CHAPTER-1

Persian gardens
The tradition and style in the garden design of Persian gardens has influenced the design of
gardens from Andalusia to India and beyond. The gardens of the Alhambra show the influence
of Persian Garden philosophy and style in a Moorish Palace scale from the era of Al-
Andalus in Spain. The Taj Mahal is one of the largest Persian Garden interpretations in the
world, from the era of the Mughal Empire in India

Persian gardens may originate as early as 4000 bce. Decorated pottery of that time
displays the typical cross plan of the persian garden. The outline of the pasargad
persian garden, built around 500 bce, is viewable today. Elements of the persian garden

Elements of the persian garden, such as the shade, the jub, and the courtyard in a public garden
in shiraz.

Sunlight and its effects were an important factor of structural design in persian gardens.
Textures and shapes were specifically chosen by architects to harness the light.
Iran's dry heat makes shade important in gardens, which would be nearly unusable without it.
Trees and trellises largely feature as biotic shade; pavilions and walls are also structurally
prominent in blocking the sun.
The heat also makes water important. A form of underground tunnel below the water table,
called a qanat, irrigates the garden and its environs. Well-like structures then connect to the
qanat, enabling the drawing of water.
Alternatively, an animal driven persian well would draw water to the surface. Such wheel
systems also moved water around surface water systems, such as those in the chahar
bāghstyle. Trees were often planted in a ditch called a jub, which prevented
water evaporation and allowed the water quick access to the tree roots.
The persian style often attempts to integrate indoors with outdoors through the connection of a
surrounding garden with an inner courtyard. Designers often place architectural elements such
as vaulted arches between the outer and interior areas to open up the divide between them.

Spanish gardens
A traditional spanish garden is a style of garden or designed landscape developed in
historic spain, incorporating principles and elements of garden design from precedents in
ancient persian gardens, roman gardens and islamic gardens
Nature. It was influenced by roman gardening and italian renaissance gardening, and
has been copied by other courts around europe over the centuries. It has also
profoundly influenced the history of gardening, especially that of french gardens and
 english gardens. Traditionally the paradise garden is interpreted with a central cross
axis, in the four cardinal directions, with long ponds or water channels (a rill or
stylized qanat) where water reflects and flows, set in a walled courtyard. The remaining
quadrants often had fruit trees and fragrant plants. Thus, characteristic sensory
experiences are refreshing coolness, humidity, sounds, greenery, and fragrance. This
type of garden is compatible with the spanish climate of sun and heat. Provisions for
shade are given with the use of arcades, pergolas, trellising, and
garden pavilions. Ceramic elements and tiles are often used: in water features; for
structural, decorative, and seating
Italian gardens
The Giardino all'italiana, Garden all'italiana or Italian garden, is a style of garden from Italy
based on symmetry, perfect geometry and the principle of imposing order over
The Italian garden has evolved greatly over the ages, and its form as we know of it today has
been influenced by Roman gardening and also Italian Renaissance gardening. Today the
Italian garden has been influential worldwide and has been imitated in a great number of
countries, most notably the Garden à la française in France, whose principles are
fundamentally based on those of the Giardino all'italiana, but also by the English garden, which
was influenced by the fountains, cascades and exciting waterwork which were key elements of
the Italian Renaissance garden.

JAPANESE GARDENS
 Japanese gardens that is, gardens in traditional japanese style, can be found at
private homes, in neighborhood or city parks, and at historical landmarks such as
buddhist temples, shinto shrines and old castles.
 Some of the japanese gardens most famous in the west, and within japan as
well, are dry gardens or rock gardens, karesansui.
 The tradition of the tea masters has produced highly refined japanese gardens of
quite another style, evoking rural simplicity.
  In japanese culture, garden-making is a high art, intimately related to the linked
arts of calligraphy and ink painting.
 Since the end of the 19th century, japanese gardens have also been adapted to
western settings.

Japanese gardens were developed under the influences of the distinctive and stylized
chinese gardens. One of the great interest for the historical development of the
japanese garden, bonseki, bonsai and related arts is the c. 1300 zen monk kokan shiren
and his rhymeprose essay rhymeprose on a miniature landscape garden.j

Typical features
A catalogue of features "typical" of the Japanese garden may be drawn up without
inquiring deeply into the aesthetic underlying Japanese practice. Typical Japanese
gardens have at their center a home from which the garden is viewed. In addition to
residential architecture, depending on the archetype, Japanese gardens often contain
several of these elements:

 Water, real or symbolic.

 Rocks or stone arrangements (or settings).
 A lantern, typically of stone.
 A teahouse or pavilion.
 An enclosure device such as a hedge, fence, or wall of traditional character.
 A bridge to the island or stepping stones.
 Styles
I. Karesansui Gardens
 Karesansui gardens (枯山水) or "dry landscape” gardens were influenced mainly by
zen buddhism and can be found at zen temples of meditation (japan guide).
 Unlike other traditional gardens, there is no water present in karesansui gardens.
 However, there is raked gravel or sand that simulates the feeling of water.
 The rocks/gravel used are chosen for their artistic shapes, and mosses as well
as small shrubs are used to further garnish the karesansui style (japanese
lifestyle).
 All in all, the rocks and moss are used to represent ponds, islands, boats, seas,
rivers, and mountains in an abstract way

II. Tsukiyama Gardens

 Tsukiyama gardens often copy famous landscapes from china or japan, and they
commonly strive to make a smaller garden appear more spacious.
 This is accomplished by utilizing shrubs to block views of surrounding buildings,
and the garden's structure usually tries to make onlookers focus on nearby
mountains in the distance .
 By doing this, it seems that the garden has the mountains as part of its grounds.
Ponds, streams, hills, stones, trees, flowers, bridges, and paths are also used
frequently in this style.
III. Chaniwa Gardens
 Chaniwa Gardens are built for holding tea ceremonies.
 There is usually a tea house where the ceremonies occur, and the styles of both
the hut and garden are based on the simple concepts of the sado (Japan Guide).
 Usually, there are stepping stones leading to the tea house,stone basins and
stone lantern where guests purify themselves before a ceremony.

Japanese gardens might also fall into one of these styles:

 Kanshoh-style gardens which are viewed from a residence.

 Pond gardens, for viewing from a boat.
 Strolling gardens (kaiyū-shiki), for viewing a sequence of effects from a path
which circumnavigates the garden. The 17th-century Katsura garden in Kyoto is
a famous exemplar.

Other gardens also use similar rocks for decoration, some of which come from distant
parts of Japan. In addition, bamboos and related plants, evergreens including Japanese
black pine, and such deciduous trees as maples grow above a carpet of ferns and
mosses.
The use of stones, water, and plantings

Though often thought of as tranquil sanctuaries that allow individuals to escape from the
stresses of daily life, Japanese gardens are designed for a variety of purposes. Some
gardens invite quiet contemplation, but may have also been intended for recreation, the
display of rare plant specimens, or the exhibition of unusual rocks.

Kaiyu-shiki or Strolling Gardens require the observer to walk through the garden to fully
appreciate it. A premeditated path takes observers through each unique area of a
Japanese garden. Uneven surfaces are placed in specific spaces to prompt people to
look down at particular points. When the observer looks up, they will see an eye-
catching ornamentation which is intended to enlighten and revive the spirit of the
observer. This type of design is known as the Japanese landscape principle of "hide
and reveal".

Stones are used to construct the garden's paths, bridges, and walkways. Stones can
also represent a geological presence where actual mountains are not viewable or
present. They are sometimes placed in odd numbers and a majority of the groupings
reflect triangular shapes, which often are the mountains of China.

A water source in a Japanese garden should appear to be part of the natural

surroundings; this is why one will not find fountains in traditional gardens. Man-made
streams are built with curves and irregularities to create a serene and natural
appearance. Lanterns are often placed beside some of the most prominent water basins
(either a pond or a stream) in a garden. In some gardens one will find a dry pond or
stream. Dry ponds and streams have as much impact as do the ones filled with water.

Green plants are another element of Japanese gardens. Japanese traditions prefer
subtle green tones, but flowering trees and shrubs are also used. Many plants in
imitated Japanese gardens of the West are indigenous to Japan, though some
sacrifices must be made to account for the differentiating climates. Some plants, such
as sugar maple and firebush, give the garden a broader palette of seasonal color.

Example:Kōraku-en

Kōraku-en 後楽園, is a Japanese garden located in Okayama, Okayama Prefecture. It is

one of the Three Great Gardens of Japan, along with Kenroku-en and Kairaku-en.
Korakuen was built in 1700 by Ikeda Tsunamasa, lord of Okayama. The garden's form
almost had turned into the modern form in 1863.
 History
In 1687, the daimyo Ikeda Tsunamasa ordered Tsuda Nagatada to begin construction
of the Korakuen. It was completed in 1700 and has retained its original appearance to
the present day, except for a few changes by various daimyo. The Korakuen is one of
the few daimyo gardens in the provinces where historical change can be observed,
thanks to the many Edo period paintings and Ikeda family records and documents left
behind. The garden was used as a place for entertaining important guests and also as a
spa of sorts for daimyo, although regular folk could visit on certain days.

