
i) Scrap oozing gum and apply Bordeaux paste.
ii) Use disease resistant root stock.
*****

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 Chapter - 3

Modes of Reproduction

The modes of reproduction in crop plants may be broadly grouped into two categories.

a) Sexual Reproduction
b) Asexual Reproduction

A) Sexual Reproduction – Sexual reproduction means fusion of male and female

gametes to form zygote which develops in to an embryo.

 In crop plants male and female gametes are governed by specialized structure is
known as flower.
 A flower consist of pedicel, calyx corolla, androecium and gynoecium is called
as complete flower.
 A flower containing both staments and pistil is a perfect flower or bisexual
flower.
 if it contains only stamens but no pistil is known as staminate or male flower.
 While flower containing pistil is known as pistilate or female flower.
 Monoecious spp. – Staminate and pistilate flowers occurs on the same plant but
at different location. e.g. maize castor, coconut, banana, cucurbits.
 Dioecious spp. – Staminate or male and pistilateor female flowers occurs on
different plants e.g. Papaya dateplam, hemp.

Structure of flower

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Significance of Sexual reproduction -
i) Almost the entire plant breeding is based on sexual reproduction.
ii) Sexual reproduction makes it possible to combines genes from few or more
parents into a single hybrid.
iii) Recombination among these genes produces large number of different
gemotype.
iv) This is essential step in creating genetic variation through hybridization.

Advantages of Sexual reproduction

1) Sexual reproduction is simple and easy.
2) Plants are long lived and hardy
3) Introduce variation into a population
4) This is only way to reproduce where asexual means is not common e.g.
coconut, papaya.
5) Sexually propagated plants are more resistant to disease and pest.
6) Hybrid seed production is only possible through sexual propagation.

Disadvantages of sexual reproduction

1) Sexually propagated plants require more period for flowering. i.e. It bears late
fruits.
2) Two parents are needed in sexual reproduction
3) Offspring produced are genetically different from the parents. i.e. not true to type

4) Time and energy are needed to find a mate

5) Not possible for an isolated individual.

B) Asexual reproduction
Asexual reproduction does not involve fusion of male and female gametes.
New plants may develop from vegetative parts of the plant or seed is developed from
embryo without fertilization.
Vegetative Reproduction : Reproduction with the help of vegetative parts of plant.
Types of vegetative reproduction
1. Natural vegetative reproduction:
a. Underground Stems:

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 Tuber : Potato.
Bulb : Onion, garlic.
Rhizome: Ginger, turmeric

b. Sub-aerial Stems :
e.g. Runner - Hariyali
stolon - Pistia
suckers - Banana
offset - Ecornia
Sub-aerialstemsareusedfor the propagation of mint, date palmetc.
c. Bulbils :
i) Bulbils are modified flowers that develop into plants directly
without formation of seeds.
ii) These are vegetative bodies; their development does not involve
fertilization.
iii) The lower flowers in the inflorescence naturally develop into
bulbils.
iv) e.g. Garlic, cardamom

2. Artificial vegetative / Commercial reproduction :

a) Cuttings – stem cuttings – e.g. Rose, sugarcane, croton
b) Layerings – simple tongue layering and Air layering e.g. Guava,
Pomegranate
c) Grafting – stone grafting, approach grafting side grafting, e.g. mango, chiku.
d) Budding – T-budding, Patch budding, Ring budding, e.g. Ber, Rose.

Advantages of Vegetative reproduction –

i) It is useful for obtaining large number of genetically identical plants
(True to type)
ii) Mutant can be directly released as variety.
iii) Rapid reproduction and spread improved varieties of ornamental plants and
fruit trees can be multiply easily.
iv) Vegetative propagation is quicker easier and less expensive.
v) plants developed by this method are smaller and hence harvesting become
easy (small canopy)

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 vi) Using this method noble plants can be created.
vii) Inferior fruits trees are converted into superior fruit trees.
viii) For repairing wounds of fruit trees bridge grafting is used.

Disadvantages of Vegetative reproduction –

i) It requires skilled manpower
ii) Plants have short life and less hardy
iii) New varieties can not be produced by this method
iv) There is no genetic variation so plants are less adaptable to environment.
v) Diseases are rapidly transmitted and destroy the crop.

Apomixis -

i) Apomixis refers to the development of seed without sexual fusion

(fertilization)
ii) In apomixis embryo develops without fertilization.
iii) Thus apomixis is an asexual method of reproduction.
iv) Reproduction is some spp. Occurs only by apomixis is known as obligate
apomixis.
v) In some spp. Sexual reproduction also occurs in addition to apomixis is
known as facultative apomixis.

Types of Apomixis -
a) Parthenogenesis b) Apogamy
c) Apospory d) Adventive embryony.
a) Parthenogenesis – Development of embryo from egg cell without fertilization.
Types -
i) Haploid Parthenogenesis ii) Diploid parthenogenesis

Causes of Parthenogenesis -

i) Inability of pollontube to discharge content inside the embryo sac.

ii) Early degeneration of the sperm.
iii) Insufficient attraction between male and female gamets.
iv) Very long style.
v) Short Pollon tube.
vi) Slow rate of pollon tube growth.

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 vii) Stimulation of pollen in the absence of pollen tube
viii) Incompatibility
b) Apogamy – The origin of embryo from either synergids or antipodal cells of the
embryo sac is known as apogamy.
Types –
i) Haploid apogamy ii) Diploid apogamy
c) Apospory –
i) In apospory first diploid cell of ovule laying outside the embryo sac
develops in another embryo sac without reduction. The embryo then
develops directly from the diploid egg cell without fertilization.
OR
ii) Formation of gametophyte i.e. (Pollen or embryosac) from a sporophyte
without under going meiosis.

Types –
i) Generative Apospory ii) Somatic Apospory
d) Adventive embryony – The development of embryo directly from the diploid
cells of ovule. Outside embryo sac belonging to either nucleus or integuments.

Tissue culture Technology

Plant tissue culture is the technique of growing plant cells, tissues and organs in
an artificially prepared nutrient medium under aseptic and controlled conditions of
light, temperature and humidity.

Tissue culture involves production of plants from very small plant parts, tissues
or cells growth aseptically in a test tube or other suitable container where the
environment and nutrition can be rigidly controlled.

 The plant material used for culturing is called as explants.

 The plant tissue culture is based on the principle of totipotency.
 Totipotency is the inherent ability of plant cell to grow divide and give rise to a
whole plant.
 German botanist Haberlandt (1902) developed the concept of in vitro culture.

Technique of tissue culture – Technique of tissue culture involves following steps

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 1) Cleaning, sterilization of glassware and instruments in an oven / autoclave.
2) Selection and preparation of nutrient medium with known concentration.
3) Sterilization of nutrient medium in an autoclave for 20 minutes under constant
pressure 15 LB / inch2at a temperature of 1050c
4) Preparation of plant material – explants.
5) Inoculation of explants in the culture flask containing sterilized nutrient
medium.
6) Incubation of the inoculated ex-plant. Here in flask cell of explants grow to
form callus with in 2-3 weeks.
7) Sub culturing if callus is to be maintained.
8) Organogenesis – formation of roots and shoots that eventually leads seedling
(plantlet) formation.
9) Hardening – Seedling (planet) are transferred to polythene bags containing
sterilized soils and kept under low light and high humidity in green house.
10) After hardening the plantlets (seedling) from the polythene bag are transferred
to the field.

Various techniques in tissue culture

a) Micropropagation :This technique is used for the purposes of
developinghighqualityclonalplants(identicals).
b) Somatic cell genetics :Used for somatic hybridization.

c) Anther culture d) embryo culture e) organelle transfer

f) Transgenic Plants :This is used in genetic engineering of species to produce pest
and disease resistant plants.

Advantages of tissue culture -

1) Large scale multiplication in short time.
2) Production of disease, virus free plants.
3) Production of drought and salt tolerant crops.
4) Helps n fast multiplication of rare species.
5) Reproduction of plants is possible throughout the year.
6) Production of female plants is possible e.g. Papaya.
7) Nitrogen fixation capacity can be introduced in the plants.
8) This helps in obtaining uniform plant types.
9) Production of orchids which are difficult to multiply through seeds.

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 10) The plants which are unable to grow under normal conditions can be grown
easily with this technique.
11) Embryoculture is used to overcome dormaney.

Disadvantages of tissue culture -

1) It is difficult method of propagation and requires skill.

2) It is expressive method, trained persons are essential.
3) Contamination or insect infestation can cause high looses in a short time.
4) Continuous research and development are essential to decrease this risk.
5) Care and maintenance of tissue culture laboratories.
6) Decreases genetic variability
7) Shoot tip propagation requires more labour to transfer individual propagates.
8) Economics and marketing are key to success of commercial production.

*****

Chapter - 4

Seed Production Technology

Seed technology is a branch of science which deals with the study of methods
of improving genetic and physical characteristics of seed.

OR

The seed technology is a science which deals with production, processing,

testing and distribution of seed.

Principal of Seed Production –

The general principles of seed production are broadly classified into two groups.

A) Genetic Principle

B) Agronomic Principle

A) Genetic Principles are as follows -

1) Deterioration of varieties – Genetic purity of a variety can deteriorate due
to several factors during seed production.

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 The important factors which are responsible for deterioration genetic purity
are given below.
1) Developmental Variations – These variations are due to change in the
environment for seed crops. Therefore crop should be grown in areas of
their adaptations.
2) Mechanical Mixtures – Use of same seed drill for sowing, presence of
volunteer plants, use of combine thresher and gummy bags causes
mixture cleaning of seed drill, space isolation, cleaning of thresher, use
new bags one of the remedial measures of control mechanical mixture.
3) Mutation – Means sudden change in the progeny
4) Natural crossing – The deterioration may be due natural crossing with
diseased plants off types etc.
5) Minor Genetic Variations – Varieties at the time of release may consist
of some minor genetic variations. Precautions during the maintenance of
nucleus seed and breeders seed of cross pollinated varieties are
suggested to control these variations.
6) Selective influences of pest and diseases – Seed production under
clean and disease free conditions are important.
7) Techniques of plant breeder – Inadequate assessment of cytogenetic
irregularities during the release of new variety leads to genetical
variations in the variety.
2) Maintenance of genetic purity during seed production –
a) Control of seed source – Use seeds for seed production from approved
authorities.
b) Preceding crop requirements – Selection of land for avoiding
volunteer plants and soil borne diseases.
c) Isolation – Means distance between two seed production plots to avoid
natural crossing Isolation should be maintained as per seed certification
standards.
d) Roughing – Means removal of off types volunteer plant, Pollen shedder
plant. Pets and diseased plants from seed production plot before
flowering.
e) Seed certification – Inspection of seed plot from qualified and
experienced person is necessary.
f) Grow out test – These are carried out to test genetic purity of variety.
This is conducted by seed certification agency.

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B) Agronomic Principles -
1) Selection of suitable Agro climatic region – In general regions of moderate
rainfall and humidity are suitable for seed production.
2) Isolation – Isolation distance means distance between two seed production plot
to avoid natural crossing.
3) Land Preparation – Good land preparation is essential for proper growth of
the crop.
4) Variety – The variety should suit to agro climatic condition it should be high
yielder and disease resistant.
5) Seed – The seed should be genetically and physically pure.
6) Seed treatment – Seed should be treated to prevent the attack of certain pest
and diseases, improve germination, increase N fixation etc.
7) Time of sowing – Sowing of seed crop should be done at their normal time.
8) Seed rate – for seed crop lower seed rate is desirable than commercial crop.
9) Method of sowing – Most common method of sowing seed crop is drilling of
seeds in rows.
10) Depth of sowing – It depends upon size of seed and type of soil. Small seeded
varieties are sown shallow than large seeded varieties.
11) Roughing – Remove off types volunteer plant Pollen shedders pest and disease
affected plants before flowering.
12) Supplementary Pollination – It is necessary for the crops which are cross
pollinated by insect. e.g. Sunflower.
13) Weed control – Hand weeding, hoeing, Use of herbicides are the methods of
weed Control.
14) Irrigation – It depends upon type of soil season and water requirement of crop.
15) Manures and fertilizers – Adequate quantity of manures are fertilizers are
essential for good yield and better quality seeds.
16) Insect pest disease control – They should be controlled by using suitable
insecticides and fungicides.
17) Time of harvesting – The exact time of harvesting is important in getting
maximum seed yield with better quality.
18) Method of harvesting – Harvesting and threshing of seed crop is done
manually by hand or by using threshers.
19) Drying of seeds – Drying of seeds to safe moisture limit is essential to keep the
viability and vigour of seed.

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 20) Seed Storage – For short period storage seed is kept in gunny bags in
Godowns. The storage structure should be cool and clean.
21) Information of variety – Detail information regarding pedigree (History) and
quality of seed is given on the label attached to the seed bag.

Reasons and remedies for the mechanical mixtures

Reasons causing mechanical mixture of seed Remedies
 Use of the same seeddrill for sowing more  Cleaning of seed drill before
than one variety. sowingnew
varieties.
 Presence of volunteer plants in the seed field.  Irrigating the field 3 weeks prior to
sowing and deep ploughing.
 Cultivation of different varieties in adjacent  Space isolation should be provided to
field. seed plot.
 Use of threshing floor at a time for different  Only one variety should be threshed at
varieties. atime and threshing yard should be
cleaned before next use.
 Use of combining or threshing equipment  Combining or threshing equipments
and gunny bags contaminated with the seeds should be cleaned before use. Gunny
of different varieties. bags should be new or old gunny bags
should be cleaned and fumigated
before use.

Supplementary pollination :
i) Artificial or supplementary pollination is necessary for the crops which are
cross pollinated by insects.
ii) Honey bees are kept in hives near the seed crop.
iii) In sunflower crop two adjacent flower heads are rubbed on each other
iv) or cotton cloth is tied on hand palm and moved in clock wise direction on
flower surface.
v) This results in increasing pollination and seed setting.

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Hybrid seed production of Jowar –

Botanical name – Sorghum bicolor

Family – Gramineae

Origin – India, North east Africa

Uses / Economic importance –

i) It is used as food, for making bhakari.

ii) Grain is also consumed as a pop grain and hurada.
iii) Grain is used as a cattle feed, poultry feed.
iv) Grain is used for extraction of starch glucose and alcohol.
v) Jowar stem and leaves are used a fooder.
vi) The sweet sorghum can also be used for preparation of Jaggery and Sugar.

Soil –

i) Sorghum prefers medium to deep black soil.

ii) It should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should be free from off types. Volunteer plants and striga weed.
iv) Optimum PH range is 6.5 to 7.5
v) There should not be Johnson grass in seed field.

Climate –

i) It is a tropical crop.
ii) Average temperature range is 27 to 320c.
iii) It does not tolerate frost. Jowar is drought resistant crop.
iv) Annual rainfall requirement 400-1000 mm.

*Steps involved in hybrid seed production of Jowar

1) Maintenance of male sterile lines (Line – A)

(foundation seed production)

Method (Principle) -

i) Hybrid seed of Jowar is produced by using eytoplasmic genetic male sterility.

ii) This involves crossing of male sterile line i.e. Line – A (seed parent) with the
restorer line i.e. Line R (Pollinator)

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iii) The male sterile line (Line A) carries male sterility due to cytoplasmic –
genetic factors. It is maintained by crossing with male fertile line (Line B) in an
isolated field.
iv) Line A and Line B are similar in all aspects except that line B is pollen fertile
where as line A is Pollen sterile.
v) Production of hybrid seed i.e. crossing of male sterile line (Line A) with restorer
line (Line R)
vi) Maintenance of parental lines is referred as foundation seed production and the
production of hybrid seed is called as certified seed production.

Isolation requirement – Jowar is self pollinated crop but 10% cross pollination also
occur.

i) Fields of other varieties and the same varieties of Jowar – 300 m

ii) From Johnsan grass – 400 m
iii) Forage sorghum (Jowar) – 400 m

Land preparation – (Preparatory tillage)

i) Give deep ploughing.

ii) Crush the clods with Norvegian harrow.
iii) Collect the stubbles and burn
iv) Give 2 to 3 cross wise harrowing.

Sowing season time –a) Kharif (June to July)

b) Rabi (Sept. to Oct.)

Seed source –Obtain nucleus / breeders seed from a source approved by seed
certification agency.

Sowing method – Drilling / Dibbling

Maintenance of line A consist of sowing two parents

i) The female parent (Male sterile line – A)

ii) The male parent (pollinator parent – Line B) are sown in the proportion of
4:2 row.
iii) Four to six border rows of male parent are sown all around the field.

Spacing - Row to Row Spacing -75 cm &Plant to plant-7.5 cm

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Seed rate – female parent (Line A)- 8 kg / ha ,male parent (Line B)- 4 Kg / ha

Roguing :Roughing means removal of . . .

i) off types, volunteers and pollen shedders in female rows start shedding pollen.
(flowering)
ii) All above plant are pulled out to prevent regrowth.
iii) All out crosses(identified by height)should be removed.
iv) Plants in between the rows, male plant in female rows and also female plant
in male rows should be removed.
v) Plants of other Jowar variety and Johnson- grass should be removed within
isolation distance.
vi) The pest and diseased affected plants, striga weed should be removed.
vii) Proper attention should be given at flowering time. Theroughing should be
done every day.

Fertilizer -
Rainfed crop -40 kgN + 40 kg + P + 35 kg k / ha + IInd dose of N 40 to 60 kg/ha is
given one month after sowing

Irrigated crop -60 kgN + 50 kgP + 40 kg k / ha + IInd dose of N 60 to 70 kg/ha is given

one month after sowing

Irrigation –

i) In Kharif season first presowing irrigation is given.

ii) Irrigation should be given at no interval of 8-10 days.
iii) Irrigation should be given at critical growth stages i.e. seedling stage. Flowering
stage and Grain filling stage.

Intercultivation –

i) One hand weeding followed by two hoeing are given to control weed. Pre
emergence spraying of atrazine is effective to control weed.
ii) Pre emergence spraying of Atrazine is given to control weed.

Harvesting :
i) Male rows are harvested first and kept separate

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 ii) The female rows are harvested, when fully ripe.
iii) The heads are dried for a week before threshing.
iv) Threshing can be done by threshers.
v) Seed should be dried to 10% moisture content beforestorage.
Maintenance of Restorer Line (LineR)
All cultural practices are carried out like maintenance of Line A except . . .
a) seed rate – 12 to 15 kg/ha
b) spacing – 45 x 15 cm
ProductionofHybridJowarSeed
(Line A x LineR)
Hybrid seed is produced by crossing male sterile line (Line A) with
restorer line (line R) in an isolated field.
soil, climate, land requirement and other practices is similar to that for
maintenance of male sterile line (Line – A) Except ... following points.

i) Spacing – Row to Row - 75 to 90 cm.

Plant to plant - 7.5 cm

ii) Seed source - Foundation seed of line ‘A’ and Line ‘R’ should be
obtained from the source recommended by the seed certification agency.

iii) seed rate a) female parent – 8 kg/ha

b) male parent – 4 kg/ha

iv) Isolation requirement –

a) Isolation distance from other varieties and same hybrid – 200 m

b) Isolation distance from hybrids having same male parents – 5 m

c) Isolation distance from Johnson grass and forage sorghum – 400 m

v) Synchronization of male and female parent – for achieving perfect

synchronization in flowering male parents is sown 4 to 6 days earlier than
the female parent.

vi) Layout for sowing (sowing plan)

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 vii) Roughing – It is similar to that for maintainance of male sterile line (Line A)
viii) Jowar Hybrids and their parents -

Variety Female Parent Male Parent

* CSH – 1 CK60 – A IS – 84
* CSH – 2 CK60 – A IS – 3691
CSH – 3 MS 2219 – A IS – 3691
CSH – 4 MS 1036 – A IS – 3924
* CSH – 5 MS 2077 -A CS3541
CSH – 7R MS – 36A CS – 168
CSH – 8R MS – 36A PD–3-1-11
* CSH – 9R MS 296 -A CS3541
CSH – 16 MS -27 –A CS-43

ix) Pest of Jowar –i) Stem borer ii) Aphidsiii) Ear head midge or midge fly
iv) Army worm
x) Diseases of Jowar –i)Grain smut ii) Loose smutiii) Downey mildew
xi) Root parasitic weed of jowar Striga –
i) It is root parasitic weed of Jowar locally known as Talap or witch weed.
ii) With the help of special organ known as haustoria it makes connection with
jowar xylem and gets water and minerals and prepare its own food

Control - Spray crops with dicotox@ 1 kg in 500 lit. of water 2 to 3 times at an interval
of 15 days.

xii) Harvesting –
i) Male rows are harvested first to avoid admixture.

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 ii) After maturity female rows are harvested to collect hybrid seed.
iii) Normal earheads are dried for a week.
iv) Then threshed by using threshing machine
v) The seed is dried upt0 10% moisture and stored.

Seed yield – 4 to 6 q/ha

Hybrid seed production of cotton

Botanical name – Gossypium species

a) Gossypium arboretum - Deshicotton or old world cotton

b) Gossypium herbaceum - Deshi cotton or old world cotton
c) Gossypium hirsutum - Americian cotton or new world cotton
d) Gossypium barabadense - Egyptian cotton or new world cotton

Family – Malvaceae

Origin – Old world – India, Indochina, T. Africa,

New world – Mexico or Central America.

Uses / Economics importance –

i) Cotton is mainly grown for manufacturing cloths.

ii) Cotton seed contains 20% oil, 40% protein, 20% carbohydrates and certain
vitamins minerals.
iii) Cotton seed is used as concentrates for cattle.
iv) Cotton seed oil is also used for preparation of vegetables Ghee, Soaps,
Cosmatics and explosives.
v) Cotton linters have many uses such as dressing or absorbant cotton.
vi) Hull (Outer covering of seed) is used for making rubber.

Hybrid seed production method (Principle)

Hybrid seed production in cotton is done by individual bud emasculation of female

parent and pollination of same by dusting pollen from desired male parent manually.

The technique and cultural practices are described below -

Soil (Land requirement) –

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 i) It is requires deep black to medium black soil for rainfed crop while
Alluvial and light soils are suitable for irrigated crop.
ii) Soil should be fertile and well drained.
iii) It should have good water holding capacity.
iv) Optimum PH range is 6.5 to 7.5

Climate –

i) It is a tropical crop.
ii) Cotton requires warm and dry climate.
iii) Humid and cloudy weather is harmful.
iv) Optimum temperature range is 21 to 270c for vegetative growth and 27 to
310c boll development stage.
v) Cotton does not tolerates continuous rains and long period of dry spell.
vi) Well distributed rainfall of 900-1000mm is beneficial.

Preparatory tillage or land preparation –

Tillage operation carried out before sowing or planting of the crop.

i) Give one ploughing.

ii) Crush the clods with the help of norvegian harrow.
iii) Collect the stubbles and burn.
iv) Give 2 to 3 cross wise harrowing.

Seed source – Foundation seed of male and female parents should be obtained from the
source approved by seed certification agency.

Seed rate / ha – a) 3.75 kg/ha for female parent

b) 2.50 kg/ha for male parent

Spacing –

a) Row to row for both male and female parent should be – 150 cm
b) Plant to plant distance may be 100 cm in female rows and 50 cm in male rows.

Seed treatment –

i) Delinting – Cotton seeds are rubbed with cow dung or mud to remove fuzz
for easy sowing.

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 ii) Cotton seeds are also treated with dil. Sulphuric acid to remove fuzz for
easy sowing.
iii) Water soaking – cotton seed are soaked in water for 2 to 6 hours to hasten
their germination.
iv) Seed treatment with Trichoderma with thirum reduce the attack of wilt
disease.

Planting ratio – 4 : 1 or 5 : 1

i) Generally 4/5th of the rows are used for sowing female parents and
reamaining.
ii) 1/5th rows are used for male parent.
iii) The sowing of male parent is done in 2 to 3 installments so that pollens are
available for staggered period of time.

Time of sowing – Kharif (Month of April )

Isolation of distance –
i) Cotton is often cross pollinated crop.
ii) In hybrid cotton seed production under controlled emasculation and
pollination the isolation distance of 5 m is kept all around the seed plot to
avoid mechanical mixture.

Roughing – All off types, diseases plants, volunteer plants, should be removed at
seedling stage and flowering stage.

Fertilization –
i) At the time of land preparation15 to 25 tons/ha of f.y.m. should be added
before last harrowing.
ii) Apply 50 kgN+50kgP and 50 kg K/ha as a basal dose.
iii) Top dressing is done twice @ to 25 kgN/ha

Irrigation –
i) As per soil type and climate irrigate the crop once in 15-20 days.
ii) Heavy irrigation during flowering is avoided.
iii) for irrigating furrow irrigation system is used.
iv) Irrigation should be given at flowering and boll development stage.

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Crossing Programme -
It includes emasculation and pollination
Emasculation -
i) It is the process of artificial removal of male reproductive organ
(Androecium) from bisexual flower without disturbing female reproductive
organ (Gynoecium)
ii) By thumbnail method whole corolla and androecium are removed.
iii) This procedure is started one week after flower bud formation.
iv) It is done each day from 2.00 to 6.00 pm or early in morning before 7.30
a.m.
v) The emasculated flower bud is then covered by butter paper bag.
Pollination -
i) It is the procedure of artificial transfer of Pollen grains from protected
flower of male parent to the stigma of emasculated female flower.
ii) It is done in the morning between 9.00 am to 1.00 am.
iii) After pollination the female flower bud is covered by different coloured
butter paper bag.
iv) For easy identification a thread is tied to the pedicel of Pollinated flower
bud.
v) The crossing programmes is closed after 11th week.

Harvesting (Picking) –
i) Mature bolls are picked after their full opening and collected in the basket.
ii) Middle pickings are good quality for seed production.
iii) They dried for 2 days and supplied to authorized processing unit.

Seed yield – 1000 to 1500 kg/ha

Pest of cotton –
a) Before flowering –
i) Apphids ii) Jassids iii) Thrips iv) White fly
b) After flowering –
i) Spotted boll worm
ii) Pink boll worm
iii) American boll worm
iv) Red cotton bug

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 v) Dusky cotton bug

Diseases of cotton - i) cotton wilt ii) Anthracnose iii) Dahiya

iv) Black arm of cotton v) Root rot

Hybrids and their parents

Hybrids A (Female parent) X R (Male parent)
1. H4 G-67 X American nectarless
2. Varlaxmi Laxmi X SB 289-E
3. Savitri Kopargaon-203 X SB 1085-6
4. Godavari Buri nectarless X MCU-5
5. NHH-44 BN-1 X AC-738
6. DCS-32 DS-28 X SB -425
7. PKV DH.1 GAK-423 X HD-110-151
8. PKV Hy.2 AK-32 X DHY-286-1
9. PKV HY.4 CAK – 23 A X AKH-7 R
10. PKV Hy.5 CAK – 53 A X AKH-2 R

Chapter - 5

Farm Management

Farm management means making and implementing the decisions involved in

organizing and operating a farm for maximum production and profit.
OR
Farm management is also defined as organizing and managing one or
more enterprises on scientific and business lines for getting maximum net profit from
the farm.
OR
Farm management is a branch of economics which deals with investing and
earning of money from farm activities for getting maximum net income.

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 Objectives of farm management
i) To earn maximum profit from different agricultural enterprises.
ii) To study effect of different changing technologies on agribusiness.
iii) To increase the agri-business by efficient using sources and resources
available.
iv) To make effective planning regarding land utilization, cropping system,
labour and weather.
v) To decide more profitable cropping systems and animal husbandry.
vi) To calculate expenditure required per unit area for evaluation of agricultural
production.
vii) To provide programs and services that develop skills and knowledge in
financial management, tax laws, leadership human health technical
production, legal issues and environment.

Aspects of farm management -

1) Selection of farm
2) Choice of an enterprise
3) Preparing a suitable layout
4) Formulation of cropping scheme and calendar ofoperation
5) Equipping farm with necessary inputs
6) Management of farm labour
7) Maintain farm records, workout cost of cultivation and profit loss statement.
8) Maintain records for seeking certificate for export.
9) Resource conservation.

Farm manager - A farm manager is an employee who is paid to manage a farm or

a group of farm.
OR
A farm manager is a responsible person employed to manage and
carry out duties associated with day-to-day and long term
management of the farm.
Functions of a farm manager -
1) Directs and coordinates activities such as planting, irrigation, fertilizer
application, harvesting, grading and record keeping.
2) Coordinates growing activities with engineering , equipment maintenance,

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 packing houses, and other related departments.
3) Analyzes market conditions to determine acreage allocation.
4) Confers with purchasers and arranges sale of farm produce.
5) Analyzes soil, soil type and quantity of fertilizer required for maximum
production.

6) Inspect equipment to ensure proper functioning.

7) Determines maturity period of crops and estimate crop damage from weather.

8) Purchase of machinery, equipment, seed, fertilizer and chemicals.

9) Negotiates with banks to obtain credit. (Loan)

10) Evaluation of financial statements and making of budget proposals.

Qualities of Farm Manager -

● Command over Basic Facts ● Relevant Professional Knowledge
● Skill and Attributes ● Decision making skills
● Emotional Resilience ● Creativity
● Mental Ability ● Self confidence
● Proactivity
Choice of enterprise -
The important decision which has to take in farming is the choice of
interprise.
e.g. one crop interprise, diversifed farming vegetable cultivation, fruit growing or
mixed cropping.
a) One crop –
i) Sometimes farmer produces just one major crop e.g. sugarcane, cotton or
tobacco when there is a good demand.
ii) Farmer can them specialize in that crop and utilize all resources to get
maximum production and profit.
iii) In one crop farming, management is easier and the equipment and other
inputs will be minimum.
b) Diversified farming -
i) Sometimes it may be better to develop diversified farming.
ii) The land, labour, equipment and other factors are used efficiently through out
the year.
iii) It will also reduce the risk of complete loss of income due to drought pest
and diseases.

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c) When more than one farm enterprise is combined e.g. dairying and fodder,
cultivation, with drop production or raising cattle or poultry with crop production
increases profit.
d) Fruit, vegetable or flower cultivation, poultry keeping or dairying is always
profitable enterprise if the farm is near to town.

Selection of a farm -
The selection of farm is important in farm business as the land is the costly .
Factors normally considered while selecting farm are classified as . . .
A) Physical factors B) Economic factors C) Social factors D) Personal factors.