In 1884, ownership was transferred to Okayama Prefecture and the garden was opened
to the public. The garden suffered severe damage during the floods of 1934 and during
World War 2 bombing in 1945, but has been restored based on Edo period paintings
and diagrams. In 1952, the Korakuen was designated as a "Special Scenic Location"
under the Cultural Properties Protection Law and is managed as a historical cultural
asset to be passed to future generations.

Kōraku-en and Okayama Castle Enyo-tei House

  The total area of the garden is approximately 133,000 square meters.
 The grassy area is approximately 18,500 square meters.
 The length of the stream is 640 meters.
 The garden was originally called Koen ("later garden") because it was built after
Okayama Castle. However, since the garden was built in the spirit of "sen-yu-
koraku" ("grieve earlier than others, enjoy later than others"), the name was
changed to Korakuen in 1871.
 The garden was designed in the Kaiyu ("scenic promenade") style which
presents the visitor with a new view at every turn of the path which connects the
lawns, ponds, hills, tea houses, and streams.

French gardens
 The French formal garden, also called jardin à la française, is a style of
garden based on symmetry and the principle of imposing order over nature.
 It reached its apogee in the 17th century with the creation of the Gardens of
Versailles, designed for Louis XIV by the landscape architect André Le Nôtre.
 The style was widely copied by other courts of Europe.

The Garden à la francaise evolved from the Gardens of the French Renaissance, a
style which was imported into France at the beginning of the 16th century. The Italian
Renaissance style, typified by the Boboli Gardens in Florence and the Villa Medici in
Fiesole, was characterized by planting beds, or parterres, created in geometric shapes,
and laid out symmetrical patterns; the use of fountains and cascades to animate the
garden; stairways and ramps to unite different levels of the garden; grottos, labyrinths,
and statuary on mythological themes. The gardens were designed to represent
harmony and order, the ideals of the Renaissance, and to recall the virtues of
Ancient Rome.
The Principles of the French Garden

The form of the French garden was strongly influenced by the Italian gardens of the
Renaissance, and was largely fixed by the middle of the 17th century. It had the
following elements, which became typical of the formal French garden:

 A geometric plan using the most recent discoveries of perspective and optics.
 A terrace overlooking the garden, allowing the visitor to see all at once the entire
garden. As the French landscape architect Olivier de Serres wrote in 1600, "It is
desirable that the gardens should be seen from above, either from the walls, or
from terraces raised above the parterres.

 All vegetation is constrained and directed, to demonstrate the mastery of man

over nature. Trees are planted in straight lines, and carefully trimmed, and their
tops are trimmed at a set height.
 The residence serves as the central point of the garden, and its central
ornament. No trees are planted close to the house; rather, the house is set apart
by low parterres and trimmed bushes.
 A central axis, or perspective, perpendicular to the facade of the house, on the
side opposite the front entrance. The axis extends either all the way to the
horizon (Versailles) or to piece of statuary or architecture (Vaux-le-Vicomte). The
axis faces either South (Vaux-le-Vicomte, Meudon) or east-west (Tuileries,
Clagny, Trianon, Sceaux). The principle axis is composed of a lawn, or a basin of
water, bordered by trees. The principle axis is crossed by one or more
perpendicular perspectives and alleys.
 The most elaborate parterres, or planting beds, in the shape of squares, ovals,
circles or scrolls, are placed in a regular and geometric order close to the house,
to complement the
 
 Architecture and to be seen from above from the reception rooms of the house.
 The parterres near the residence are filled with broderies, designs created with
low boxwood to resemble the patterns of a carpet, and given a polychrome effect
by plantings of flowers, or by colored brick, gravel or sand.
 Farther from the house, the broderies are replaced with simpler parterres, filled
with grass, and often containing fountains or basins of water. Beyond these,
small carefully-created groves of trees (), serve as an intermediary between the
formal garden and the masses of trees of the park. "The perfect place for a stroll,
these spaces present alleys, stars, circles, theaters of greenery, galleries, spaces
for balls and for festivities."
 Bodies of water (canals, basins) serve as mirrors, doubling the size of the house
or the trees.

The garden is animated with pieces of sculpture, usually on mythological themes, which
either underline or punctuate the perspectives, and mark the intersections of the axes,
and by moving water in the form of cascades and fountains
EXAMPLE:Gardens of Versaille

Plan of the chateau of Versailles and the

gardens dating from 1746, by the Abbé
Delagrive, geographer of the city of Paris.

Statistical Information on the gardens of

Versailles

Size: 800 ha.

Number of trees: 200,000

Flowers planted annually: 210,000

Number of fountains: 50

Number of jets of water: 620

Surface area of the Grand Canal: 23 ha.

Perimeter of the Grand Canal: 5.57 km

Amount of piping to feed the 35 km.

fountains:

Amount of water consumed by the 3,600

fountains m3
during the ‘‘Grandes Eaux’’:
 Source: Official site of the Château de
Versailles: [1]

The gardens of Versailles occupy part of what was once the Domaine royal de
Versailles, the royal demesne of the château of Versailles. Situated to the west of the
palace, the gardens cover some 800 hectares of land, much of which is landscaped in
the classic French Garden style perfected here by André Le Nôtre. Beyond the
surrounding belt of woodland, the gardens are bordered by the urban areas of
Versailles to the east and Le Chesnay to the north-east, by the National Arboretum de
Chèvreloup to the north, the Versailles plain (a protected wildlife preserve) to the west,
and by the Satory Forest to the south.

As part of le domaine national de Versailles et de Trianon, an autonomous public entity

operating under the aegis of the French Ministry of Culture, the gardens are now one of
the most visited public sites in France, receiving more than six million visitors a year.[1]

In addition to the meticulous manicured lawns, parterres of flowers, and sculptures are
the fountains, which are located throughout the garden. Dating from the time of Louis
XIV and still using much of the same network of hydraulics as was used during the
Ancien Régime, the fountains contribute to making the gardens of Versailles unique. On
weekends from late spring to early autumn, the administration of the museum sponsors
the Grandes Eaux – spectacles during which the fountains in the gardens are in full
play.
In 1979, the gardens along with the château were inscribed on the UNESCO World
Heritage List, one of thirty-one such designations in France

ENGLISH GARDENS
The English garden, also called English landscape park is a style of Landscape
garden which emerged in England in the early 18th century, and spread across Europe,
replacing the more formal, symmetrical Garden à la française of the 17th century as the
principal gardening style of Europe. The English garden presented an idealized view of
nature, often inspired by paintings of landscapes by Claude Lorraine and Nicolas
Poussin. It usually included a lake, sweeps of gently rolling lawns set against groves of
trees, and recreations of classical temples, Gothic ruins, bridges, and other picturesque
architecture, designed to recreate an idyllic pastoral landscape. By the end of the 18th
century the English garden was being imitated by the French landscape garden, and as
far away as St. Petersburg, Russia, in Pavlovsk, the gardens of the future Emperor
Paul. It also had a major influence on the form of the public parks and gardens which
appeared around the world in the 19th century.

History of the English Landscape Garden

Castle Howard (1699-1712), a predecessor of the English garden modeled on the
gardens of Versailles.

The predecessors of the landscape garden in England were the great parks created by
Sir John Vanbrugh (1664–1726) and Nicholas Hawksmoor at Castle Howard (1699–
1712); Blenheim Palace (1705–1722), Castle Howard, and the Claremont Landscape
Garden at Claremont House (1715–1727). These parks featured vast lawns, woods,
and pieces of architecture, such as the classical mausoleum designed by Hawksmoor at
Castle Howard. At the center of the composition was the house, behind which were
formal and symmetrical gardens in the style of the Garden à la française, with ornate
carpets of floral designs and walls of hedges, decorated with statues and fountains.
These gardens, modeled after the gardens of Versailles, were designed to impress
visitors with their size and grandeur.

 Characteristics
 Rolling lawns, bounded by masses of trees
 Organic forms [rather than geometric]
 Still water bodies in bond-like or stream like form.
 Buildings of classical design set in contrast to the surrounding landscape.
 Elimination of visual break between the designed garden and the surrounding
landscape.
 Regular architecture + irregular gardens
 Founded on direct observation of nature
 English garden on a smaller scale and more filled with eye-catchers.
 The main idea of the English gardens is that they should merge the built
structures with the countryside without any artificial barriers such as fences,
hedges or etc,.
 The villas were the main focus of the garden.
 The form of these gardens was obtained directly from the observation of nature.
 Painting and poetry principles were followed to create picturesque landscape.
 Principle of surprise.
 The main features of these gardens are curved paths, informal group of trees,
streams, artificial waterfalls, clipped hedges, flowering annuals and architectural
features or rock formations.
 USE OF LANDSCAPE ELEMENTS:-

Landform:

 Natural contours were used as far as possible. The existing slopes were
enhanced and moulded to their utmost degree. The effect was rolling and gently
undulating landforms.
 The edges of the site were treated with Ha-Ha shaped like a ditch or dry moat
with a fence very often, to provide a view beyond the site but at the same time
prevent the grazing animals from entering. Trees were planted on the hill site
to give added appearance of height and valleys were kept free to accentuate their
depth.

Water:

 It was shaped in any form so that it looked as natural as possible. Existing brooks
and streams were enhanced and made to move in its typical serpentine pleasure.
Where the edges were concealed by thickets properly interspersed.
 Edge delineations were made informal with drooping trees or some where a
mound crawling down into the lake or just weeds and shrubs of the natural kind

Siting:

 The introduction of the Ha-Ha (Sunken Fence) by Bridgeman made the garden a
part of natural wilderness. The surrounding Countryside, typical with the pattern,
tracts, gentle hills, meadows, woodlands was replicated within the site as a result
of this the whole land looked like an extension of the park.
 Even the features of the surrounding lands like ruins and chapels were made the
part of the designed scene.
 Vegetation:
 All native trees like oak, Elms, Beeches, pines and limes were planted sparingly
to provide tone.
 Trees were planted to appear as groups (Clumps). Belts were enclosing
components like scaled down forests. These belts and clumps were placed
accordingly as if to compose a picture and to direct the eye towards a particular
direction.

Symbolism:

 In an overcrowded industrial world as a result of a romantic movement the art

form the English Landscape School created imaginative nostalgic spaces and
ensured individuality to architecture by inspiration drawn from nature of each site.

The Transition:
  Naturally these principles were put into practice straight away. Charles
Bridgeman and John Vanbrugh started the movement from Classicism to
Romanticism.

The Romantic Era:

 The landscape School born and perfected in England has three main stages in
its development. The first one was pioneered by William Kent, The second by
Capability Brown. Humprey Repton continued the principles of Brown with slight
modifications.

Example:Castle Howard

Castle Howard is a stately home in North Yorkshire, England, 15 miles (24 km) north of
York. One of the grandest private residences in Britain, most of it was built between
1699 and 1712 for the 3rd Earl of Carlisle, to a design by Sir John Vanbrugh. It is not a
true castle, but this term is often used for English country houses constructed after the
castle-building era (c.1500) and not intended for a military function.

Castle Howard has been the home of part of the Howard family for more than 300
years. It is familiar to television and movie audiences as the fictional "Brideshead", both
in Granada Television's 1981 adaptation of Evelyn Waugh's Brideshead Revisited and a
two-hour 2008 remake for cinema. Today, it is part of the Treasure Houses of England
heritage group.

The house is surrounded by a large estate which, at the time of the 7th Earl of Carlisle,
covered over 13,000 acres (5,300 ha) and included the villages of Welburn, Bulmer,
Slingsby, Terrington and Coneysthorpe.[1] The estate was served by its own railway
station, Castle Howard, from 1845 to the 1950s.

 Castle Howard has extensive and diverse gardens.

 There is a large formal garden immediately behind the house. The house is
prominently situated on a ridge and this was exploited to create an English
landscape park, which opens out from the formal garden and merges with the
park.
  Two major garden buildings are set into this landscape: the Temple of the Four
Winds at the end of the garden, and the Mausoleum in the park.

 There is also a lake on either side of the house. There is an arboretum called
Ray Wood, and the walled garden contains decorative rose and flower gardens.
 Further buildings outside the preserved gardens include the ruined Pyramid
currently undergoing restoration, an Obelisk and several follies and eyecatchers
in the form of fortifications. A John Vanbrugh ornamental pillar known as the
Quatre Faces (marked as 'Four Faces' on Ordnance Survey Maps) stands in
nearby Pretty Wood.

The grounds of Castle Howard are also used as part of at least two charity running
races during the year.

MOGHUL GARDENS

Mughal gardens are a group of gardens built by the Mughals in the Islamic style of
architecture. This style was influenced by Persian gardens and Timurid gardens.
Significant use of rectilinear layouts are made within the walled enclosures. Some of the
typical features include pools, fountains and canals inside the gardens.
The founder of the Mughal empire, Babur, described his favourite type of garden as a
charbagh. This word developed a new meaning in India, because as Babur explains,
India lacked the fast-flowing streams required for the Central Asian charbagh. The Agra
garden, now known as the Ram Bagh, is thought to have been the first charbagh. India,
Bangladesh and Pakistan have a number of Mughal gardens which differ from their
Central Asian predecessors with respect to "the highly disciplined geometry". An early
textual references about Mughal gardens are found in the memoirs and biographies of
the Mughal emperors, including those of Babur, Humayun and Akbar.

From the beginnings of the Mughal Empire, the construction of gardens was a beloved
imperial pastime. Babur, the first Mughal conqueror-king, had gardens built in Lahore
and Dholpur. Humayun, his son, does not seem to have had much time for building—he
was busy reclaiming and increasing the realm—but he is known to have spent a great
deal of time at his father’s gardens. Akbar built several gardens first in Delhi, then in
Agra, Akbar’s new capital. These tended to be riverfront gardens rather than the fortress
gardens that his predecessors built. Building riverfront rather than fortress gardens
influenced later Mughal garden architecture considerably. Akbar’s heir, Jahangir, did not
build as much, but he helped to lay out the famous Shalimar garden and was known for
his great love for flowers. Indeed, his trips to Kashmir are believed to have begun a
fashion for naturalistic and abundant floral design.

Jahangir's son, Shah Jahan, marks the apex of Mughal garden architecture and floral
design. He is famous for the construction of the Taj Mahal, a sprawling funereal
paradise in memory of his favorite wife, Mumtaz Mahal. He is also responsible for the
Red Fort at Delhi which contains the Mahtab Bagh, a night garden that was filled with
night-blooming jasmine and other pale flowers.

The pavilions within are faced with white marble to glow in the moonlight. This and the
marble of the Taj Mahal are inlaid with semiprecious stone depicting scrolling
naturalistic floral motifs, the most important being the tulip, which Shah Jahan adopted
as a personal symbol.

 The Mughals were obsessed with symbol and incorporated it into their gardens in
many ways.
 The standard Quranic references to paradise were in the architecture, layout,
and in the choice of plant life; but more secular references, including
numerological and zodiacal significances connected to family history or other
cultural significance, were often juxtaposed.
 The numbers eight and nine were considered auspicious by the Mughals and
can be found in the number of terraces or in garden architecture such as
octagonal pools.
 Its essential features included running water (perhaps the most important
element) and a pool to reflect the beauties of sky and garden; trees of various
sorts, some to provide shade merely, and others to produce fruits; flowers,
 colorful and sweet-smelling; grass, usually growing wild under the trees; birds to
fill the garden with song; the whole cooled by a pleasant breeze.

Features:

• Formal and symmetrical design.

• Water was important element in gardens which flowed through through channels
and pools in geometric quadrants according To Paradise mentioned in Koran.
• Typically, two water channels cross each other, dividing the garden into four
quarters.
• A central pool or pavilion marks the centre of the garden.
• Water is also used in cascades and fountains, and is appreciated for its air-
cooling properties.
• Scented flowers, in formal symmetrical beds, were important.
• Avenues of trees often included cypress trees, with their tall, narrow habit, fruit
trees, and shade trees such as the plane tree.
• On forts and hillsides, elaborate terraces were constructed.

Paths were usually raised above ground

Example:taj mahal gardens

The complex is set around a large 300-metre (980 ft) square charbagh or Mughal
garden. The garden uses raised pathways that divide each of the four quarters of the
garden into 16 sunken parterres or flowerbeds. A raised marble water tank at the center
of the garden, halfway between the tomb and gateway with a reflecting pool on a north-
south axis, reflects the image of the mausoleum. The raised marble water tank is called
al Hawd al-Kawthar, in reference to the "Tank of Abundance" promised to Muhammad.
[20]
Elsewhere, the garden is laid out with avenues of trees and fountains.[21] The
charbagh garden, a design inspired by Persian gardens, was introduced to India by the
first Mughal emperor, Babur. It symbolizes the four flowing rivers of Jannah (Paradise)
and reflects the Paradise garden derived from the Persian paridaeza, meaning 'walled
garden'. In mystic Islamic texts of Mughal period, Paradise is described as an ideal
garden of abundance with four rivers flowing from a central spring or mountain,
separating the garden into north, west, south and east.