A) Physical factors :The physical factors are as follows -

1) Climate :It should be suitable for the enterprise and the crops grown.
2) Soil -Itshouldbefertile well drained, 1 m indepeth having good structure &
texture.
3) Topography: Topography is important from the poinet of view of soil
erosion, drainage, water logging, irrigation and use of machinery. The farm
should be levelled.
4) Distribution of farm area -Before selection of farm proportion of cultivable
land, waste land, pastures should be studied.
5) Layout and arrangement of the existing fields
6) Water supply – Sources of water supply and depth of water.

7) Location – Near to town, market road railway station airport.

B) Economic Factors –
i) Current price of land in the locality.
ii) The amount of money the farmer can invest.
iii) Availability of loan and the rate of interest paid
iv) Taxes to be paid.
v) Labour their availability wages types and working hours in the area.
C) Social factors-It includes type of neighbors and their attitudes towards new comer
should be studied.
D) Personal factors - These factors consists of facilities such as schooling, medical,
transport and banking should be available.
Farm Layout - A farm layout includes
a) Farmstead or farm buildings

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 b) Number, size, shape and arrangement of field
c) Other structures including threshing floor, farm roads, bunds, manure pits,
irrigation and drainage channels, farm fencing, etc.

a) Farmstead or farm building : Consists of many types of buildings, viz

residential building, labour quarters, cattle shed, implement shed, grain godown,
fodder shed etc. As a general practice 2 % of the farm area is used for the construction
of farmstead.

The following considerations should be made.

i) The farmstead should be located on high ground and should have easy
approach.

ii) It should be at the center of the farm.

iii) Buildings should be near the source of water.

iv) Cattle shed – fodder storage – manure pits should be near to each other.

v) Grain godown – threshing floor should be near to each other.

b) Number, size, shape and arrangement of farm field –
i) Large field save labour when large scale farm machinery is to be used.
ii) The field should be rectangular in shape.
iii) The size of farm field is governed by factors fiz. topography of the farm,
source of irrigation and nature of farm enterprise.
iv) Field boundaries should be regular to avoid any wastage of land.
c) Other structures :
1) Farm road :
i) One main road about 5 meters width may be constructed
ii) It should be joined by secondary roads of 3 meters wide.
iii) There should be shallow channels on both sides of the road for facilitating
drainage of rainwater.
2) Manure pits :
i) The manure pit should be near to the cattle shed.
ii) The sizes of pit should be 7x1.5x1 meter or 5x1.2x1 meter.
iii) Two pits of the above size (7x1.5x1 meter) or three pits (5x1.2x1 meter)
size are sufficient for 4 to 5 heads of cattle.
iv) They should be dug in a row keeping one meter distance in between two
pits.

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 v) Kept sufficient area on one side for the movement of a cart or tractor to be
used for removing manure.
3) Irrigation and drainage channels - These should be constructed by considering the
topography of the land.

4) Farm Fencing -Generally field growing cash crops like vegetables, fruit trees are
only protected by constructing a fence around them.

Type of fencing –
i) Barbed wire fencing ii) Live fencing iii) Electric wire fencing
iv) Solar fencing v) Mud or stone walls
Barbed wire fencing or solar fencing is most effective against cattle and wild animals
but it is very costly.
Farm planning
Farm planning is a deliberate and conscious efforts on the part of the farmer
think about the farm programmes, technological developments, changes in
physical and economical situation, price structure, etc.
OR
It is the decision making process in the farm business which involves
organization and management of limited resources.

Advantages of farm planning-

1) Income improvement – Provided an opportunity to cultivators to improve
their income.
2) Educational process-Planning acts as a self educating tool for farmers.
3) Desirable organizational changes - Introduces desirable changes in farm
organization.
4) Planning minimizes uncertainty
5) Planning facilitates co-ordination

Objectives of good farm plan -

1) Efficient use of farm resources such as labour equipment.
2) Balanced combinations of various enterprises.
3) Avoidance of excessive risk and provide flexibility.
4) Use of farmers knowledge, training and experience
5) Use of efficient marketing facilities.
6) Use of latest agricultural methods and practices.

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Characteristics of good farm plan-
1) Efficient utilization of all available resources on the farm.
2) It should be flexible as per changing environment.
3) It should be simple and easily understood.
4) It should ensure balanced production programme.
5) Mintaining and improving soil fertility.
6) It should avoid too risky enterprise.
7) It should consider the goals, knowledge, training and experience of the farmers.
8) It should facilitate efficient marketing of farm products.

Farm budgeting -
Farm budgeting is a process of estimating cost, return and net profit of a farm or a
particular enterprise.
Types of farm budgeting-
1. Partial budgeting :It refers to estimating the out-come or returns from a part of
the business. This is short duration budget.
2. Complete budgeting : It refers top reparing out a plan for the farm as whole for
all decisions about an enterprise. It considers all the crops and livestock
producing method sand estimates cost and returns from the farm as a whole.
3. Enterprise budgeting :It is to estimate inputs required cost involved and
expected returns from a particular business.

Farm Inputs -
Successful farm management depends upon how the various inputs required
to run the farm properly organized.
Types of inputs
1) Recurring inputs - Inputs which are oftenly required known as recurring inputs.
e.g. - Manures and Fertilizers, Seed, Labour, Inscticides and Pesticides

2) Non-recurring inputs - These are capital in nature and purchased once.

e.g. Farm bullocks, Implements and machinary, Plant protection appliances, Electric
motor/oil engine, pump set, Hand tools, Live stock, Bullock cart,
Bins/Basket/Chains/ropes etc.
Cropping scheme: It is a plan according to which crops are grown on an individual
plot of the farm with an object of getting maximum returns from each crop without

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reducing soil fertility.

Characteristics of good cropping scheme -

1) It should satisfy food requirements of farmer and his family and the fodder
requirements of his cattle.
2) It should give the good cash returns from cash crops.
3) It should maintain or even increase the productivity of the farm by proper crop
rotation.
4) Utilize labour properly throughout the year.
5) It should reduce the cost of cultivation of succeeding crop.
6) It should helpful in improving the standard of living of the farmer.

Points considered for selecting crop and area under cropping scheme -
1) The availability of labour throughout the year
2) Period of peak load of labour for different crops can be avoided.
3) The capital required for growing of cash crops.
4) Requirement for other farm enterprises like dairy, poultry,etc.
5) Availability of storage, transport and market facilities for perishable produce.
6) Utililze land 70-75% for kharif crop and remaining 25-30% areais to be
utilized for rabi crops under rainfed region.
7) Shallow soils used for raising minor crops and under heavy soils follow
double cropping.
8) Financial condition of the farmer for meeting the recurrent expenditure on
the farm.
Calendar of operations
It is a tabular information indicating the type of work to be done on each crop
duringits life cycle.

Steps in preparation of calendar of operations-

1) Firstly, prepare a list of crops and enterprises on the farm.
2) Prepare a list of all operations to be conducted for each crop and enterprise.
3) Indicate the time limits during which the operations are to be completed.
4) Estimate the labour, bullock power, machine power required for each
operation in terms of unit.
5) Finally, prepare a consolidated and comprehensive work schedule.

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 Labour Management
Agricultural labour is the person who under take physical work at the farm for
wages and generally 50% or more of his total income is from such work.

Types of agricultural laboures

A. According to source-
1. Farmer family labour : Family members are engaged on his own farm.
2. Out of family :
a. Permanent labour : These are hired permanently for a year.
b. Temporary labour : These are hired during peak period for work. They are
on daily basis.
c. Contract labours :These labours are employed by making fixed contract e.g.
digging of pits, bund construction.
d. Piece rate labours :worker paid a fixed piece rate for each unit produced
or action performed, regardless of time eg. Picking of cotton.

B. According to skill-
1. Skilled labour :A worker is called as skilled labour when he has a special
skill and knowledge. Trained skilled labour gets high wages eg. tractor driver,
sowing, also need skill.
2. Unskilled labour :When a worker does not have any skill he is unskilled
labour and utilized by carrying easy jobs.e.g. digging of pits, preparation of
beds.

Measures of improving labour efficiency

Definition:Labour efficiencyistheamountofproductivework done on the farm
perlabour.
The labour efficiency can be improved by adopting the following measures.
1) Diversification :There should be sufficient diversification in farm business
so as to keep the labour fully engaged throughout the year.
2) Work Program :Programme of work should be prepared well in advance
for labour utilization.
3) Size of field :Field size should be large.
4) Implement and machinery :Efficient implements and machinery and

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 proper attention to their repairs and servicing is essential.
5) Farm building arrangement :It should be suitable to avoid wastage of
labour in unnecessary movements.
6) Time of work :Get the work done at proper time e.g. weeding in early
stages are beneficial deep ploughing after the harvesting.
7) Working hours :Daily working hours should be according to season e.g. in
summer season start the work very early in the morning.
8) Facilities for labour : Provide drinking water and food at spot of working.
9) Distribution of work : Give work suitable to their capability.

Farm Accounts and Records

Necessity of accounts and records :
1) Farm accounts will help farmer to know whether the farm is in profit or loss.
2) It will help to identify the weak points in his farming practices
3) Farmer can plan the future work.
4) Farmer can also work out the cost of cultivation of major crops.

1. Diary :It is a useful daily record of operations conducted, equipmentused,

labourers employed and money received and paid.
2. Cash Register :It is a record of cash received and cashpaid.
3. Production Register : It is a record for entering the produce of crops including
fodder.
4. Feed Register : Entering all the cattle feed.
5. Wages Register : It is a register for the permanent labour and casual labour
hired.
6. Seed Register :It is a record showing the kind, quantity and value of seed
purchased or stocked on the farm.
7. Yield Register :It is a record for entering details regarding yield obtained from
different crops and enterprises.
8. General Register :It is a record of miscellaneous items of expenditure such as
land revenue, water rates, replacements of machines and tools, manures and
fertilizers.
9. Inventory :It is a record of all the property the farmer owns. It shows the value
number of each item such as land, building, water supply, livestock implement,
machinery, farm produce, feeds, fertilizers and cash in hand and in the bank.

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 Farm Records

Revenue records - 7/12 Extract –

1) The extract consists of two parts i.e., extract no 7 and extract No. 12.
2) The extract no. 7consists of survey number of the land, name of the land owner
and the area of the land.
3) It also consists of name of tenant, recordsofloan extended by government
agencies
4) Extract - 12 consists details of crops grown on the land,type of cultivation
i.e.,irrigated or rainfed.
5) It is one of the documents that provides evidence of ownership of land, and is
also called as record of Rights or record of land right.

6-D Extract –
1) It is a record of transferring the title of ownership of land from one to another
person after sale or division.
2) It can be obtained from the Mahabhilekh of Maharashtra.
3) It is maintained by the Talathi.
4) After purchase of new property the name of owner transferred on 7/12 extract
by using this record.

8A Extract –
It is called as Khate Utara and provides details of total holding of owner.
Therefore it is used to calculate the total holding of the present owner.

*****

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 Chapter - 6

Nursery Management

A nursery is a place where plants are propagated and grown to a desired age for
transplanting in main fields or for sale
OR
A nursery is the place where young plants are raised and taken care of until the reach
the right size for transplanting.

Objectives of a nursery:
1) To raise healthy and disease free seedling.
2) To distribute plant material in large scale.
3) To introduce exoticsp ecies.
4) Planting of nursery grown seedlings is the assured method of developing
poor and barren sites.
5) Replacement of dead trees.

Importance of Nursery –
1) Purity – Purity of the plant in respect of species and variety is very important
for maintaining purity nursery is essential.
2) Surety – Assurance about genetic purity of the plants is very essential. such
quality is seedling is maintained in nursery.
3) Quality - Nursery grower has full control over the quality of the plant material.
4) Economy – Nurseries provide pure planting material at cheaper rate
5) Easy availability – Planting material is easily available in nursery.
6) Timely availability – Number and type of plants needed at particular time and
place nursery is essential.
7) Freedom from diseases and insects – Plants are raised under strict supervision,
proper and timely treatment to control the pest and diseases in nursery.
8) Other benefits –Nursery provide opportunities for employment. Proper
utilization of land and farm resources are also possible.

Types of nursery on the basis of period -

Temporary nursery – In this types of nursery plants are raised for a specific

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requirement for a shorter period of time. e.g. Vegetable seedlings, flower plant
seedlings or forest plant.

Features of temporary nursery -

1. It is constructed for a short period and in small size.
2. Intensive manuring and fertilization are not necessary.
3. The distance between the nursery and the actual planting site is less.
4. No major transportation is required.
5. Special supervision is not required.

Advantages -
1. Mortality of seedlings due shock of uprooting and transportation is less.
2. Initial investment is less as compared to permanent nursery.

Limitations or disadvantages of Temporary nursery-

1. Basic facilities like irrigation may not adequate.
2. Special arrangements need to be made in order to keep the plants and seedlings
in healthy condition.
Permanent nursery –
1. This type of nursery is established in permanent fields for longer period.
2. In such type of nursery, production of plants is done year after year particularly to
supply pure planting material
e.g. fruit nursery.

Features of permanent nursery -

1. It requires a large area and must be well connected by road.
2. Such type of nursery requires intensive management and supervision.
3. It requires high initial cost for establishment.
4. Permanent nursery contain office, store, mother blocks, nursery beds,
protected structures, irrigation source, electricity, transportation, packing yard
etc.

Advantages of permanent nursery -

1. Greater range of planting stocks, such as seedlings, grafted plants, budded
plants, layers, rooted cuttings are available.
2. It becomes perpetual source for the supply of planting material for many

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 years.
3. As these are concentrated at one place, it’s supervision and management is
better due to the availability of permanent staff.
4. The initial production cost is reasonable but profit goes up in the long run.

Limitations / disadvantages of permanent nursery-

1. The initial investment cost is high.
2. The transportation cost is more.
3. Such a nursery needs intensive labour.
4. It must be backed by large market for sale of plant.
5. It requires skilled human resource through out the year.

B)Types of nursery on the basis of the kind of plant material raised -

1) Fruit plant nursery : In this nursery, seedlings and grafts of fruit crops are
developed. e.g. Mango, guava, pomegranate, sapota
2) Vegetable nursery :In this nursery seedlings of cauliflowers, cabbage, brinjal,
chilli, onion, tomato, etc. are prepared.
3) Flowering plants nursery :The seedlings of flowering plants like merigold, salvia,
rose, aster, etc. are developed in this nurseries.
4) Forest nursery :The seedlings of plants useful for forestation like oak, teak,
casurina, etc. are prepared and sold
5) Miscellaneous nursery : Such type of nursery, plants with great economic value,
rare and medicinal, herbal plants are propagated. Geranium, sandal wood are also
propagated.
6) Medicinal and aromatic plant nurseries :Ayurvedic medicines plants are raised
e.g. Shatavari, alovera.

PLANNING AND LAYOUT OF NURSERY

Selection of site

Following points are considered while selecting site for nursery.

1. Location : A nursery must be located in a pollution free environment away
from brick and smoke emitting industry.

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 2. Topography of land : The topography of land for nursery site must be even.
3. Soil: The soil must be loamy or sandy loam with large quantity of organic
matter content soil pH should be 6.5 – 7.5 with good water holding capacity.
4. Water : Nursery must be located near water source water should be available
through out the year water should not salty.
5. Drainage : Nursery must have adequate drainage channel to avoid water
logging.
6. Transportation : The nursery should be connected by road for better
transportation.
7. Labours : Nursery work is labour intensive, the nursery site must have
enough labours.
8. Protection : The nursery area must be protected by fencing so prevent
damage by animals.
9. Market : The nursery must be located near the city various types of inputs
required in the nursery must be available.

Qualities of a wood site for nursery

1) Nearness to road 2) Near a habitat 3) Suitable climate

4) Levelling of land 5) Neither shady nor exposed area 6) Sufficient
sunlight
7) Suitable Soil 8) Avoid windy and hail prone areas
9) Good irrigational facilities 10) Means of transport 11) Availability of Labour

Layout of nursery -
Major steps in nursery layout:
A. Mother block :
1) The planting stock that maintained as a source for commercial propagation is
referred to as a mother block.
2) Mother plants are very important constituent of a nursery.
3) There should be proper record and certification of planting stock.
4) As far as possible, mother block should be in the close proximity of the
nursery site.
5) The scion shoots should be taken only from mother plants. Therefore, for
preservation of pathogen free planting stock proper isolation, sanitation are
very important.

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 6) Following are examples of mother plant :
i. Mango: Alphonso, Keshar, Ratna
ii. Sapota: Kalipatti, Cricketball
iii. Guava: Sardar(L-49)
iv. Ber: Umran, Mehrun.
v. Grapes :Sonaka, Thompson seedless
vi. Awala: Banarasi,Krishna.
vii. Pomegranate: Ganesh, Bhagawa

B) Seedbeds:
i) Seed bed should be nearer to water source and office.
ii) The beds should be raised enough to avoid water stagnation due to rain
iii) Seed beds should be located in an open space / place for better germination of
seeds and to avoid infection of damping off disease.
iv) Nursery beds can be prepared in 3 different ways as sunken beds, level beds and
raised beds.
Seed beds can be accommodated in a comparatively smaller area. They so that they
can be kept under proper vigilance. and excess watering.

C) Pot yard -
i) The pot yard is generally used for tender plants, which requires shade. There fore,
pot yards should be in shade and near to water source for frequent watering.

D) Packing yard and working shed :

i) The packing yard is used for packing the plants before sale.
ii) The yard can be combined with working shed. In which workers sort out
and pack the plants with easly.

E) Compost pit : Nursery compost pit of permissible size should be located at any
corner of nursery.

F) Irrigation : The main line of irrigation system is taken the from source to seed beds
and are generally located along the road between nursery blocks.

G) Roads and drainage :

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i) Road and channels at ends of the bed should be 5 to 6 feet wide is kept.
ii) Outer and internal roads should be permanent.

H) A rest room : A break room or rest room are needed for the nursery staff.

I) Store room : Fertilizers, chemical, pesticides etc are kept (stored) in store house.

J) Administration office, lab and working space: They should be located on the
wind ward sides of fields and parallel to seed beds. Working place should be clean
well ventilated along with good sunlight.

K) Fencing : Nurseries should be fenced to prevent damage from cattle, dog, sheep, or
people.

After Care of Nursery

Disinfection of beds-
A) Sanitation : is defined as the formulation and application of measures designed
to protect plant health.
Sanitation practices in nursery include -
1) Prevention of insects, pests and diseases
2) Inspection for insect, pest and disease incidences
3) Protection from harmful environment factors viz - hotsun, freezing
temperatures, storms, etc.

B) Sanitation Treatments :
1) Sterilization of the propagation media, tools, and implements used is necessary
2) A Temperature of about 710C for 30 minutes is considered to be sufficient to kill
almost all disease producing pathogens.
3) Chemicals used for sterilization are chloropicrin, formaldehyde, methyl
bromide, etc.
4) Fumigation with chemicals is useful for destroying harmful bacteria, fungi and
nematodes.
5) Drenching the medium with certain fungicides is also useful in eliminating
pathogens from the soil, coco peat and other media.

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C) Methods of sterilization:
1) Temperature method :
i) It is an environment friendly method to control soil borne plant pathogens
ii) Solar energy increases the temperature of the soil which helps to control
various soil borne pathogen.
iii) The most appropriate time for soil solarisation is May−June when the
temperature reaches 40ºC or above.
iv) This treatment causes physical, chemical and biological changes in the soil.

2) Chemical treatment :
i) Formalin solution treatment - Formalin solution is used to sterilize the soil.
ii) Itispreparedbyadding2.5mlcommercial grade formaldehyde per litre of water
and the soil is drenched.
iii) The drenched area is covered with a black polythene sheet so that the fumes
of formalin penetrate into the soil to kill the pathogen.
3) Soil treatment by fungicide: Captan or thiram @ 5 g/m2 are used to control soil
borne pathogens.

4) Soil treatment by insecticide: - Chloropyriphos @ 2 ml/litre of water is applied to

kill insects like ants, white ants and their eggs, nematodes.

5) Use of bio-agents - Certain biological agents like trichoderma are used to control
soil-borne pathogen.

* The major diseases of nursery stage plant is Damping off for its control good
sanitation conditions are necessary preventive measures of drenching like treatment
with 50% ethyl alcohol 0.2@ calcium hypochloride and 0.01% mercuric chloride is
done.

A) Packing: It is defined as placing the nursery plants or propagated materials into

a suitable container for maintaining their viability during storage and transport.

B) Advantages of packing:
i) Packaging protects the planting material from damage caused during transport.
ii) Packing keeps them away from microbial and insect attack.
iii) It minimizes physiological and biological changes occuring in the planting

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 material during transportation.
iv) Packing must maintain the natural condition of seedlings and increase shelf
life.
v) Necessary information like name of seedling, name of nursery, age of
seedling, can be mentioned on packing boxes.

C) Principles of packing:

i) It should deliver the plants conveniently without affecting the quality.

ii) It should provide protection against drying out and mechanical injury.

iii) It must be convenient and economical to handle.

iv) It should be well adapted to transport.

Chapter - 7

Green House Technology

Meaning :
i) Green houses are protected structures use ful for cultivation of certain
plants/crops.
ii) Green house protect the crops from adverse climatic conditions.
iii) Crops are provided with required CO2 light temp. humidity and air which are
most essential for crop growth.
iv) Covering material is known as cladding material
v) on the basis of covering material used green house is classified into three type.
a) Glass house – Glass is used as covering material.
b) Polyhouse - polythene sheet is used for covering
c) Shade house – frame is covered with shed nets.

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  The glass house are used in temperate countires to protect the crops from snow
fall and colds.
 The polythene covered framework is economical. Polythene of 0.10 to 0.15 mm
in thickness resist ultraviolet radiation is found most suitable and economical
 In tropical and subtropical regions naturally ventilated polyhouse are popular.

Importance or Advantages of greenhouses-

1. Green houses technology gives 10-12 times higher yield than that of outdoor
cultivation.
2. Reliability of crop increases under greenhouse cultivation
3. Ideally suitable for vegetable, flower crops (Cut flowers)
4. Year round production of vegetable and floricultural crops.
5. Off-season production of flowers and vegetable and fruit crops.
6. Disease free and genetically superior transplants can be produced
7. Efficient utilization of chemicals, pesticides to control pest and
diseases.
8. Water requirement of crops is very limited in green house.
9. Maintenance of stock plants, cultivating grafted plant and micro
propagated plant.
10. Hardening of tissue culture seedling.
11. Most useful in monitoring and controlling the in-stability of various
ecological system.
12. Modern techniques of Hydroponic (Soil less culture), Aeroponics and
Nutrient film techniques are possible only under greenhouse cultivation.
13. Shade net houses are most suitable for nursery.

Scope for green house technology-

There is a great scope for using green house technology for the following reasons.
1. Lot of barren land is available which can be deployed for erection of
greenhouse.
2. Green house technology should be utilized by storing rain water and using it by
drip system.
3. There is a continuous demand for vegetables and flowers throughout the year.
4. There is as scope for propagation and raising nursery.
5. Government schemes are available for promoting green house technology and
subsidy for plastic and polythene.

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 6. Large number of unemployed youth could be diverted towards green houses
technology.
7. There is a vast scope for export of produce
8. There is a scope for production of exotic crops as their demand is increasing in
the domestic markets.
9. Ideal technology for marginal farmers.
10. Generating employment in erection, maintenance and marketing of
greenhouse technology.

Types of green houses -

A) Greenhouse based on shape -
i) Single span greenhouse
ii) Multi span greenhouse
iii) Even span type greenhouse
iv) Uneven span type greenhouse
v) Ridge and furrow type
vi) Saw tooth type
vii) Naturally ventilated greenhouse
viii) Quonset greenhouse
ix) Tunnel type greenhouse

B) Types of Greenhouse based on Utility -

i) Greenhouses for active heating
ii) Greenhouses for active cooling

C) Greenhouse types based on construction

i) Wooden framed structure
ii) Pipe framed structure
iii) Truss framed structure

D) Types of Greenhouse based on covering material i.e. cladding material :

i) Glass house
ii) Poly house
iii) Shadenet house

E) Types of Greenhouse based on the cost of construction -

a. High cost Green House- (Rs. 2000-3000/m2) – Automatic and fully climate
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 controlled structures
b. Medium cost Green House- (Rs. 1000-1200/m2) – Partially controlled
structure
c. Low cost Green House :( Rs. 600-800/ m2) – Naturally ventilated
polyhouses

Selection of site for green house-

i) Any type of land could be used for green houses.
ii) The site should be away from industrial area to avoid pollution.
iii) Shade of building or trees around green house is also harmful.
iv) The site should be high level from the ground.
v) Site should be near city market.
vi) Sufficient water supply, labour availability, electric supply are the other
factors of prime importance.

Frame Design -
 G.I. Pipes or steel angles are used to make farms.
 Frame should be light in weight.
 Use easily available material.
 Frame should be even from all sides.
 Slope of roof should be such that water not fall on crop or stagnate on
roof.
 It should be easy to change cladding material.
 There should be sufficient ventilation.

Irrigation system-
i) Watering in greenhouses can be done through sprinklers and drip system.
ii) Sprinklers can be used in the early stages of the crop growth.
iii) Drip irrigation can be used in almost all stages of the crop growth.
iv) Fertilizer should be given through irrigation water.

Climate Control in Green House -

The components responsible for plant growth viz. light, temperature, CO 2,

humidity and air circulation can be controlled a sun raiys green house.

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1) Ventilation : For natural circulation of air keep the sides of greenhouse open during
day time.
2) Temperature control :Use of fan and pad system ,exhaust hot air out and using
sprinkler / foggers temperature could be controlled.
a) Cooling:
i) Cooling of green house is necessary when the outside temperature goes
beyond 30ºC.
ii) Depending upon the cladding material and the ventilation, inside temperature
remains 8 to 10º C higher than the outside temperature.
b) Heating :
i) Heating is required in places where the winter temperature is very low.
ii) Greenhouses can be heated with the help of oil burners, hot water (steam) or
electric heaters.
3) CO2 control :

i) CO2 enrichment is done by trapping natural CO2 in the greenhouse upto

1500-2000 ppm.
ii) CO2 enrichment can be done only in fully climate controlled green house.

iii) In the naturally ventilated polyhouse side windows are closed during right.
Which increase CO2 in green house.

iv) Next morning this stored CO2 is utilized by plant for photosyntheis.

4) Control of light intensity : Using UV stabilized sheet and shade net, light
intensity is controlled up to 30000 to 60000 lux.
5) Humidity control : Relative Humidity inside the green house should be 50-
80%. It is controlled by using air circulation, using sprinkles and controlling
evaporation through opening and closing of side curtains in NVPH

The environmental conditions to be maintained in greenhouse are :

Climatic Factors Optimum conditions
Temperature range During day time - 280C to 310C
150C to 180C
Relative humidity 60 to 70%
Light intensity 21500 to 86100 Lux

Cultivation of Crops in Green House

Followings different crops are grown in green houses.

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 a) Vegetables :Tomato, Capsicum, Lettuce, Broccoli, Cucumber
b) Fruits :Strawberry, Muskmelon
c) Flower crops : Rose, Gerbera, Carnation, Lili, Orchids, crysanthemum,
Anthurium etc.

Cultivation of Gerbera
B.N. – Gerbera Jamesonii
Family – Asteraceae / compositae
Origin – South Africa, Asia

Gerbera is commonly known as Transvaal daisy or Bar berton daisy or African

daisy. It is an important commercial cut flower crop.

Soil –

i) Red lateritic soil is good for Gerbera cultivaiton.

ii) soil should be highly porous and well drained for better root growth.
iii) Soil pH must be between 5.5 to 6.5.
iv) Fertile sandy loam soil also suitable.

Climate :

i) The optimum day and night temperature is270C and 140C respectively.
ii) Bright sunshine favours the growth and quality of the flowers.
iii) However, in summer this flower needs diffused sunlight.
iv) For flower initiation optimum temp. is 230c

Preparation of planting bed :

i) In general, Gerbera is grown on raised bed.
ii) The dimensions of the bed should be follows -
a) Bed height : 45 cms b) Bed width : 70 - 80 cms
c) Between the bed : 1 feet or 30 cm.
iii) It should be highly porous, well drained. Gravel sand can be added for better
drainage.
iv) Add Organic manure to improve texture and structure of soil.
v) The soil should be loose and not very compact after watering.
vi) The upper layer of soil and FYM should be properly mixed.

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vii) While bed preparation, add Single Super Phosphate @ 2.5 kg / 100 sqft for better
root formation, Magnesium Sulphate (@ 0.5 kg) also add.
viii) Neem cake 1 kg / m2 should be added for prevention of nematode.

Soilsterilization–
1) Soil sterilization is required before plantation of any crop in greenhouse
to prevent soil borne diseases.

2) There are three main soil sterilization methods available viz. steam, solar
and chemical
3) Out of which chemical method is the most practical method.
4) Formalin is used for soil sterilization @ 7.5/10 lit. of water for 100
sq.marea in the form of spray.
5) The wet beds are spread using formalin and cover with black
polyethylene mulch sheet.
6) After 4 days of formalin treatment, the polyethylene cover is removed,
the beds are raked to remove formalin fumes completely.
7) Formalin treatment can be repeated after three crop cycles.

Propagation :Gerbera is commercially propagated by suckers. Side shoots

Varieties:Stanza, Winter Queen, Jaffa, Diana, Thalsa, Pre intenzz, Sangira,

Sonsara, Rosetta, Gloria, Pricilla, Sunway, Zingaro, Balance, Rosaline

Planting :
1) Only tissue culture plants or seedlings are used for gerbera cultivation.
2) At the time of planting the tissue culture seedlings have 4 to 5 leaves.
3) Gerberas are planted on raised bed in two rows, Zigzag plantation system is
mostly used.
4) While planting, 65% portion of root ball should be kept below ground and rest of
the portion i.e. 35% kept above the ground level for better air circulation in theroot
zone.
5) Planting is done either in evening or morning when temp. is low.
6) Ideal planting density - 8-10 plants/sq.m. Spacing - 30 X 30 cm or 40 x 25cm

Fertilizer:
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 i) Well rotten FYM @ 10-15 kg/100 sq.m. is mixed with soil before
sterilization.
ii) After flowering N:P:K15:8:35 at the rate of 1.5 g/l water/day.
iii) Micronutrients should be given weekly like boron, Zink etc.