Most Mughal charbaghs are rectangular with a tomb or pavilion in the center. The Taj
Mahal garden is unusual in that the main element, the tomb, is located at the end of the
garden. With the discovery of Mahtab Bagh or "Moonlight Garden" on the other side of
the Yamuna, the interpretation of the Archaeological Survey of India is that the Yamuna
river itself was incorporated into the garden's design and was meant to be seen as one
of the rivers of Paradise.[22] The similarity in layout of the garden and its architectural
features with the Shalimar Gardens suggest that they may have been designed by the
same architect, Ali Mardan.[23] Early accounts of the garden describe its profusion of
vegetation, including abundant roses, daffodils, and fruit trees.[24] As the Mughal Empire
declined, the tending of the garden also declined, and when the British took over the
management of Taj Mahal during the time of the British Empire, they changed the
landscaping to resemble that of lawns of London.[25

Differences between Japanese and Chinese gardens

JAPANESE GARDENS CHINESE GARDENS

Architecture – Architecture –

• The architecture in a Japanese garden is  Emphasis is being given to bui

 These are in the center of the
largely or partly concealed.
occupying a large part of the garden
• The buildings are well apart from the body of
 They are very elaborate, with m
water.
architectural decoration.
• the buildings are simple, with very little
ornament.
Viewpoint – Viewpoint –

Later Japanese gardens are designed to be seen from the These are designed to be seen from t
outside. buildings in the center of the garden.

Symmetry – Symmetry –

The structures in a Japanese garden from the Edo period These are usually symmetrically desig
onward are organized asymmetrically.

Use of Rocks – Use of Rocks –

Rocks were smaller and placed in more natural Rocks were selected for their extraord
arrangements. Integrated into the garden resemblance to animals or mountains
effect. They were often the stars and
garden.

CHAPTER -2
SITE ANALYSIS: INVENTORY LIST

 Subsurface Features

 Geology: Geological history of the area, bedrock type &

depth etc.
  Hydrology: Underground water table, aquifers, springs
etc.

 Soil Genesis: erosion susceptibility, moisture (pF),

reaction (pH) organic content, bearing capacity etc.

 Natural Surface Features

 Vegetation: Type, size, location, shade pattern,

aesthetics, ecology etc.

 Slopes: Gradient, landforms, elevations, drainage

patterns

 Wild Life: ecology, species etc.

 Climate: precipitation, annual rain/snow, humidity, wind

direction, solar intensity & orientation,
average/highest/lowest temperature

 Cultural & Man-made Features

 Utilities: sanitary, water supply, gas, electrical etc.

 Land use: Usage of site, adjacent use, zoning

restrictions, easement etc.

 Historic notes: archeological sites, landmarks, building

type, size, condition

 Circulation: linkages an transit roads, auto & pedestrian

access, mass transit routes etc.

 Social Factors: population, intensity, educational level,

economic & political factors, ethnicity, cultural typology
etc.

 Aesthetic Factors:
  Perceptual: from an auto, by pedestrian, by bike etc.

 Spatial Pattern: views of the site, views from the site,

spaces existing, potential for new areas, sequential
relationship

 Natural Features: significant natural features of the

site, water elements, rock formations, plant materials

Site Planning
A. Background The first rule of site planning is to understand the site. Site
planning requires the collection of information on existing natural, constructed and
other features of the site, with the aim of:
a) Understanding the existing form of a locality and the relationships that have
caused its development;
b) Identifying the qualities and character of the existing urban form; and
c) Identifying a successful development pattern and inappropriate developments.
The level of analysis required will vary depending on the scale of the proposal.
Different levels of analysis are:
a) Regional analysis (the regional context in relation to nearest urban centers,
major services and infrastructure, and broad environmental catchments); Perish
Development Control Plan 2014 C1 Site Planning and Design Principles
C1-4
b) Local analysis (the local context around the site including local services and
infrastructure, local environmental issues, and the local built form and landscape
context of the site); and c) Site analysis (the immediate context around and within
the site including adjacent built form and services, site environmental issues and
key site opportunities and constraints).
B. Objectives a) To ensure that the site's context has been analysed and considered
to ensure that development is designed on a ‘whole of building’ approach; and b)
To protect and enhance areas with high scenic and landscapes values which
contribute to the character of the City of Perish.

PRINCIPLES OF SITE PLANNING AND LAND USE;

Identifying what factors out of these contribute most to the distinctive character of
the site.
• Anticipating the specific consequences of change of development on the site.
• The consequences may be unacceptable in aesthetic, ecological or economic
terms depending on our outlook. For instance, the disturbance of a skyline
may be visually unacceptable. Blockage of a natural drainage channel may
necessitate the provision of expensive and therefore, economically an
acceptable alternative drains. On the other hand, the blocking of the natural
drain may make large areas of land available for building, measured against
the value of which the cost of providing an alternative drainage system may
be negligible.
• Or, in the above example we may wish to preserve the natural drainage
channel because it is ecologically important in the regional context, it has
aesthetic value, it imparts distinctive character to the site.... etc.
• Site analysis should help in deciding what must be preserved and what can
be changed, it should aid site planning decisions such as:
• Identification of areas suitable for building.
• Identification of characteristics of site which are to be preserved and which
can be exploited in the future use of the land
• Location of building to articulate space within the site
• Location of various uses within the site e.g. parking, service areas, recreation
zones etc.
• The integration of what is preserved with what is proposed.
• Good site planning attempts to emphasise and exploit the characteristics of
the site; this may strengthen the identity of the site and impart to it, a sense
of place: the historical continuity between what has gone before on the site
and what is proposed.
 Protect and enhance the visual diversity and scenic quality of gateways and
view sheds within the City of Penrith, including detailed, mid and long range
views;
 Protect and enhance the key regional natural features that contribute to the
character of Penrith as a City, including the Blue Mountains escarpment, the
Nepean River, other riparian corridors and bushland reserves;
 Protect, maintain and enhance other important natural features, including
ridgelines, hillsides, watercourses and riparian corridors, vegetation and
landform;
 Protect, maintain and enhance backdrops and settings that contribute to the
local identity;
 Protect, maintain and enhance views and vistas from vantage points,
including main road corridors and other public places;
 Conserve and enhance historic landscapes, properties and their curtilages;
 Plan and site new development to enhance local identity. Development is to
effectively integrate with the surrounding landscape so that any change as a
result of the new development does not compromise the character of the
landscape. Issues such as context, scale, size, built form and height,
setbacks/buffers, landform, structural space (private and public), streetscape,
vegetation and infrastructure are to be addressed;

 Strengthen local identity through consistency and/or compatibility of design.
Design development to take into account issues such as scale, form, line,
colour, texture, lighting, existing vegetation, open space and landscaping
 Use vegetation to frame scenic views, provide interest or change, define new
space, provide backdrops and visually connect all other elements within the
setting; and
 At gateways, reinforce the distinct experience of arrival or passing from one
landscape character type to the next, through legible site planning and
design.

• Site Factors

• TOPOGRAPHY:
 Topography is an important factor in most land planning decisions.
 One way of making topographical directly applicable to the site planning is by slope
analysis.
 The topography of an area determines also the aspects of various slopes that is north
facing slope south facing slope etc.
 Site topography survey maps depict three fundamental land form component:
 Elevation
 Slope
 Aspect
ELEVATION:
  Spatial variation in elevation produces slopes that have both a gradient and an
orientation.
 Site elevations affect both drainage patterns and visibility.
 Determines the size and spatial configuration of local view sheds.
 Visible areas may encompass portions of the site ,or the entire site ,and they
may extend into the surrounding landscape.
 MAPPING elevation data are typically portrayed as contour lines on
topographic maps

SLOPE:
 The slopes of undeveloped sites reflects the local area’s geology ,climate and soils.
 Differences in parent materials and weathering account for different landforms ,or
landscape “signatures”.
 Land forms are the result of constructional processes and destructional processes
acting on geologic structures.
 ASPECT
 A slope’s orientation ,or aspect,is the direction the slope faces.
 Variation in slope and aspect influence the amount of solar radiation received by the
site on a daily and seasonal basis.

GEOLOGY:

 Surface geology is concerned with the structure, composition,and stability of

the material beneath and in some location at the earth’s surface.
 An important attribute of surficial geology is the depth to bedrock.
 If excavation is planned for building foundations or for other site
structure,the depth to bedrock should be determined.
 Apart from bearing capacity the landscape work it is necessary to classify the
soil according to biological qualities.
 If the site is very large , the soil conditions may vary .Detailed analysis have
been making a effective planting program related to particular solid
condition in various parts
 Also the nature of the soil determines to some extent whether it is susceptible
to erosion by wind or water and preventive measures to counter soil erosion
can be taken, as a part of landscape development plan .