Cultural practices :
a) Weeding and Raking:
i) Remove the weeds from the bed at regular internal.
ii) Due to daily irrigation, the surface of the bed becomes hard hence
raking of soil is essential once in a week.
iii) It increases soil aeration in the root zone
b) Disbudding :
i) Removal of inferior quality flowers at the initial bud stage after
plantation is called disbudding.
ii) The normal production of flower starts after 75 - 90 days from of
plantation.
iii) But Production of flowers starts 45 days after plantation which is
inferior in quality.
iv) Hence these flowers should be removed from the base of the flowers
stalk.
c) Removal of old leaves : The old, dry, infected leaves should be removed from the
plant.

Pests Gerbera: White fly, Red spider mites, Aphids, Leaf minor, Caterpillars,
Nematodes,

Diseases of Gerbera : Root rot, Foot rot, Blight , Powdery mildew, Leafspots

Harvesting of Gerbera –
i) The first harvesting is done after 75 - 90 days after planting.
ii) The good quality flower has stalk length of 45-55cm.
iii) Morning or evening is the best time for harvesting.
iv) After harvesting the flowers should be kept in a bucket containing clean
water.
v) For harvesting gerbera secateurs is not it can be done by just pulling the

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 flower stalk on one side.

Yield :150- 250 flowers/ m2 / year

The commercial life of gerbera is generally 3 years in soil media and 5 - 6 years in
soil less media under naturally ventilated polyhouse.
Cultivation of Capsicum (Shimla Mirch)

B.N. :Capsicum annuum

Family : Solanaceae
Origin : America

Soil :
i) It can be grown on wide range of soil type
ii) Sand loam soil with good organic matter content is suitable.
iii) Soil should be well drained having pH range 5.5 to 6.8
iv) Avoid water stagnation or water logged condition.

Climate :
i) It is a cool dry season crop.
ii) This crop requires day temp. 25 – 300c and night temp. of 18 – 200c with
relative humidity 50 to 60 %
iii) If temp exceeds 350c or falls 120c fruit setting is affected.
iv) Lower right temp. favours flowering and fruit setting.

Cultural Practices :
A) Land preparation :
1) The land should be ploughed and soil should be brought to fine tilth
2) Add well decomposed organic matter @20-25 kg/m2
3) Raised beds are formed after ploughing.
4) The bed size a) width – 90 to 100 c,
b) height – 15 to 20 cm
5) Between the beds 45 to 50 cm space should provided for interculture
operation.
B) Fertilizers :
1) A basal fertilizer dose of 20 KgN + 25 KgP + 20KgK / acre is applied to
beds.
2) Apply 600kg Neen cake along with Trichoderma to avoid soil borne

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 diseaes.
C) Mulching :
1) Black polythene mulch paper (30 – 100 micron thick) 1.2 m wide is used to
cover the planting beds.
2) Mulching practice conserve water control weed and reduce attack of pest
and disease.
D) Spacing : 45 x 30 cm

E) Transplanting :
1) Seedlings of 30-35 days old are used for transplanting
2) Seedlings are transplanted into holes made in polythene mulch film at a
depth of 5 cm.
3) Irrigate the mulch bed daily to avoid mortality of seedling.
4) Near about 4000 seedlings are required for planting one acre area.

Pruning :
i) Capsicum plants are pruned to retain four stems.
ii) The tip of the plant is pinched after 30 days of transplanting which then
splits into two branches.
iii) These two branches again split in to two giving four branches.
iv) At every node the tip splits into two giving rise to one strong branch and one
weak branch.
v) Pruning results in bigger fruits with better quality and high productivity.

Training :
i) The main stem of plant is tied with four plastic twine to train along and tied
to wire grid.
ii) This is practiced after four weeks of transplanting.
iii) The new branches and plants are trained along the plastic twines.

Pest of Capsicum : Thrips, mites, Aphids, fruit borer, Nematodes.

Disease of Capsicum : Damping off leaf spot powdery mildew.

Harvesting and Yield :

i) Green capsicum can be harvested at 55 to 60 days after transplanting.

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 ii) Yellow capsicum at 70-75 days where as red capsicum at 80-90 days after
transplanting.
iii) Fruits can be harvested once in 3 to 4 days every in the morning.
iv) Yellow and red fruits can be harvested when they have gained 50-80% of
the colour development
v) After harvest fruits should be kept in cool place and avoid direct exposure to
sunlight.

Yield : The average yield of Capsicum is 30 to 40 tons / acres.

Integrated Pest Management of green house crops :

Integrated Pest Management is the system that utilizes all suitable techniques
in a compatible manner to reduce pest population.
The following steps should be considered to control pest and disease in
greenhouse.
1. Use resistant varieties
2. Use healthy planting material.
3. Proper sanitation techniques.
4. Monitor crop daily
5. Modify the environment
6. Avoid plant stress
7. Use light trap, sticky cards etc.

******

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 Chapter - 8

Seed Processing and Testing

Seed processing means improving the quality of harvested seed through a series of
operations, viz. cleaning, drying, grading, testing, shelling, treating, bagging and
labelling
OR
Seed processing may be defined AS the process of removal of dockage in a seed lot and
preparation of seed for marketing.

Importance of seed processing

1) It helps in taking such preventive measures that maintain seed viability e.g.
drying of seed
2) It helps in improving the seed quality by removing adultrants and unfit seed.
3) It helps in keeping healthy seed by giving various seed treatment.
4) It helps in getting higher yield due to pure seed.
5) It helps in preventing spread of weed seed.
6) It helps in improving storage life of seed.
7) Process seeds in uniform in size hence machine sowing becomes easier.
8) It provides information about seed quality standards
9) Processing makes seed handling easier
10) Use of designated tags facilitates seed identification and handling.

General processing Sequence for complete cleaning of seed of different crops

A) General processing sequence involves drying, preconditioning, precleaning,
cleaning, separation and upgrading, treating, weighing, bagging, storage
1) Drying :
i) Drying of seed means lowering the seed moisture content to safe moisture limits.
ii) In order to avoid any negative effects of high moisture, the seed has to be dried to
8 to 12% moisture.
iii) If the seed is stored at high moisture content it affects germination quickly and
seed is affected with pest and diseases.
iv) The two common methods of seed drying are sundrying and forced air drying.
2) Preconditioning and precleaning :

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 i) Means operations such as shelling, debearding, etc.
ii) That prepare seed lot for basic seed cleaning and also removal of trash stones,
clods, etc. larger than crop seed.
iii) Precleaning remove particles that are lighter in weight and smaller in size than
the crop seed.
3) Cleaning :Seed impurities like weeds, immature seed, inert matters, infected seed,
other crops seed, damaged seed are removed from seed lot on the basis of differences
in physical properties.

4) Upgrading :
i) The various processing operations conducted after basic cleaning for further
improvement of seed quality are called as upgrading.
ii) After cleaning the seed requires grading. The grading is of two types a) length
grading b) gravity separating.
iii) The clean seed is further graded on the basis of length of seed.
iv) The immature or infected seeds are removed in this process
v) Gravity separating is followed after length grading and is helpful in removing
light and immature seed.
5) Seed blending :
i) Blending is an attempt to produce more uniform seed lot.
ii) Seed blending refers to combining two or more varieties of the same species.
iii) While seed mixing denotes combining two or more species.
6) Treating :
i) This process is followed after grading.
ii) In this process a suitable fungicide/ pesticide is used to protect the seed from
pest and various diseases.
7) Weighing and Bagging :
i) Processed seed may be handled either in bags or in the bulk.
ii) When seed is being bagged a small platform is used to weigh the filled bags.
8) Storage :The seed is stored in cool and dry place to maintain it in good physical and
physiological condition.

B) Processing sequence for complete cleaning of Jowar, Soyabean, groundnut and

cotton seed

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Layout and planning of seed processing plant -

A) Factors to be considered while planning and designing seed processing plants

1) Size and sequence of operation
2) Kinds of crop seed to be handled.
3) Kind of weed seed present in seed lot.

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 4) Selection of equipment and cost needed.
5) Location of the plant and are required.
6) Type of drying facilities required.
7) Facilities required for seed cleaning and storage.
8) Facilities of transport of seed from processing plants.
9) Source of power for electricity machinery.
10) Availability of labour and their wages and training.
11) Competition from the other processing unit.
12) Appointment of manager for plant
13) Market should be near to proposed project area

B) Planning :
1) Carefullay out planning is useful to identify and prevent trouble spots before the
plant is built.
2) Scale drawings are the most used method of layout planning.
3) Scale models and scale templates are also effective, but are more expensive

C) Analysis of operation:

I. Processing sequence : The seed separators, elevators, conveyors and storage

bins should be so arranged that seeds flow continuously from receiving to end.
II. Machine capacity : Equipment capacity must be carefully planned to prevent
further problem.
III. Conveying :The conveying system must be able to handle the capacity needed
in a particular spot.

Types of layouts -
1. Multistorey :
i) In this type, seed is carried by elevators to the top floor and emptied
into large bins.
ii) Cleaning machines are then arranged in a vertical series on the
lower floors.
iii) Seed flows from one machine to another by gravity.
2. Single level :

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 i) In the single storey plant, seed is moved from one machine to another
by elevators placed between machines.
ii) The advantage of this system is that one man can supervise the
processing.
3. Combined designs : This type is combination of multistory and single level
story type.

Records and forms in seed processing plant -

1) Inward (raw seed) register : It is a register for entering information of
seed lots received for processing.
2) Receipt book : Processing plant manager issue the receipt of concerned
seed lot to seedgrower.
3) Seed processing Register : It contains all kinds of entries regarding
the types of processing done toget right type ofq uality to seed.
4) Analysis record and File : Before tagging seed by appropriate tags,
sample has to be taken from processed seed lot and sent to seed testing
laboratory for different tests such as germination, purity,etc.
5) Seed control register : It consists of information regarding results from
seed testing lab.
6) Bill book : This is used for making seed processing bill.
7) Bill register : This register consists of all information regarding bill
of processed seed
8) Outward or Shipping record
9) Seed processing report file

Seed testing Laboratory -

Seed testing is the science of evaluation of planting value of seed.
Objectives of Seed testing -
1) To determine seed quality
2) To identify seed quality problems and their causes.
3) To determine the need of drying, processing and procedures should
be used.
4) To determine quality standards of seed.
5) To establish quality and provide basis for price

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The International Seed Testing Association (ISTA)
1) ISTA was founded in 1924.
2) The primary object of ISTA is to develop a adopt and publish standard
procedures for sampling and testing seed.
3) It promotes uniform application of rules and methods of testing for the
evaluation of seeds.
4) It also promotes research in all aspects of seed science and Technology
5) It publishes scientific and technical papers in the associations journal
Objectives of ISTA -
1) To provide method by which the quality of seed sample can be determined
accurately.
2) To explain method so that seed scientist can obtain uniform result.
3) To relate the laboratory results regarding planting value.
4) To perform the tests in the most economical manner.
5) To complete the tests within short period of time

Points to be considered while preparing layout and design of seed testing lab.
A) General Principles-
1) The layout should be such that movement of sample from one section to another
is rapid and easy.
2) The room of the office incharge is located in such a way that supervision
becomes easy and effective.

3) There should be adequate working space and arrangement for light.

4) The space can be divided into separate rooms for office, sample reception, dry
room, etc.

5) The germination room and storage room should not face direct sunlight.
6) The design should permit extension in future.
7) Arrangement of water and drainage should require minimum plumbing work.

8) The decent furniture, light and other necessities should be provided

B) Building :
A minimum of 1500 sq. ft. working space has been suggested for laboratories handling
10,000 samples annually.
C) Land and other structure:

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For cultivar purity test the provision for green house is required. In addition small plot
(1 acre) for grow out test is also essential.

D) Equipments :
The equipments should be selected according to specification and capacity.
E) Staff :
The number of workers in seed testing laboratory should be related to number of
samples, crop to be handled and kindof tests performed.
Recordsandformsinseedtestinglaboratory
1) Letter file
2) Sample entry register
3) Sample slip file
4) Sample coding register
5) Receipt book
6) Allotmentregister
7) Purity register
8) Purity work card
9) Germination test register
10) Germination work card
11) Report register
12) Sample Storage register
*****
Chapter - 9

Mushroom Production

Mushroom :
i) It is a fleshy, spore bearing fruiting body of a fungus, typically produced above
ground, or its food source.
ii) All edible fungi are saprophytes.
iii) The edible species are commonly known Mushrooms.
iv) While those, which are poisonous are known as Toadstools
v) Mushroom is a fungus lacking in chlorophyll and obtains nutrients from organic
compounds mainly available in organic waste.

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Importance of Mushroom :
1) Mushrooms are used as food and medicine.
2) Mushrooms are popular for their delicacy and flavor.
3) Mushrooms are great source of protein fiber, vitamin B, C andD.
4) It is a source of minerals like P, K, Cu, Zn, Fe, Mn andMg.
5) It contain alkaloid argothionine and glutathione antioxidant which are unique
in mushrooms.
6) Raw materials used for cultivation of mushrooms are very cheap and easily
available.
7) Agricultural wastes can be used for mushrooms production.
8) Cost of cultivation of mushrooms is very low and require small area for
cultivation.
9) It enhances the income of farmer.
10) It cleans environment by decomposing organic waste

Nutritive value of mushroom -

1) It is a complete quality and healthy food suitable for all age group.
2) Mushrooms are rich in fiber and minerals
3) Mushroom contains near about 17.00 % to 37.50% protein, these are easily
digestible.
4) It also contain vitamins – B, C, and D

Scope for mushroom cultivation:

1) Now a days, many more people are turning towards mushroom cultivation in
Maharashtra due to low input cost requirement in it.
2) Mushroom cultivation is the best tool for farmers, unemployed youth and rural
women for increasing their income.
3) Mushroom cultivation requires cheap raw material, which is easily available at
farm, as paddy, wheat straw.

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 4) It can be grown almost by anyone, anywhere and has a great market demand
due to its medicinal and nutritional value
5) It can be grown in places like huts, small room tunnels, sheds or shelter

Types of Mushrooms –
1) Button mushroom
2) Oyster Mushroom
3) Paddy straw mushroom
4) Milky mushroom
5) Shitake mushroom

1) Button or European mushroom (Agaricusbisporus) –

i) This mushroom is commonly known as White button, European or temperate
mushroom
ii) It is cultivated in temperature range of 16-240C.
iii) In winter season found naturally in Himachal Pradesh and Jammu Kashmir
iv) It can be cultivated any where under artificial conditions
2) Oyster Mushroom(Pleurotusspp.)
i) This mushroom is also known as woodfungus and in India it is commonly known
as “Dhingri”.
ii) It requires 20-300C temperature for growth
iii) Under natural conditions on trees or dead woody branches of tree.
iv) Some common species of Pleurotusflorida, pleurotussajorcaju and
pleurotusflabelltus.
3) Paddy straw mushroom(Volvariellaspp.)
i) It is commonly known as Paddy straw mushroom or Chinese mushroom.
ii) It is very fast growing mushroom it requires 15 to 18 days from spawning.
iii) Grows at higher temperature 25 to 350C and relative humidity 85 %.
iv) Widely cultivated in Odisha, West Bengal
v) Commonly cultivated species is Volvariella volvaccea
4) Milky mushroom (Calocybeindiaca) :
i) Itis milky white coloured and hence commonly known as Dudhchatta.
ii) Widely grown in South India and West Bengal.
iii) Grows at higher temperature 25 to 350C and relative humidity 75%.
iv) The mushroom is robust and has a firm consistency.