HYDROLOGY:
 • The low lying areas and areas with levels which do not permit the flow of water
would suffer from poor drainage would at times become water logged
• The identification of these areas would indicate how the levels of the land need to be
altered so as to improve drainage
• It would also show which areas are more suitable for the sighting of building from
this point of view .
• Areas of steeper slopes with little vegetation would be the most prone to soil erosion.
• They would off course be usually unsuitable for buildings

CLIMATE:

• Atmospheric conditions that may influence land planning and design decision
include precipitation, air, temperature, humidity cloudiness ,solar incidence, wind
direction and wind velocity.
• Collectively these data include
• Temperature
• Humidity
• Wind
• Rainfall
• Snowfall
• Solar radiation
• Potential natural hazards

VEGETATION:

• Vegetation on the site are an asset that can yield multiple social and ecological
benefits.
• Vegetation provide shade and can reduce heating and cooling costs of nearby
buildings.
• Vegetation can also increase the economic value of real estate by providing a
significant amenity.
• Vegetation serve various design functions that benefit people.
• For e.g. they provide shade screen undesirable views and serve as wind breakers.
• Vegetation also have aesthetic values .For e.g. they may provide a focal point or
visual amenity.
• Desirability of retaining the natural existing on a site is self-evident.
• This vegetation influence the considerable environmental conditions within the site.
• To take effective account existing vegetation it is necessary to carry out a vegetation
survey.
For this purpose vegetation on the site may be classified into three categories

TREES
 • The top layer i.e. the tree cover.
• Each tree needs to be identified with regard to species height and spread and condition.
GROUND COVER
• The lowest layer i.e. Ground cover.
• A full ecological studies of planned communities must take into account.
• Such a study is rarely on urban and artificially maintained.

Roads and driveways:

• In planning the approach drive or roadway consider:
• Sight distance: provide sufficient horizontal and vertical sight distance to give IO-
second minimum observation time at permitted approach speed.
• Adequate sight distances at intersections .An attractive introduction and portal
Sequential revilement of views, site features, and buildings
• All-weather and nighttime drivability, demarcation, and safety
• Recognition of topography, sun angles, and storms
• Economical length and minimum landscape disruption

Parking:

• Allow a normal stall width of 8 feet 6 inches

• Minimum to 12 feet maximum; 10 feet 0 inches is a comfortable average.

• Stall marking: While a single divider stripe will suffice, two 3-inch lines, 12 to 16
inches on center with a half circle at the aisle end, is recommended.

• For an approximate parking compound capacity calculation, allow 300 square feet
of paved parking area per standard car, plus approach ramps, distributor loops,
planting medians. Turnabouts, collector walks, and buffer areas.

Site drainage:

• Preserve the natural drainage ways insofar as feasible.

• Preclude concentrated surface runoff to downgrade properties.

• Avoid trapped water pockets.

• Provide under drains at road edges and low points.

• Conduct surface water by swale, gutter, or buried pipe to storm-sewer mains or

outfall.

• If storm inlets and lateral sewers are needed, compute the required capacity and
then use the next larger size.
 • Keep the site drainage system unobtrusive

• Outdoor Lighting

Objectives of Outdoor Lighting

The purposes of outdoor lighting include:

(1) improving the legibility of critical nodes, landmarks, and circulation and activity zones
in the landscape.

(2) Facilitating the safe movement of pedestrians and vehicles, promoting a more secure
environment, and minimizing the potential for personal harm and damage to property

(3) Helping to reveal the salient features of a site at a desired intensity of light in order to
encourage night time use.`

GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Lighting Hierarchy: Driver and pedestrian orientation can be aided by providing a

hierarchy of lighting effects that correspond to the different zones and uses of a site . For
instance, subtle but recognizable distinctions can be made between major and minor roads,
paths, and use areas by varying the distribution and brightness of the light and by varying
the height, spacing, and color of lamps

Attaining high levels of illumination along circulation routes does not have to be a prime
consideration in outdoor lighting. If a clear and consistent system is provided, low levels
may be adequate for safe circulation

Clear Lighting Patterns:

Clear optical guidance can be provided with the alignment of light fixtures positioned in
consistent, recognizable, and unambiguous patterns. A staggered layout of road and
pathway lights tends to obscure rather than reinforce the direction of circulation and the
location of intersections

Intersection Articulation:

Intersections, decision points, crossings, bus stops, steps, arrival points, etc., should be
articulated in a manner that signals their presence, shape, and nature. The illumination
pattern should serve as a visual cue to what conditions may lie ahead.

Placement of Luminaires

Spacing, height, and distribution of luminaires should avoid foliage shadows; provide
uniformity, and vertical surface illumination. High mounting and wide spacing of fixtures
may result in disruptions to the illumination pattern due to tree shadows. Lower mounting
heights and closer spacing between fixtures may create a more security. uniform
distribution light promoting the pedestrian's sense

Glare:

• Glare is a major inhibitor of good visibility and can be produced by any scale of
light fixture, including small lens-type step lights.

• Glare is more of a problem when exposed light sources, such as lamps or lenses, can
be seen directly.

• Luminaire location and mounting height, fixture type, and lamp intensity must be
carefully selected to optimize light distribution and minimize glare.

• Lower mounting lanterns may or may not have sharp cutoff optics. If high-angle
illumination is appropriate in order to illuminate facades, trees, and other
streetscape elements, then care must be taken to prevent glare.

Under lighting:

• Under lighting is potentially hazardous if insufficient light is provided to protect

pedestrians and/or vehicles from potential injury and damage. Sufficient light is
especially important in areas where heavy pedestrian traffic is expected, such as
near parks, ball fields, and other places that attract crowds of people, or where
children cross streets. Parking areas, access and egress points, loading areas, etc.
should have adequate lighting to help protect drivers, pedestrians, and vehicles.
 Security

• Darkness, together with unfamiliar surroundings, can incite strong feelings of

insecurity. To provide a sense of security, possible hiding places and dense shadows
should be minimized by the placement of appropriate light fixtures

Walkway Lights:

• Walkway lights should have enough peripheral distribution to illuminate the

immediate surroundings. Vertical light distribution over walkway areas should
cover or overlap at a height of 2 100 mm (7 ft.) so that visual recognition of other
pedestrians is maintained. When the pedestrian's sense of security is a primary
consideration, low mounting height with close spacing and a vertical illumination
pattern may be the most effective approach

SITE DEVELOPMENT GUIDELINES:

• Excavation and grading keep to an absolute minimum.

• Balance the on-site cut and fill. Off-site borrow or disposition is expensive.

• Protect trees and established ground covers. Remove and stockpile the topsoil.

• Avoid working the soil when it is wet, powder dry, or frozen.

• Provide positive surface drainage away from buildings to swales, gutters, drain
inlets, or outfalls.

• Re-establish ground covers without delay. Unprotected soils cause erosion and
siltation.

CHAPTER – 3
Role of plants in history:

In the past, plants and their function in the landscape were generally
subjective and restricted to “romantic gardenesque” applications.
Traditionally, plants have been used for beautification due to their aesthetic
qualities. the expression "functional use of plants" helps to explain that
plants can perform other functions in the landscape and still beautify.

figure . groups of plants may be used architecturally to form walls, canopies

or floors.

plants can be used functionally to solve some of the environmental

problems .this may include the need for privacy, protection from glare or
direct sunlight into windows, or shade on a patio. a thick row of high shrubs
bordering a road can reduce noise and prevent litter from entering a yard,
or perhaps screen an unpleasant view such as a shopping center or row of
buildings.

figure plants can be used to screen the hot

summer sun while allowing sunlight through bare branches in winter for a type of
climate control.

plants have horticultural characteristics such as height and spread, branching habit,
flowers, fruit, and foliage; they have design qualities such as form, color, texture, and
mass;.

aesthetic uses of plants

plants traditionally have been used for beautification; unfortunately, most people think
this is the only reason to landscape with plants.
Aesthetically, plants can become a piece of living sculpture. When placed against a
plain wall or fence, they create an interesting shadow pattern of branches and leaves.
Plants can be used as background for other plantings, or arranged to provide visual
coherence to unrelated objects or structures. They provide suitable environments for
birds and other wildlife.

Plants may be used for diverse purposes in the modern landscape. Rarely should plants
be simply ornamental; rather, they should serve multiple roles, making the modern
landscape both attractive and functional.

figure . Plants can form a living sculpture on their own,

or help soften surrounding architecture.

Plants can serve other important functions which are primarily concerned with modifying
our environment to make it safer, healthier, and more comfortable. landscape designers
used plants to achieve these same objectives through erosion and pollution control and
glare reduction.

Plants and architecture:

Plants with respect to architecture can perform two roles. They can complement and
reinforce the existing architecture of the house or structure , and can create outdoor
rooms.
Trees, shrubs, ground cover can be used to emphasize the desirable architectural lines
and masses of the house. The form of branching patterns of a particular trees and
shrubs can echo to vertical , horizontal ,diagonal roof and wall lines of the house.

Plants can be used to soften and balance harsh and awkward architectural angle,
masses, and materials.

What is plant physiology?

• Plant physiology is a science to study the law of the life activity of plant.

• The study of plant function, encompassing the dynamic processes of

Growth, metabolism and reproduction in living plant.

• plant physiology is about how plants use the energy of sun to assimilate carbon, and
how they convert that carbon to stuff of which they are made.it is about how plants
obtain and distribute nutrients and water, how they grow and develop, how they respond
to their environment, how they react to stress, and how they reproduce. in short, plant
physiology is about how plants work

What is groundcover?

Groundcover is any material on or near the soil surface that protects the soil against the
erosive action of raindrops, surface water flow and wind.

It can be living or dead plant material, compost, mulch, dung, stones, and even snow.
On large land areas the most efficient groundcovers are living plants as they are not
carried away by runoff and their roots help hold the soil.

How do plants protect soil?

Plants protect the soil by providing canopy cover (more than 5cm above the soil
surface) and contact cover (up to 5cm above the soil surface). Canopy and contact
cover both protect the soil against raindrop impact. Contact cover slows runoff so that
water infiltrates the soil and deposits any sediment around the plants.

When groundcover is thin, patches of bare soil connect and provide a path for runoff to
build up speed and erode the unprotected soil.

How much groundcover is needed?

The amount of groundcover you need depends on

• The amount of rainfall you receive

• Intensity and seasonality of the rainfall

• Soil moisture

Shrubs:

Shrubs are multiple-stem plants that grow from 2 to more than 20 feet high. Shrubs
used in hedges or screens provide privacy.

Shrubs can be used as a barrier to unwanted foot traffic

Use shrubs for screening, privacy, windbreaks, wildlife habitats, and landscape colour
and texture.

Well-placed shrubs take into account available space, exposure and soil conditions.

Shrubs direct traffic around property corners by keeping pedestrians on the sidewalk.
Plantings in the front yard should not block a driver’s view of the street when leaving the
driveway. Low shrubs at corners of walkways help keep pedestrian traffic on the walk
and off the grass.

Selection and use of plants in the landscape:

Without a doubt, plants are the foundation of our outdoor environment.

There are a number of reasons for choosing plants for the landscape.

one may be attracted to their ornamental appeal or call upon them to serve a specific
function or purpose in the landscape, such as providing a screen, blocking unwanted
views, or stabilizing a soil bank.

Others may be selected because of their ability to adapt to poor soils or simply for the
ease of subsequent care.

Plant selection is an organized process that examines several factors: function,

aesthetics, site adaptability and management.

The freedom to choose from a wide variety of plants depends on the flexibility or
restrictions imposed by the individual, the site, or in some cases the local availability of
plants

 Function or purpose defines the reason for using a plant. “Function” refers to
the purpose that the plant serves in the landscape. The shade of a tree canopy,
 the filtered screen from a hedge, or the erosion control of a ground cover
addresses the specific objectives of the planting. Plants serve three major
functions in our landscapes: architectural, engineering and environmental.

Plants serve an architectural function by defining the floors, walls and ceilings of
our outdoor rooms. Floors direct our movement into and around the rooms. They
are defined by colors and textures of turf, ground covers, creeping perennials
and other interesting materials. Plants can also serve an architectural function
by highlighting or masking architectural features of a house or building

Plants serve an engineering function by: influencing how we walk through the
landscape; blocking objectionable views on or off the property; and minimizing
drainage or erosion issues.

 Plant aesthetic qualities include the overall habit or shape of the plant and its
foliage, flowers, fruit, and bark. The combinations of plant forms, foliage, flowers,
fruit and bark can result in creative, artistic displays.

Aesthetics or curb appeal tends to be the most notable quality of a landscape.

The success or failure of a landscape is often judged on the visual quality of the
plants.
Once we have identified the potential aesthetic qualities, the next question is to
determine whether or not the plant will truly perform in the soil and
environmental conditions on your property. if you test or challenge mother nature
and pick a plant that does not match your site conditions, there is a good chance
that it will fail.

 Factors related to site adaptability – such as the plant’s cold hardiness and
tolerance for site conditions such as soil type, exposure and light levels – will
define whether your aesthetic selections will perform to your expectations.
Site adaptability is the relationship between the needs of the plant and the
environmental and soil conditions on the property and/or the designated planting
area. it ultimately determines whether a plant will perform to expectations.
 The final consideration in plant selection is management. it is the feasibility and
quality of maintenance that ensures the long-term aesthetic appeal of any plant
and certainly highlights its contribution to the overall appeal of the landscape.
Maintenance practices within the landscape contribute to its overall appeal. The
visual quality of the landscape can fall short if horticultural practice does not fall
in line with plant needs.

BASIC PRINCIPLES AND ELEMENTS OF LANDSCAPE DESIGN

 Simplicity is the essence of design. This is an objective that I have always tried to
achieve in all of my previous residential, commercial, institutional and
recreational projects. How a designer creatively combines plant material and
 other design components into a simple, unified scheme is always an exciting
challenge.

Simplicity is the essence of design.

 In the landscape palette, the designer is dealing with living plants that are subject
to a myriad of weather conditions, different soil types, insect and disease
problems, and a host of other environmental and physical circumstances. The
landscape artist must deal with plants that celebrate the seasons with the
unfurling of leaves in spring, the aroma and visual delight of ephemeral flowers,
and the bareness of branches in winter. Change in the landscape is never
constant as the seasons come and go. How the designer successfully combines
plants and other material components in the Landscape Planting Plan involves
paying careful attention to detail, a thorough knowledge of practical horticulture,
and a good understanding of the basic principles and elements of design. The
designer faces the challenge of creating a plan that is pleasing to the senses and
that visually, functionally and aesthetically improves the appearance of the
landscape at an affordable cost.

Chaenomeles Japonica (Japanese Viburnum opulus (European

Highbush Cranberry) Winter
Flowering Quince) Seasonal design fruit is an important design
considerations. consideration.
LINE

 In curvilinear design, lines should be dramatic, done with a sense of flamboyancy

and be very expressive in their shape. Curvilinear lines that have weak, scallopy
edges will not be visually interesting or pleasing to the eye. Curvilinear,
meandering lines suggest a naturalistic look that invites the user to casually stroll
through and experience the landscape.

Effective use of circumlunar line form.... Vancouver Parks Board.

 On the other hand, linear lines such as those found in a straight hedge or the
edges of paving materials suggest quick, direct movement. Angled lines can
create opportunities for creating the "bones or the framework of the landscape".
Lines that interconnect at right angles create an opportunity for reflection,
stopping or sitting.

Weak, scallop edges leave a lot to be desired.

 Through skilful use of lines in the landscape, the designer is able to direct the
attention of the viewer to a focal point.
 Linear / curvilinear lines at Sissinghurst.

FOCAL POINT OR EMPHASIS

 Through the use of emphasis, eye movement is directed towards a center of

interest that takes a position of prominence in the landscape. This could be a
single tree, a beautifully designed water feature, a piece of sculpture, or a
collection of ericaceous plants that automatically draw the eye to this point of
interest. Open lawn areas, paths and strategically placed plants can lead the eye
to the principal feature without distraction. Plantings should be placed to easily
lead the eye to this center of heightened interest.

Sculpture / maze garden in Japan. Elevated pieces of sculpture

create emphasis in the landscape.

 Secondary features of landscape interest can also be created. In this case, while
this components are beneficial in contributing to the unity of the site and tying the
total composition of the site together, they have considerably less overall impact
than the focal point.

FORM
 Form relates to the natural shape of the plant. For example, a plant that is very
fastigiate or upright in its habit of growth is said to have a vertical or aspiring
form. Ginkgo biloba "Princeton Sentry"- Princeton Sentry Ginkgo- is a good
example of this form.
 Other plants that are spreading in their habit of growth are said to have a
horizontal or spreading form. A shrub example of this form is Taxus x media
"Hillii"-Hill’s Yew- and a tree example is Quercus palustris- Pin Oak. The Hill’s
Yew could be effectively used as a hedge to provide special definition between
two properties. When horizontal forms are placed together as is the case in the
hedge, the individual vertical forms take on a horizontal profile.
 Weeping, drooping of pendulous forms can also be used to create softer lines or
as interesting accents in the garden. Fagus sylvatica "Purple Fountain" – Purple
fountain Beech- is an excellent example of this form.

A magnificent example of Fagus sylyatica 'Pendula' (European

Weeping Beech).

 There are also rounded or globular forms that are useful in creating large
masses. The majority of shrubs fall into this category.

TEXTURE

 Texture relates to the coarseness or fineness of a leaf, roughness or smoothness

of the bark, heaviness or lightness of the foliage or other components used in the
landscape plan. In terms of plants, the large, glossy leaves of Bergenia cordifolia
"Bressingham Ruby"- Bressingham Ruby Bergenia- make it a coarse textured
plant when compared to the medium textured plant Pachysandra terminalis-
Japanese Spurge- used adjacent to fine textured grass.
 

Ostrya virginiana
Ornamental grasses and (Ironwood) A
herbs are complimentary in native tree that
texture. exhibits excellent
texture.

 When using ornamental grasses for example, a gradation of textures from fine to
medium to coarse could be as follows:
 1. Festuca glauca "Elijah Blue"- Blue Festuca Grass
 2. Deschampsia caespitosa- Tufted Hair Grass
 3. Calamagrostis x acutiflora "Karl Forester"- Feather Reed Grass
 Texture in the landscape depends upon the distance from which the plant is
viewed by the observer. In distant views, the overall mass of the plant is the
dominating feature and the fineness or softness of a leaf or branching pattern is
lost.