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Requirement for Mushroom production –
A) Infrastructure:
i) For oyster mushroom cultivation partially ventilated covered area of specific
size is essential.
ii) Materials like bamboo, grass, fiber sheets, can be utilized for building the
structure.
iii) For button mushroom cultivation composting yard, pasteurization chambers,
spawning room cropping rooms are essential.

B) Equipments :
i) Air conditioner, exhaust fan, spray pump, steam boiler, compost turner,
humidifier, weighing balance, humidity and temperature recorder.

C) Material required :Agro waste raw material

i) Wheat, paddy, jowar or soybean straw, sugarcane trash, dried cotton plants,
hay,etc. are generally used as raw material.
ii) Container - For mushroom production polyethylene bags are used18 to 22 inch in
length 80 to 100 gauge thickness.
iii) Spawn – It is a seed for production of mushroom.
iv) Soil, sand, FYM, coir pith, thread, polytherne bags, bucket etc.
v) Other material – a) Heater - for waterheating
b) Drum - for soaking raw material
c) Dryer - for drying mushroom
d) Foggers - for humidity generation

e) Thermometer – Temperature and Hygrometer for humidity measurement

f) Water - clean and pure water in sufficient quantity

Button mushroom cultivation technique –

i) Cultivation of the white button mushroom requires technical skill

ii) It requires 220C to 280Ctemperatures for spawn and case run and 150C to 180c
for fruit body formation.
iii) Relative humidity requirementis 85-95% with good ventilation during
fructification.

Cultivation of button mushroom requires three steps –

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I) Production of spawn: Spawn can be prepared in the laboratory or purchased.

II) Preparation of growth medium (compost) -

Button mushroom is cultivated on specially prepared compost. The compost is

prepared as follows.

a) Long method of composting - compost preparation duration is 28 to 30 days

b) Short method of composting - compost preparation duration 18days

* Thefollowingingredientsarerequiredtofill50 bags of compost

Sr. No Ingredients Long method Short method

1 Wheat straw 300kg 300kg

2 Wheat bran 30 kg 21.6 kg
3 Ammonium sulphate 9 kg ----
4 Urea 3.6 kg 4.5 kg
5 Sulphate of potash 3.0 Kg ----
6 Super phosphate 3.0 Kg ----
7 Gypsum 30.0 Kg 9.0 Kg
8 Lindane 1.0 Kg ----
9 Chicken manure ---- 120.0Kg

At present, short method of composting is being adopted on large scale.

III) Cultivation :Different steps in cultivation are as follows-
a)Spawning :
i) Spawning means mixing of spawn in the fully prepared compost.
ii) In this case mix the spawn evenly and throughout the compost.
iii) Rate of spawningis0.5 to 0.75 % of fresh weight of compost.
iv) Maintain relative humidity at about 80 to 90% temperature at 250C in the
spawning room.
v) The spawn run (It is period from spawning to full development of mycelium in
the compost) is completed within 15-20 days showing whitish strands of
mycelium

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b) Casing:
i) The process of covering the compost with a thin layer of soil or soil like material
after the spawn run is known as casing.
ii) The purpose of casing is to provide necessary stress for induction of fruiting.
iii) It also provides support to the mushroom.
iv) It is also known to supply water for growth and development of fruit body.
v) Casing maintain humidity and temperature in cropping room by evaporative
cooling and gaseous exchange.
vi) The casing material is prepared by mixing sandy loam soil with FYM in 1:1
proportion or coir pith + soil (5:1 ratio).
vii) Casing material is sterilize in an autoclave at 30 lbs pressure for 1 hour or 2 Lit.
formalin in 40 lit water per cubic meter.
C) Crop management :
i) After casing maintain the temperature at 200 to 240C for about one week and
with 85-90% relative humidity.
ii) After this period lower down the temperature to 15-180C and supply fresh air.
iii) The pinhead starts appearing after 12-15 days of casing and cropping
continues for about 2 months.
iv) After pinhead appearance it requires 8 to 10 days to attain 3 to 5 cm in diameter.
v) Then take out mushroom by twisting.

Oyster (Dhingari) mushroom cultivation technique -

A)Medium/Substrate :This mushroom is cultivated on waste dried straw of threshed
crops of field.
B)Preparation of substrate:
i) Dhingri can be grown on various substrates like wheat, cotton waste, paddy
straw, soybean husk, sugarcane bagasse, etc.
ii) Cultivation on wheat/paddy straw is more economical
iii) The straw should be chopped in to small pieces of 2 to 3 cm size.
iv) And then soaked in tap water for 8 to 10 hours.
C) Pasteurization
a) Steam pasteurization - The substrate is exposed to steam at 800C temperature for
one hour.
b) Hot water treatment :The substrate is kept in hot water (800C temperature) for one
hour.
c) Chemical sterilization :The substrate is soaked in solution of formalin (125ml)

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and carbendazim (7.5gm) mixed in 100 litre of water for nearly 18 hours.

D) Bed preparation –
i) The polythene bag method is used for bed preparation
ii) The polythene bags of 35x55cm size is disinfected in 5% formalin solution.
iii) The beds are prepared by layer method.
iv) First layer of straw of 2-3 cm at the bottom is given.
v) Then spread the spawn evenly over the surface of straw.
vi) Likewise fill up the bed by giving 3 to 4 layers by pressing straw.
vii) Then after of spawning should be done@ 2% on the weight basis of straw
viii) Tight neck of the bag tightly and make 30-40 pinholes on the surface of bag.
ix) The bags are then kept for incubation at250C with relative humidity70-80%

E) Crop Management -
i) The spawn run is completed within 12-17 days.
ii) After completion of spawn run remove polythene bags and beds are kept in
partially ventilated room.
iii) Light watering should be done for 2 to 3 times in a day.
iv) The temperature of growing room should be 250c with relative humidity of 80-
90%
v) After removing plastic bags, pinheads start appearing within 3-5 days and
become ready for harvest in a week.
vi) Harvest the mushroom crop at a time.
vii) In 45 to 50 days 0.8 to 1.0 kg fresh mushroom can be obtained from bed of 1 kg
dry straw.

* Paddy straw mushroom cultivation -

a) IIIrd most important cultivated mushroom having pleasant flavour and taste.
b) It is mushroom of the tropics and subtropics.
c) Easy to cultivate and fast growing mushroom (10-12 days)
d) Species grown - Volvariella, V. diplasiaand V.esculanta

A) Cultivation Technique :
The paddy straw mushroom can be cultivated by following methods
a)Traditional Technique
b) Modern Technique

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a)Traditional Technique -
i) Clean fresh, dried and un chopped paddy straw is required for cultivation
ii) The paddy straw is tied in to bundles of 1 kg weight.
iii) The bundles are then soaked in water for 16 to 20 hours
iv) Sterilize the paddy straw by soaking in 800C temp water
v) The bundles are kept in the form of bed on bamboo platform
vi) Each bed consist of 22 bundles.
vii) The beds are spawned in between layers (1.5%)
viii) Threshed gram or gram floor can be used 150 g/bed below the spawn.
ix) The beds are pressed from the top and covered with plastic sheet
x) Beds are watered regularly once or twice a day.
xi) During cropping period the temperature should be 280 to 320C with relative
humidity of 80-90%
xii) Mushroom start appearing in clusters from all sides after 10-12 days of
spawning and are harvested after about 3 weeks
xiii) Each bed of 22 bundles would yield about 2.5 to 3.0 kg mushroom.

B) Modern Technique –
1) Cotton waste and rice straw (1:1)proportion, chicken manure 5% and lime
stone 3% are mixed together
2) Add water in mixture and piled on a concrete platform with the help of a wooden
frame (90cmx90cmx30cm) for fermentation
3) One pile of compost usually consists of 4to6 layers and is about 70 to 90 cm
high.
4) The process of fermentation is completed within 2 to 4 days.
5) After preparation of bed the pasteurization is done at 60-62oC for 4hours
6) When the straw / compost is ready for spawning the spawn used is (1.5%)
7) Near About 4 days are required for completion of spawn run.
8) On the fifth day after spawning primordia of fruit bodies appear on the surface
of the bed.
9) It usually takes 4 days to develop to the stage of harvesting.
10) Maximum two flushes can be harvested

Harvesting and packing of mushrooms :

a) Button mushroom (Agaricusbisporus) –

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 i) Harvest the fully developed buttons of 3 to 5 cm diameter in the early hours
ii) The yield of mushroom is about 15 to 20 kg/100kg of compost
b)Dhingri (Pleurotus spp.) mushroom
i) Firstharvestingisdonein20-25daysafter filling bags
ii) This is done when it attains full size by twisting of fruits
iii) The expected yield is about 750 to 800 gm from 1 kg of dry straw.
c)Paddy straw mushroom (Volvariellaspp.)
i) Harvest the mushroom at button stage
ii) Harvest the mushroom by twisting
iii) Each bed of 22 bundles gives 2.5 to 3.0 kg mushroom in traditional method and
3.5 to 4.0 kg in modern method of cultivation.

Mushroom packing:
i) Generally plastic bags with holes are filled in with 200 gm of mushroom.
ii) If market is at long distance, then fill the mushroom packets in boxes with ice
blocks.

Preservation of Mushroom
Drying – a) Dehydration of mushrooms
i) For dehydration purpose mushrooms are harvested at a maturity stage.
ii) They can be dried in the sun or in a mechanical dehydrator at 600 to 700C.
iii) Mushroom can also be dried after steam or water blanching at 60-700C
iv) Dipping in aqueous solution of chlorine followed by sulphite retains the
whiteness of the product.
v) Dried mushrooms should be stored in airtight containers in a cool dryplace.
b) Freeze drying -
1) It is done by immersing the sliced mushroom in solution of sodium
metabisulphite and 2% common salt.
2) These are then blanched in boiling water for 2 minutes followed by cooling.
3) The product is frozen at –220F for one minute
4) The frozen products are dried to 3% moisture content and packed in cans.

Canning of mushroom -
i) Button mushrooms can be canned either whole or in smaller pieces
ii) Fresh mushrooms are then dipped in boiling water for 2 to 3 minutes and put in
cold water.

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iii) Blanching can also be done in steam for 2 to 3 minutes
iv) Blanched and cooled mushrooms are filled in cans
v) Brine solution consisting of 2% common salt, 2%sugarand0.3%citricacid,is
added into can.
vi) After sterilization the cans are kept in cool and dry place.

Pickling of mushroom
Components
Fresh mushroom(buttom) - 500gm
Salt - 20gm
Ginger - 05gm
Onion - 20gm
Mace(ground) - 02gm
Fenugreek - 10gm
White paper - 20gm
Red chilli powder - 10gm
Vinegar - 10 ml
Mustard seed oil - 100ml
Sodiumbenzoate - 200mg

Procedure -
1) Use button mushrooms for pickles, immerse them in cold water
2) Put clean mushrooms in pan and mix with salt, pepper, mace, fenugreek,
red chili powder.
3) Fry onion and ginger in oil to a light brown colour and mix with
mushroom.
4) Add vinegarand cook for 10 minutes
5) Pour the whole mixture into small glass jars
6) Seal the jar with lid and label it
7) Leave it for a few days at room temperature and use after one month.

*****

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 Chapter - 10

Agro Tourism

i) A term Agrotourism is a farm based business

ii) Agrotourism is not only a farm visit to get knowledge but also includes
information research sales activities. etc.
iii) Agrotourism is an innovative agricultural actively related to both tourism and
agriculture.
iv) It has tremendous capacity to create additional income source and
employment opportunities to farmer.
Definition :
Agrotourism refers to any enterprise or business that links agriculture with
products, services and experience in tourism.
OR
Agrotourismcan be defined as activities that brings visitors to farms
OR
Agrotourism is defined as travel that combines agricultural or rural settings
with products of agricultural operation all within a tourism experience.
MTDC -Maharashtra Tourism development corporation.

Farm
based
agro-eco
Educatio tourism Accomm
n odation

Agro
Health
Agro heritage

tourism

Entertai
Food
nment

Outdoor
recreati Trade
on

Objects of agrotourism
Features of agrotourism
1) The agrotourism activity takes place in the accessible locations and the
community participation is essential.

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 2) Promoted locally developed accommodation and food
3) More focus should be given on cleanliness and hygiene
4) A tourist shopping centres of local and organic products can be opened
5) The focus should be on something to see, something to do and something to
buy.
6) Tours to production centre like fruit gardens, goat, poultry and dairy farms, etc.
7) Also visit to local places like gram panchayat, school, village river, old
religious places,
8) Family and village games like gilli – danda, kabbadi, wrestling, high jump,
long jump,pebble playing, etc. should be arranged with evening entertainment
like camp-fire, local and folk dance songs.

Advantages of Agrotourism-
1) Agriculture tourism allows people to stay close to nature and experience
different functions or operations, that are carried out on the farm.
2) It brings agriculture sector and service sector closer.
3) Cultural transformation between rural and urban people including social and
moral values.
4) Agrotourism satisfy the curiosity of the urban people regarding village and
Agriculture.
5) Agrotourism creates employment opportunities to the farmers and youth.
6) It provides additional income source for the farmers.
7) The urban people can understand the rural life.
8) Agrotourism spreads knowledge about agricultural science among urban
people.
9) Strong family oriented recreational activities through rural games, festivals,
food and dresses.
10) Help to reduce burden of the other traditional tourist centers.

Types of Agrotourism -
Agrotourism can be classified into following fundamental types –

1. Direct-market agrotourism :
i) Farmer or owner sells a wide range of goods such as farm produce, organic and
processed products directly to the customers in fairs, exhibitions, market or on

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 the farm.
ii) One of the most popular example of this form is a roadside produce stands.
2. Experience and education agrotourism:
This form of agrotourism includes hand picking of fruits from orchard, bed and
breakfast facilities, farm tours and farm working.
3. Event and recreation agrotourism:
It offers generally utilising the farm land for various purposes like, hurda- parti,
harvest festival like Irjeek, weddings that held on farm, mela, Jaggery preparation,
bee keeping, sericulture, etc.
Different recreational activities such as archery, summercamp, horse
riding, cart riding are also made available for attracting tourists buying organic
items that are produced on farm.

Facilities for agrotourism -

A) Food :Eating is a compulsory activity of humans and farming is an activity
oriented to food production hence there are two dimensions in the field of food
agrotourism
B) Restoration :
- Breakfast
- Home mademeals
C) Trade :Creating trade partnerships with the tourism sector for farmers, artisans and
agroprocessors
D) Culinary :
 Culinary workshops
 Food Festivals
 Buying packaged local products
 Farmer’s market
 Tour to food factory
 Direct - On farmsales
 Agricultural – Road side stands
 Sales - Agriculture related crafts/gifts

E) Out door recreation

- Horse riding
- Wildlife viewing

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 - Wildlife photography
- Fishing
- Picnicking
- Cross-country skilling

F) Entertainment
- Agricultural fairs
- Local festivals
- Special events
- Petting zoo
- Dog training

*****

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 Chapter - 11

Organic Farming

Organic farming is the crop production system which avoids the use of chemical
fertilizers, pesticides and growth regulators

Practices of organic farming

 Good Animal Husbandry Practices
 Careful use of natural water resources
 Good Agricultural Practices

Aims / Objectives of organic farming

1) To maintain and increase long term soil fertility
2) Control the diseases and pests without harming the environment
3) Make sure that the water is clean and safe
4) Produce nutritious, chemical free food to human beings and feed for animals
in sufficient quantity.
5) To use a far as possible the renewable resources.
6) Sale the high quality produce at the good price.
7) Avail the resources which are farmers already have.

Four Principles of organic farming –

A) Principle of health –
i) The role of organic agriculture is to sustain and enhance the health of total
ecosystem i.e. health of soil, plant, animal and human beings
ii) It provides pollution chemical free food for beings.
B) Principle of Care -
i) Organic farming should be practiced in a careful and responsible manner to
protect the present and future generation and environment.
C) Principle of ecology -
i) Organic farming must be based on living ecological system
ii) Organic farming must be fit the ecological balance and cycles in nature.
iii) Organic farming should be maintain genetic diversity
D) Principle of fairness
i) Organic farming provides good quality of life and helps in reducing poverty.

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 ii) Natural resources must be used and preserved for future generation.
iii) Conduct human relationship in a manner that ensures fairness at all levels
and to all parties.

Types of organic farming -

1) Pure organic farming –
1) In this fertilizers and chemical pesticides are completely avoided.
2) It advocates the use of organic manures and biological pest control methods
only.
2) Integrated green revolution organic farming – In this farming techniques are
developed and are combined with high input technology in order to create integrated
system such as INM, IPM and IWM
3) Integrated farming system (IFS) – is the low input organic farming and
depends on local resources and ecological processes, recycling of agricultural waste
and crop residue.

Requirement and components of organic farming -

1) Crop production plan –
i) This plan shall include description of the crops in production cycle as
per the agro climatic situation
ii) Description of practices and procedures to be performed
iii) List of inputs used in production
iv) Source of organic planting material
v) Description of the recordkeeping system
2) Conversion requirements –
i) The establishment of an organic management system and building of
soil fertility requires an interim period.
ii) The start of the conversion period may be calculated from the date of
first inspection by the Certification Body.
3) Duration of conversion period –
i) In case of annual and biennial crops conversion period of at least two
years before sowing.
ii) In case of perennial plants other than grassland canbe certified as
organic after at least thirty six months (3 years)
iii) The Accredited Certification bodies decide extension or reduction of
conversion period depending on the past use of the land and

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 environmental condition
4) Landscape -
i) Organic farming should contribute beneficially to ecosystem.
ii) Minimum % of the farm area to facilitate biodiversity and nature
conservation
5) Choice of crops and varieties
i) Crops and varieties cultivated should be adopted to the soil and climate
condition and resistant to pest and disease
ii) Use organic seed and plant materials
iii) When certified organic seed and plant material are not available
conventional seed and plant material is used
iv) Genetically engineered seed, transgenic plants or plant material not
used.
6) Diversity in crop production and management plan –
i) Organic farming take into consideration the structure and fertility of
the soil an surrounding ecosystem with a view to prevent nutrient
losses.
ii) Soil fertility should be maintained through cultivation of legumes or
deep rooted crops and use of Green manuring along with suitable
crop rotation.
7) Nutrient management
i) Sufficient quantities of biodegradable material such as plant, animal
or microbial origin are used.
ii) Nutrient management should minimize nutrient losses.
iii) Accumulation of heavy metals (salt) and other pollutant should be
prevented.
iv) Manures containing human excreta shouldno used to prevent
transmission of parasites and infectious agents.
v) Prevent use of inputs such as minerals potassium, Mg, trace elements
manures and fertilizer with high heavy metal content.

8) Pest, disease and weedmanagement –

i) Inorganic farming systems losses from pest diseases and weeds are
minimised.
ii) Weeds, pests and diseases should be controlled with the help of
mulching, mechanical control and the disturbance of pest life cycle.

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 iii) The natural enemies of pest and disease should be protected.
iv) Allow the product, prepared from local plants animals microorganisms
for weed, pest and disease management.
v) Physical methods of pest, disease, and weed control should be
permitted.
vi) Prevent use of synthetic herbicides fungicides growth regulators and
insecticides.
vii) The use of genetically engineered organisms or products is prohibited.
viii) Clean the equipment before being used on organically managed area.
9) Contamination Control –
i) All relevant measures may be taken to minimise contamination from
outside or inside the farm.
ii) Buffer zone should be maintained to prevent contamination.
iii) Polyethylene and other polycarbonates covering should be removed
from soil after use and should not bum in situ.
10) Soil and water conservation –
i) Measures to be taken to prevent erosion, salivation and improper use of
water and water pollution.
ii) Burning of organic matter, cleaning of primary forest is prohibited.
11) Collection of non cultivated material of plant origin / forest produce-
i) The collection of wild plants and parts grown naturally should be
certified organic if derived from stable growing environment.
ii) Harvesting and gathering the product should not exceed the sustainable
yield of the ecosystem.
iii) When harvesting and gathering the produce attention should be paid to
maintenance of the ecosystem.

Components of organic farming

1) Biological management
2) Vermicompost
3) Green manure
4) Organic manures
5) Biofertilizers
6) Crop rotation

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 7) Animal husbandry

A) Organic manures – Which include FYM Biogas slurry compost biofertilizers

etc.

B) Non Chemical and weed control measures –

i) All physical, mechanical and biological methods ar efollowed to reduce the
weed without the use of herbicides.
ii) Apply integrated weed management (IWM Technique which include) a)
monitoring wed b) use ecological, biological , Biotechnical methods c)
higher plant population / Balanced nutrition / Intercropping relay cropping
mixed cropping etc.

C) Ecological Management- (Cultural Weed Control) -

i) Ploughing, crop rotation, intercropping, soil solarization puddling are very
effective for weed control.
ii) Crop rotation which are very effective against weeds in pulse crop rotaiton
with cereal crops.

D) Biological Weed Control -

iii) Biological weed control envolve the use of insect pathogen, fish and snails
iv) In biological control method, it is not possible to eradicate weeds but weed
population can be reached.

Insect -

a) In Australia, Lantana camara was controlled by two beetles

b) Prickly-pear weed was controlled in India by cochineal insect

c) Alligator weed (aquatic weed) was controlled by using flea beetle.

 Fish – Common carp control aquatic weed.

 Mommals – Manetee control water hyacinth weed.

 Snails – Snails feeds on submerged weed.

 Fungi – Water hyacinth can be controlled Rhizoctinia blight

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  Mites – Splder mite control prickly pear weed

 Plants – Cow pea sown in between Jowar rows reduce the growth of weeds.

E) Physical / Mechanical Method of Weed Control -

1) Hand weeding 6) Flooding

2) Hoeing 7) Burning

3) Digging 8) Mulching

4) Mowing (cutting) 9) Intercultivation

5) Chaining 10) Cutting / uprooting

Merits or Advantages of Organic Farming –

1) Organic farming enhance long term fertility of soil for high yields and good

quality crops.

2) Organic manures supply all the micro and macro and elements required by

the plants.

3) Physical properties of soil like bulk density porosity structure texture are

improved.

4) The water holding capacity, aeration of soil are also increased with organic

mater content.

5) Improves chemical properties such as caption exchange capacity soil pH of

soil.

6) Soil organic carbon is increased.

7) Improves biological activities of earthworm micro-organisms, biological

nitrogen fixation etc.

8) Provide more healthy and nutritionally superior food.

9) Organic farming helps to prevent environmental pollution and regenerate

ecosystem.

10) It is low cost farming and control erosion of soil.

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 11) It helps in maintaining agricultural production at sustainable level.

12) It ensures optimum utilization of natural resources.

13) It helps to reduce pest and diseases of crops.

14) The cost of production of organic produce is comparatively low.

Demerits / Disadvantages of Organic Farming -

1) Comparatively low production potential

2) Lack of natural resources

3) More time is required for stabilization

4) Organic food is more expensive

5) Organic farming can not produce enough food to feed world population.

*****

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 Chapter - 12

Agro Informatics

i) Use of electronic gadgets and software for storage, analysis, transfer and
retrieving information is termed informatics.
ii) Agro-informatics is the application in agriculture with innovative ideas,
techniques and scientific knowledge to expand horizons of computer.
iii) It is information technology applied to management and analysis of agricultural
data.
iv) Modern devices and systems like computer, mobile, internet, etc., are capable to
store, process, communicate and regenerate the information at a highest speed
with lowest cost.
* Meaning and use of modern devices and systems in agriculture

A) Computer -
i) It is a magic box which can accept information through different input devices
e.g. camera, microphone, keypad, mouse, scanner.
ii) It can process huge data with in fraction of second.
iii) We can obtain output from computer by various ways e.g. display on monitor, sound
through speaker hard copy from printer.

Use of computer in agriculture -

i) Computer can be used at each level in the process of communication.
ii) Scientist, subject expert can use computer to shape the information in written,
pictorial, movie or audio form
iii) Then it can be spread to the extension worker through CDs, VCDs micro SD
cards USB storage devices.
iv) Extension worker can load the information in his computer and use it in the
process of communication with farmers.
v) If available farmers can also use computer to store and use information of
Agriculture.
vi) Computer is also helpful to obtain feedback from the receivers at each level.
vii) Farmers can easily access required information on crops, store using network of
computer.
viii) Some farm management software can help farmers to maintain their farms more

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 effectively and increase productivity.

 Operating system – Microsoft Windows, Linux, Ubuntu

 Web Browsers – Microsoft Internet Explorer, Mozilla Firefox, Google
Chrome,
Apple Safari
 Search Engine – Google, Hayoo, Bing, ASK, Baidu, AOL.com

2) Internet –
1) Internet is global network that connects the computers across the globe.
2) The long form of internet is international network.
3) Internet facility can be obtained on the computer, laptop, tablet computer,
mobile.
4) The devices can be connected with optical fibre cable, telephone landline, Wifi
etc.

Use of Internet in Agriculture-

1) Internet get direct access to the research and experience of developed countries
and use it for improvement in the field of Agriculture.
2) Internet is also used in searching market information about particular input or
output of agriculture.
3) Online marketing has opened new horizons of nationals and international
market.
4) Internet provide all information regarding crop cultivation, pest diseases
management, nutrient, weed and harvesting of crops.
* Some of the important websites useful for the farmers.
www.maharashtra.gov.in
www.mahaagri.gov.in
www.mcaer.org
www.msamb.com
www.agricoop.nic.in
www.icar.org.in
www.nhm.gov.in
www.nhb.gov.in
www.apeda.com
www.vsisugar.com
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3) E-mail -
1) It is a process of sending and receiving message in electronic form with or
without attached files to other service user.
2) E-mail is high speed of communication and respondent can view by multiple
times.
3) It saves paper thus ecofriendly practice.
4) It is an integral part of the concept – paperless office.
4) Cell phones / Mobile -
1) Cell phones are popularly used device by farmers and even labours also.
2) It cheap, handy and multipurpose device.
3) Cell phones are used to send or receive phones calls text message, e-mails,
photos, and video as well as access internet.
4) Use GPS for getting agricultural information.
5) Video Conferencing -
1) It is an audio-visual communication between two or more persons from
different location with the help of videophone or internet.
2) This system enables to obtain guidance of experts located at any place.
3) It saves valuable time of the expert and travel cost.
*Video conferencing may be two types –
a) Famers are called at a specific location and time so that they can virtually see
and discuss with expert on screen.
b) Farmers are informed to call a particular expert on predecided time. Here the
farmers are calling from different location and expert is at specific place.
6) Global Positioning System (GPS) -
1) GPS is a system that uses signals from satelites to find out position of an object
2) Global positioning System (GPS) is use in agriculture to obtaining benefits in
geo fencing, map making and surveying.
3) GPS enabled tractors, drones are now manufactured by GPS mapping these
machines can be used without any operator.
4) It enhances accuracy and efficiency in atomization of agricultural practices.
5) Wild animals are now tagged with GPS tracker
6) When wild animal crosses a geofenc forest officers are alerted by SMS and
they track the animal.
7) Geographic Information System (GIS) -
1) Geographic Information System or GIS are extensively used in agriculture
especially in precision farming.

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 2) Land is mapped digitally and accrued data such as topography, contours are
obtained.
3) GIS is useful for planning such as what to plant, and where to plant using
historical data and sampling.
8) Agriculture Clinics -
1) Agriculture clinics provide expert advice and service to farmers on various
aspects to increase productivity of crop / animal and increase the income of
famers.
2) Agriculture clinics provide support in the following areas.
i) Soil health ii) cropping practices iii) plant protection
iv) crop insurance v) post harvest technology
vi) clinical service for animals, feed and fodder management
vii) price of various crops in the market.
9) Agricultural Technology Information Centre (ATIC) -
1) It is single window support system linking with research centres to solve the
problems of farmers.
2) Services provided by ATIC
a) Diagnostic services for soil, water testing, plant and livestock health.
b) Supply research products such as seed, planting material poultry and
livestock breeds, fish seed processed product etc. for testing and adoption.
c) Sale of publications and communication material as well as audio-visual aids
produced by research centre.
10) Smart Phone Apps -
1) Most of the farmers are now handling smart phones.
2) It is the easiest and cheapest gadget of information technology.
3) It used a flow of knowledge will appear in the hands of farmer.
*some of the most popular application (app.) and their uses.

*****

Chapter - 13

Agricultural Marketing

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1) Philip Kotler has defined marketing as a human activity directed at satisfying the
needs and wants through exchange process.
2) American marketing association defined marketing as the performance of business
activities that directs the flow of goods and services from producers to users.
3) Agriculture marketing is the study of all the activities, agencies and policies involved
in the procurement of farm inputs by the farmers and the movement of agricultural
products from the farm to the consumers.

Processes of Agricultural Marketing-

There are three processes involved in Agricultural marketing.
1. Assembling (Concentration)

2. Equalisation

3. Dispersion (Distribution)

1) Assembling (concentration) –

i) Assembling begins with the collection of surpluses of individual farmers.

ii) Thisbecomes essential in moving the produce tothe consuming markets in
sufficient quantities to permit efficient processing, transportation, storage, etc.
iii) This process of concentration is called assembling.

Assembling takes two forms -

a) Primary Assembling -

i) The produce is assembled in the villages and primary market.

ii) Farmers feel it convenient due to small quantityof produce, pressing

demand for cash, lack of transport facilities etc.

iii) The prominent functionaries are village merchants.

b) Secondary Assembling:
i) It is associated with greater concentration (70 to 75).
ii) These are initially found in the producing areas and then in the consuming
areas.
iii) New functionaries like commission agents join in the secondary assembling.
iv) These are the wholesale markets.
v) In the secondary assembling, the role of commission agents is of paramount
importance.

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2) Equalisation -
i) It is the adjustment of supply and demand as per the requirements based on the
time, place and quantity.
ii) Through the process of equalisation the products are moved from surplus areas
to deficit areas.

3) Dispersion (Distribution) -

i) The produce that is collected from producing areas should be made available
to the millions of consumers through the consuming markets.

ii) From the major wholesale markets the process of dispersion starts.

iii) Dispersion is seen through various marketing channels.