Fagus grandifolia (American Beech) smooth bark texture.

 In terms of the overall planting plan, texture must balance in relationship to the
axis. Weight on one side should equal the mass on the other side of the axis. For
example, much fine texture- as the case would be in using Buxus- is required to
 balance relatively little coarse texture, as the case would be in the use of
Viburnum rhytidophyllum, the Leather leaf Viburnum. Intermediate plants are
recommended to provide the necessary transition from one textural extreme to
the other.

COLOUR

 Colour theory is a very complex and very personal matter that expresses
individual taste and feelings.

Vigorously use color in the Warm colors advance...Salt

landscape. Lake City, Utah.

 Warm colors such as reds, oranges and yellows tend to advance towards to
viewer while blues, violets and greens tend to recede into the landscape. Warm
colors read well and affect the eye more quickly than do cool colors. When using
warm colors, they should be used in sequence which must be smooth and
gradual. For example, red to scarlet to orange scarlet to orange to bronze to
orange yellow to yellow to pale yellow to cream to white.
 Consideration of the use of color in plantings requires a thorough, practical
understanding of the personality of the plants. To vigorously use color and
effective color combinations requires a thorough knowledge of plants, their colors
and seasonal changes with detail of twig, leaf, flower and fruit as well as
principles of color.

BALANCE

 Balance is either formal (symmetrical) or informal (asymmetrical) in nature. In

formal balance, the mass or weight or numbers of objects on either side of a
central axis should be exactly the same. Plants are frequently clipped, lines tend
to be straight, and edges are clearly defined. For asymmetrical balance, plants
should be irregularly placed on either side of an imaginary axis so that the mass
or weight on either side of the axis appears to be balanced. Curved lines,
obscure and merging edges and natural contours identify asymmetry in the
garden.
 Informal balance...Niagara-on-the-Lake, Ontario

REPETITION

 By repetitiously using identical or similar components elsewhere in the

landscape, the designer is able to achieve a unified planting scheme. However, it
is important not to excessively use any materials too frequently as this could lead
to monotony. A delicate balance is necessary to achieve a design that is visually,
functionally and aesthetically attractive.

Repetition of diamond flagstones The repetitious use of

creates movement in paving paving stone creates unity in
pattern. the landscape.

VARIETY

 It has oftentimes been said that "variety is the spice of life". In terms of
landscape, it is often important to remember that a variety of lines, forms,
textures and colors is required in order to achieve an interesting landscape.
 Without variety in both the use of ‘hard’ and ‘soft’ landscape materials, this can
lead to unfavorable results.

A variety of forms creates significant landscape interest.

GROUPING

 Much greater appeal is achieved when odd numbers of plants are used in the
landscape. Groupings of three, five, seven, nine plants etc., will create a strong
feeling of mass and a bold landscape statement. Plants should be irregularly
spaced and every effort should be made to avoid placement of plants in an
equilateral triangle. When grouping, a designer usually starts with a specimen
that establishes the scale of the landscape. Around it are grouped slightly less
important plants which complement the specimen in colour, texture and habit of
growth. Planting one of this and one of that will create a spotty disjointed feeling.

MASS

 Made up of plants that cannot be seen in their entirety from any one vantage
point. Seasonal stability and variety in plant mass is accomplished through a mix
of evergreens and deciduous plants. Only rarely should a design consist
exclusively of evergreens or deciduous material instead of a mixture of both.

Mass planting of groundcovers for slope

 stabilization.... Seattle, Washington.

 To create a harmonious effect in any group, a designer should strive to properly

fit together plant forms, textures and colours into a harmonious whole or mass.
Size of any mass or composition depends upon its location in relationship to
other factors such as the need for screening, proximity to other groups, etc. Mass
can be any size, but smaller masses or clumps are not normally as effective as
larger, bolder mass plantings.

SCALE AND PROPORTION

 Good proportion and scale have no hard and fast rules. Generally speaking, it is
a matter of "does it look right?" Scale usually bears reference to the size of a
thing or object that appears to have a pleasing relationship to other things or to
the design as a whole. It essentially relates to some finite measure of universal
application or a standard of known dimension.

This moon gate is in perfect proportion to its setting.

 Proportion is the relationship of the width to the length of an area or the

relationship to parts of an organization.

RHYTHM

 Rhythm is expressed through the placement of plants, park furniture, etc., either
individually or as group. For example, several benches could be placed at regular
indentations along a shrub border. If every other bench was replaced with an
attractive piece of sculpture, rhythm would be created that would relieve any
monotony from the overuse of one landscape component.
 Repetitious use of sculpture in landscape reduces monotony
and results in the establishment of rhythm.

SEQUENCE

 The effective use of sequence is oftentimes employed to create visual movement

in the landscape. It is an important consideration to take into account in the
development of the overall planting pattern. For example, sequence could be an
orderly natural combination of plant material. In this case, low objects would
appear in the foreground, intermediate objects in the middle ground, and tall
objects in the background.

An orderly, sequential arrangement of heights.

 Triggered by the term "experience", how effectively the designer addresses

people’s needs and the functional requirements of the site, considers ongoing
maintenance requirements and the selection of appropriate plants, efficiency and
economics will all combine to measure the aesthetic success of the project. All of
the above must be carefully woven together to create an outdoor room that is
truly pleasurable and enjoyable on a year round basis. Celebrate the seasons in
style. Start the most fascinating of the fine arts by developing a garden that takes
into account the above principles and elements of design.
Plant selection: is an organized process that examines several factors:

 function,
 aesthetics,
 site adaptability and
 management(maintenance)

The criteria used in the process integrate function, aesthetic preferences,

adaptability of a species to the site, and the management required to ensure
establishment and subsequent performance

The freedom to choose from a wide variety of plants depends on the flexibility or
restrictions imposed by
 the individual
 the site conditions
 local availability of plants

Function: function or purpose defines the reason for using a plant.

Specific objectives of planting:

 The shade of a tree canopy,

 the filtered screen from a hedge,
 the erosion control of a ground cover

Plants serve three major functions in our landscapes:

 Architectural: Plants serve an architectural function by defining the floors, walls

and ceilings of our outdoor rooms. Floors direct our movement into and around
the rooms. They are defined by colors and textures of turf, ground covers,
creeping perennials and other interesting materials. Plants can also serve an
architectural function by highlighting or masking architectural features of a house
or building

 engineering :
1. blocking objectionable views on or off the property;
2. Minimizing drainage or erosion issues.
3. Bordering a sidewalk with small shrubs may help direct people along the walk.
4. Screens between patios and utility areas separate leisure from work space.

 Environmental. : When we speak of an environmental role for plants, our

attention focuses on their influence on microclimates within the landscape.
“Microclimate” refers climatic conditions like temperature, wind and light in a
relatively small area. Plants can modify microclimates in our landscapes and thus
contribute to human comfort
Aesthetics: Aesthetics starts with the plant type and the size of the designated planting
area.

 The size of the available space influences the type of plant we select.
 Each plant type sparks an image, some large, some small.

1. “Shade tree” implies large canopy;

2. “evergreen tree” usually suggests dense foliage and a conical shape;
3. an ornamental/flowering tree could be a small, delicate .

Soil adaptability: Soil type influences

 aeration,
 water retention,
 drainage and
 Nutrient-holding capacity.
 Soil pH
 Light exposure

Sandy soils are noted for their drainage and low nutrient-holding capacity. Knowing your
soil type and its benefits and liabilities will aid in identifying the right plant for your site.

 Soil pH is another soil parameter influencing plant growth. Soil pH regulates the
availability of micronutrients in the soil. For example, iron is relatively unavailable
in soils with high pH (above 7.0). Acid-loving plants find it difficult to extract iron
in adequate amounts from high pH soils. e.
 “Light exposure” refers to the amount of light available in the designated planting
area. Knowing daily light patterns and their changes with the season again help
tailor selections. Available light can also change with the maturity of the planting.

Management:

The final consideration in plant selection is management. It is the feasibility and quality
of maintenance that ensures the long-term aesthetic appeal of any plant and certainly
highlights its contribution to the overall appeal of the landscape. Maintenance practices
within the landscape contribute to its overall appeal. The visual quality of the landscape
can fall short if horticultural practice does not fall in line with plant needs.

Chapter-4
Use of landforms in landscape design-
Study of the landform helps us in site planning and Landscape design.

Topography and slopes determine, framing, screening of views, plant growth with
which the former is achieved. Siting of built surfaces and artefacts in landscape.
However, the topography and the associated slopes when based on geology and soil
characteristics assist in economic and sustainable landscape design.

Existing drainage systems, swales, streams, gullies seasonal floods need to be

recorded through survey. Settlement and consolidation of new slopes has to
consider existing trees that may become unstable or die due to absence of water
retention in new slopes.