Types of Agricultural Markets –

1) Type of market on the basis of location or place of operation.
a) Village Market –
i) A market which is located in a small village.
ii) Where major transactions take place among the buyers and sellers of the village
is called a village market.
iii) Goods transacted are milk, fruits, foodgrains, vegetables.

b) Primary Market -
i) These markets are located in town near the centres of production of
agricultural goods.
ii) In these markets a major part of the produce is brought for sale by farmer.
iii) Transactions take place between the farmers and primary traders.
iv) Goods transacted are food grains, cotton, vegetable
c) Secondary wholesale markets -
i) These markets are located at district head quarters or important trade centres
or near railway junctions.
ii) The major transactions in commodities in these markets take place between
village traders and wholesalers.
iii) Goods transacted are food grains, onion, potato, flowers.

d) Terminal markets -
i) These markets are located either in metropolitan cities or at sea ports.

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 ii) A terminal marketis one where the produce is either finally disposed off to the
consumers or processors or assembled for export.
iii) Delhi, Calcutta, Mumbai, Chennai and Cochin are terminal markets for many
commodities
iv) Goods transacted are cotton, food grains, processed food.

e) Seaboard markets -
i) These markets are located near seashore and meant mainly for the export or
import of goods.
ii) Goods transacted are seeds, sugar, edible oils, tea, etc.
iii) This types of market located in Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkatta and Cochin.

2) Types of Market on the basis of area of transaction -

a) Local or Village market -
i) A market in which the buying and selling activities are carried out among the
buyers and sellers drawn from the same village or near by villages.
ii) The village market exist mostly for perishable commodities in small lots
iii) e.g. local milk market or vegetable market.

b) Regional market -
i) A market in which buyers and sellers are drawn from a larger area of the local
markets.
ii) e.g. A class towns, regional markets in India usually exist for food grains.

c) National market -
i) A market in which buyers and sellers spread at the national level.
ii) Located at metrocities and goods like Jute, Tea, Tobacco are transacted.

d) World or International market-

i) A market in which the buyers and sellers are drawn from more than one country
or the whole world.
ii) These are the biggest markets from the area point of view.
iii) These markets exist for commodities which have a world wide demand e.g.
coffee, sugar, row cotton, rice.

3) Types on the basis of number of commodities

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 a. General market -
i) A marketin which all types of commodities, such as foodgrains, oilseeds,
sugar, pulses, and other farm produce are bought and sold is known as
general market.
ii) They are located in towns and cities and transaction between farmers and
traders take place.

b. Specialized market -
i) A market in which transactions take place only in one or two commodities is
known as specialized market.
ii) e.g. foodgrain market, vegetable market, cotton market, wool market, animal
market.

4) Types of Market on the basis of Public Intervention -

a. Regulated market -
i) The are markets in which business is done with the rules and
regulations framed by the statutory market organization.
ii) The marketing costs are standardized and marketing practices are
regulated.
iii) These markets are located at taluka and district level.
iv) Most of the farm products are transacted here e.g. APMC market.

b. Unregulated market -
i) These are markets in which business is conducted without any set rules and
regulations.
ii) Traders frame the rules for the conduct of the business.
iii) These markets suffer from many wrong marketing processes.
iv) In these markets goods like fruits and vegetables are transacted

Types of Market on the basis of volume of a transaction (size) :

a.WholesaleMarket:
i) In this type, commodities are bought and sold in large quantity.
ii) This types of transaction generally takeplac eamongt he traders.

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 b. Retail Market :
i) In this market agricultural goods are brought and sold to the consumers as per their
requirement.
ii) Transactions take place between retailers and consumers.

Problems in Agricultural Marketing –

1) Large number of middle man.
2) Small and scattered holding
3) Forced sales
4) Technologically developed problems in farm production.
5) Poor handling and packing
6) Lack of staderdization and grading
7) Inadequate storage facility
8) Mal practices in market.
9) Multiplicity of market changes.
10) Lack of market information
11) Lack of farmer organization
12) Inadequate transport
13) Communication problem.

Crop Insurance -
Crop insurance refers to an insurance which insure farmers agains the loss of
crops due to natural disasters such as hail, drought and floods.
OR
Crop insurance is a type of protection policy that covers agricultural producers
(farmer) against losses caused by crop failure.

Importance of crop insurance -

1. Stability in income:It protects the farmers against losses caused by crop
failure.
2. Minimal Debts :Farmers are able to repay their loans even during the time of
crop failure with the support of the right insurance partner.
3. Technological Advancement :

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 i) Insurance companies work along with agri platforms who use latest
technology.
ii) This helps farmers to enhance agricultural practices and reduce farmers
losses as well as improve their crop production
4. Yield protection :Crop insurance protect farmers against production loss for
crops.
5. Provides awareness: Insurance companies provide awareness programme which
help farmers to understand the effect of natural calamities and also protect their
farms.

Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana (PMFBY) -

i) Pradhan Mantri Fasal Bima Yojana was introduced in 2016.
ii) The scheme has extended coverage under localized risks, post harvest losses,
etc. and aims at adoption of technology for yield estimation, increase farmer
awareness and low farmer premium rates.
There is a step process that farmers need to follow in order to get their crops insured.
Step 1 : Insurance Premium Calculator
Step 2 : Policy Application for Crop Insurance
Step 3 : Report Crop Loss and Apply For Claim
Step 4 : Complaints and Helpline

Kisan Credit Card(KCC) -

i) The kisan credit card is a credit scheme introduced in August 1998 by Indian
banks.
ii) A kisan credit card works in similar ways as a normal credit card.
iii) You can use it at ATM's and merchant post terminals.
iv) Under the Kisan credit card scheme farmer get two types of credit i.e. a)
cash credit and b) term loans.
v) A short term credit limit is offered on the kisan credit card for smaller
agricultural needs.
vi) Term loan can also be taken for cultivation, buying equipment, irrigation,
etc.
vii) The repayment period in kisan credit card is upto 12 months (1 year)

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viii) Kisan credit card is valid for a period between 3-5 years.

Features of Kisan Credit Card Loan -

1) All the farmers are eligible for the benefit from the kisan credit card scheme.
2) The national crop insurance scheme covers the crops eligible for kisan credit
card.
3) The big gest advantage of this scheme is the simplicity of the credit process.
4) Quicker and timely availability of funds for the farmers.
5) There is minimum paper works and documentation involved.
6) There is a lot of flexibility in there payment tenure of kisan credit card loan.
7) There is also a possibility of extending the repayment period in case of crop
failure due to natural calamities.
8) It ensures assured availability of financial resources of less interestrates.
9) It provides insurance coverage for the farmer.
10) It provides a facility to withdraw cash as per the farmersrequirements.

*****

Chapter - 14

Preservation

Principles of Preservation -
1) Prevent or delay of microbial decomposition
a) By Keeping out microorganisms by sanitary handling (asepsis):-
i) Keeping micro-organism out from entering into food is called as asepsis.
ii) It includes the use of clean vessels, instruments maintain hygienic condition
during preservation.

b) Removal of micro-organisms:-
i) Removal of micro-organisms from the food can be achieved by filtering
the products by using bacteria proof filter paper.

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 ii) Rinsing raw food with potable water remove most of the soil organisms
on the surface of the fruit and vegetables.
iii) Trimming away the spoiled portion of food may help to reduce
contamination.

c) Hindering the growth and activity of microorganisms

i) Low temperature decrease the growth rate and multiplication of micro-organism
ii) Food products can be dried under the sunheat
iii) Use chemical preservatives e.g. citric acid.
iv) Refrigeration and freezing slow down or stop microbial growth.
v) Evacuation of food pack stop the growth of micro-organism.

d) Killing micro-organism by heat -

i) Application of pasteurization of mild heating and sterilization reduce the micro-
organism by killing most of them.
ii) Improved packaging airtight sealed containers microbial spoilage is controlled.

2) Prevention or delay self-decomposition of the food –

a) By destruction or inactivation of enzymes -
i) For this purpose blanching of the product i.e. fruits and vegetables in boiling
water inactivates the enzymes.
ii) It is important pre treatment for freezing and dehydration.
b) By destruction or delay of purely chemical reactions -
i) In this method chemical reactions responsible for spoilage are checked by
preventing oxidation reaction with the help of antioxidants.
ii) Fumes or solution of sulpher is commonly used for this purpose.

3) Prevention of damage caused by insect rodents and mechanical causes -

i) Careful handling, proper packaging will check the mechanical damage of fruits
and vegetable
ii) Sanitary storage measures with moisture and temperature control, protect the
food from damage caused by insect and rodents.

Preparation of Jam
i) Jam is prepared by boiling the fruit pulp with a sufficient quantity of sugar to a
reasonably thick consistency.

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 ii) In its preparation 20.4 kg of fruit pulp should be used for every 24.9 kg of
sugar.
iii) It should not contain not less than 68.5% T.S.S. as determined by refractometer
when cold
iv) The fruit used should be mature, ripe, fresh sound clean and free from pest and
diseases.
v) The other substances added are sugar, essence, permitted colour, citric acid etc.
Recipe for fruit Jam
Ingredients Weight (kg) Final check points
Mango Pineapple Apple
Fruit pulp 1 1 1 Pulp- 45%
Sugar 1.2 1.2 1.2 Sugar- 55%
Citric Acid 6-8 gm 4-6 gm 5-6 gm Citric acid - 0.6 to 1.0% of pulp
taken
Pectin Powder 10-12 gm 7-10 gm 10-12 gm Pectin- 0.5-1.0% of pulp taken
Essence 2 to 4 ml 5 ml 5 ml (apple) Final pH-3.6
mango pineapple
Colour 3-4 gm 3-4 gm 3-4 gm Final TSS-68.5° brix
orange red yellow apple red
Preservative 100 mg 100 mg 100 mg Final acidity 0.4-0.6%
(Potassi- um (as citric acid)
meta-bi-sulphite)
Yield (approx) 2 kg 2 kg 2kg
Procedure -
1) Selection of fruit:-
i) Select fully ripe good color firm fruits. Rinse the fruits in water and blanch
them before use.

2) Preparation of fruit / extraction of pulp:-

i) Remove peels, seeds, stone, unedible portion.
ii) Put into fruit pulper / food processor and obtain fine thick pulp.

3) Addition of sugar :-
i) Add sugar at rate of 0.75 to 1.20 kg per kg of fruit pulp according to
sweetness of pulp.

4) Cooking :- (Pulp + Sugar + C.A/ + water)

i) Take pulp in a thick bottom vessel having copper base
ii) Add sugar into it and start cooking on a medium flame.

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 iii) Sitrr it frequently with long handled wodden scoop
iv) Add citric acid, mix well, finally add pectin powder in the mixture.
v) Check the T.S.S. by using hand refractometer it should be around 68.5 bix.
vi) Add colour essence and preservative one by one in the whole mixture
stirrwell continue cooking for about 5 minutes.

5) Judging end point :-

a) Sheet or flake test - A small quantity of Jam is taken from the mixture with
spoon and allow to fall down, it should flow in a sheet or flake not like drop.
b) Total soluble solids(TSS) :-
i) It is using by measured by using had refractometer.
ii) by taking small quantity of cooked mass, put it on the prism and
observed the reading. It should be around 68.5 Brix.
c) Temperature test:- When the temperature of cooking mass reaches 1030C to
1060C the Jam is considered as ready.
d) Ball formation test – Place a drop of cooked jam in a glass of water, if a firm
ball is formed at bottom of glass, it will show that jam is ready for setting.
e) On the basis of weight – The finished Jam should be Y2 of the inital volume
(wt.)

6) Filling and sealing :-

i) Hot Jam mass is filled in wide mouth sterilized glass bottles up to mouth
ii) Allow them to cool to room temperature.
iii) Pour melted wax on the top of the Jam at the mouth of the bottles.
iv) Cool it for over night or fix with plastic lid and seal it firmly by using hot gun.
v) Label it and store in a cool dry place.

7) Quality testing
i) Take out the sample periodically during storage period for observing the
changes in quality parameters such as physical, chemical and microbial point of
view.

Preparation of Tomato Sauce

1) Tomato sauce is the thick sauce.

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 2) A sauce which does not flow freely and which is highly viscous is called a fruit
sauce.
3) The thick sauces contain sugar, acid, and fruit pulp.
4) It should contain 1.2 to 3% acetic acid to ensure keeping quality.
5) The acidity should not exceed 3.4%
6) The sugar content may e 15 to 30% according to kind of sauce made.
7) Amongst the tomato sauce thick pungent hot spicy is preffered by large
population.
8) The FSSAI has given specification for tomato sauce are as under.
i) Tomato sauce having acidity 1.2% and TSS 15 brix
ii) Add only fruit pulp, juice, sugar, spices, salt, vinegar, citric acid, acetic
acid onion garlic permitted colour etc.

Pickles -
i) The process of preservation of food in common salt or vinegar is called
pickling.
ii) Some of the typical Indian pickles are made from mango lime, chilli,
cabbage and cauliflower, cucumber.
iii) Pickles have also good export market.
iv) Pickles are good appetizers and add palatability of meal.
v) They help in digestion by stimulating the flow of gastic juice.
vi) The Indian pickles are prepared with oil, mustard, rape seed, and
sesamum oils are generally used.

Preparation of Mango Pickles –

Raw materials –Used in pickling should possess certain definite characteristics.
1. Salt -The common salt is most suitable, preferably use the crystal salt.
2. Fruit pieces - Firm, mature, raw mango fruit, light acidity, high starch and less
sugar is used.
3. Sugar -Cane sugar or jaggery can be used a little to taste.
4. Spices -The spices used depend on the taste and liking of the people. General
mix the spices used are clove, pepper, coriander seed, mustard seed, cardamom,
onion, garlic, mace, ginger, cinamon, red chilli powder and turmeric powder,
etc.
5. Oil -The oil is used to improve taste, keeping quality and appearance of
pickles. Refined oil of any seed may be used. Generally mustard oil is used

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 for red colour.
6. Vinegar/ acetic acid -Vinegar contains acetic acid up to 3-5% and used in
pickles to improve taste, check the growth of micro-organisms i.e.preservative.
7. Preservative -Sodium benzoate is usedin pickles for checking the growth of
micro- organisms. Add benzoic acid 250 mg/kg of pickle

Recipe - Mango Pickle

Mango (raw) pieces 1 kg
Salt 226 g
Fenugreek ground powder 28 g
Turmeric powder 28 g
Red chilli powder 28 g
Black pepper 15 g
Fennel seed 28 g
Garam Masala 28 g
Acetic acid 1-2 ml
Sodium Benzoate 2-3 g
Mustard 50 g
Asafoetida 5g

Methods of Preservation :

1) Moisture Removal Drying, Dehydration

2) Heat Treatment Pasteurization, Sterilization
3) Low Temperature Freezing, Refrigeration
4) Chemical Preservatives Citric acid, berizoic acid, potassium
metabisulphid, sorabic acid etc.
5) Asepsis Total cleanliness, Advanced packaging
6) Irradiation Use of gammarays
7) Removal of air Vacuum, Evacuation
8) Chemical Used Fermentation – acetic acid use of salt, sugar,
vinegar, etc.

*FSSAI – Food Safety and Standards Authority of India (August 2006)

*****

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