Slopes need to accommodate access to all parts of the site and for
planting and landscape treatment.
1. Ramps should have slopes of 1 in 3 and never more than 1 in 10
2. Steps – 1 in 4
3. Disturbed soils should be graded 1 in 5 for safety
4. Agriculture – 1 in 6
5. Forestry – 1 in 4.
6. Grass does not grow well in 1 in 1 slope. Machine mowing slopes are usually 1
in 4.
7. Grassy slopes for pedestrian use should be 1 in 10 for comfort or else tend to
get muddy.
8. Football and other grounds – 1 in 30 to 1 in 80.
Slope and Planting depend on quality of subsoil drainage since waterlogged sites
are unstable and the soil itself is devoid of air necessary for roots. The soil water
flows through these spaces and carry bacteria. Roots tend to go deeper in fast
draining soil leading to healthier soil and stability. The open and healthy nature of
soil that is ideal for plants can be achieved cultivation, drainage and applications of
compost. Soil is created when living organisms colonizes mineral detritus. It is the
interface between the solid rocky globe and the biosphere; the term for the mere
life-supporting elements, oxygen above all that envelops us. It is normal to
distinguish between the top soil, where the marriage of rocky matrix and biological
life has gone furthest, and the subsoil where the influence of the biosphere is
comparatively slight.

The significance of understanding the landform lies in the fact that designing plant
groups belonging to those specified in specific slopes and soil type, will thrive with
least maintenance with substantial savings and sustainability of designed
landscape.
Use of “Water Bodies” in Landscape Design
 This is the most interesting object in landscape design.
 Water, which is a natural element, can be a prominent feature in the landscape.
 It may be used in the form of fountains or pools for its reflective qualities,
differences in sound or cooling effect.
 Programming the flow of water in fountains is done by an electronic timing
system which may also control the night light sequence.
 The water flow and lighting must be coordinated to achieve maximum effect.
 Sculptural elements of granite or concrete can be integrated in a water cascade
or fountain effect.
 High-water-use zones are small, highly visible and highly maintained are as of
the landscape, such as the public area and the area around the patio where
plants are watered regularly in the absence of rainfall.

 In the moderate-water-use zones, established plants are watered only when

they show symptoms of moisture stress, such as wilting or changing color.
Possible plants for this zone include azalea, dogwood, redbud, Japanese maple,
and many herbaceous perennials.

 In the low-water-use zones, plants receive no water except natural rainfall

 "operating pressure" means the pressure at which a system of sprinklers is

designed to operate,
 usually indicated at the base of a sprinkler.Water Efficient Landscape Design
Ordinance
 "overhead sprinkler irrigation systems" means those with high flow rates (pop-
ups, impulse
 sprinklers, rotors, etc.)
 "overspray" means the water that is delivered beyond the landscaped area,
wetting pavements,
 walks, structures, or other non-landscaped areas
 "recycled water," "reclaimed water," or "treated sewage effluent water" means
treated or
 recycled waste water of a quality suitable for nonpotable uses such as landscape
irrigation; not
 intended for human consumption
 "run off" means water which is not absorbed by the soil or landscape to which it is
applied and
 flows from the area
 "Sprinkler head" means a device that sprays water through a nozzle.
  "Static water pressure" means the pipeline or municipal water supply pressure
when water is not flowing.
USES OF VEGETATION IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

 Considering the functional use of plants is a new approach to solving landscape

problems. Traditionally, plants have been used for beautification due to their
aesthetic qualities. The expression "functional use of plants" helps to explain that
plants can perform other functions in the landscape and still beautify.

 Plants have horticultural characteristics such as height and spread, branching

habit, flowers, fruit, and foliage; they have design qualities such as form, color,
texture, and mass; and they have cultural requirements for growth in the
landscape

 Plants can be used functionally to solve some of the environmental problems the
homeowner may have on the property. This may include the need for privacy,
protection from glare or direct sunlight into windows, or shade on a patio. A thick
row of high shrubs bordering a road can reduce noise and prevent litter from

 It must be realized that not all landscape problems can be solved with plant
materials alone; pavements and structures are equally important. Fences and
walls are as functional and provide as much privacy as woody plants--and they
may require less maintenance

DESIGN OF PATHWAYS:

 The path defines the passage in the landscape created.

 It could be paved or unpaved. paving materials are used

 to eliminate hazards from mud and dust and to form a
 Smooth surface for ease of circulation.

 various design patterns in the pathways help beautify

 The surroundings and look pleasing to the eye.

 The paving material could be natural or man-made.

 man-made paving materials are available in a wide

 Variety of textures and colors. some of the materials
  Used are explained in the following.

Stone Pathways:

A Stone Pathway Can Be A Beautiful Addition To Any Yard Or Garden. The Variety Of Flat Stone That You
Can Use Include Flagstone, Limestone, Even Bits And Pieces Of Various Stones, Fitted Together Into A
Mosaic.

Rock Pathways:

Rock Pathways Are Not As Refined As Most Stone Pathways But They Do Have Their Place In Many
Landscaping Designs. A Pathway That Has Been Formed From River Rock Is A Beautiful, Low
Maintenance Path.

Mulch Pathways:

This Is An Easy Project Too And It Feels Wonderful Underfoot. You Can Use Various Types Of Mulch To
Act As Your Pathway Surface. Some Common Types Include Cypress, Pine Bark, And Even Wood Chips.

Terrace garden:

In gardening, a terrace is an element where a raised flat paved or graveled section overlooks a prospect
A raised terrace keeps a house dry and provides a transition between the hard materials of
the architecture and softer ones of the grade

A green roof or living roof is a roof of a building that is partially or completely covered with vegetation
and a growing medium, planted over a waterproofing membrane

LAWNS:

1. A stretch of open, grass-covered land, esp. one closely mowed*, as near a house, on an estate, or in a
park

2. An area of land planted with grass or (rarely) other durable plants, which are maintained at a short
height and used for aesthetic and recreational purposes

Shrubs :

A woody plant of relatively low height, having several stems arising from the base and lacking a single
trunk;

a bush , usually under 6 m (20 ft) tall

Shrubs: placed in the North - east direction.

HEDGES…

• A hedge is a line of closely spaced shrubs and tree species, planted and trained to form a barrier
or to mark the boundary of an area

• Hedges used to separate a road from adjoining fields or one field from another, and of sufficient
age to incorporate larger trees

• A row of closely planted shrubs or low-growing trees forming a fence or boundary.

TREES FORMS

- Common tree forms include round, columnar, oval, pyramidal, vase shaped, and weeping.

- Different tree forms are used for visual appeal, but the form is also important for function.

- Creating a shady area in the garden requires a round or oval tree, while a screen usually requires a
more columnar or pyramidal form, and a weeping tree form makes a good focal point.
 • Outdoor Lighting

Objectives of Outdoor Lighting

The purposes of outdoor lighting include:

(1) Improving the legibility of critical nodes, landmarks, and circulation and activity zones
in the landscape.

(2) Facilitating the safe movement of pedestrians and vehicles, promoting a more secure
environment, and minimizing the potential for personal harm and damage to property

(3) Helping to reveal the salient features of a site at a desired intensity of light in order to
encourage night time use.`

GENERAL DESIGN PRINCIPLES

Lighting Hierarchy: Driver and pedestrian orientation can be aided by providing a

hierarchy of lighting effects that correspond to the different zones and uses of a site . For
instance, subtle but recognizable distinctions can be made between major and minor roads,
paths, and use areas by varying the distribution and brightness of the light and by varying
the height, spacing, and color of lamps

Attaining high levels of illumination along circulation routes does not have to be a prime
consideration in outdoor lighting. If a clear and consistent system is provided, low levels
may be adequate for safe circulation

Clear Lighting Patterns:

Clear optical guidance can be provided with the alignment of light fixtures positioned in
consistent, recognizable, and unambiguous patterns. A staggered layout of road and
pathway lights tends to obscure rather than reinforce the direction of circulation and the
location of intersections

Intersection Articulation:

Intersections, decision points, crossings, bus stops, steps, arrival points, etc., should be
articulated in a manner that signals their presence, shape, and nature. The illumination
pattern should serve as a visual cue to what conditions may lie ahead.

Placement of Luminaires

Spacing, height, and distribution of luminaires should avoid foliage shadows; provide
uniformity, and vertical surface illumination. High mounting and wide spacing of fixtures
may result in disruptions to the illumination pattern due to tree shadows. Lower mounting
heights and closer spacing between fixtures may create a more security. uniform
distribution light promoting the pedestrian's sense

Glare:

• Glare is a major inhibitor of good visibility and can be produced by any scale of
light fixture, including small lens-type step lights.

• Glare is more of a problem when exposed light sources, such as lamps or lenses, can
be seen directly.

• Luminaire location and mounting height, fixture type, and lamp intensity must be
carefully selected to optimize light distribution and minimize glare.

• Lower mounting lanterns may or may not have sharp cutoff optics. If high-angle
illumination is appropriate in order to illuminate facades, trees, and other
streetscape elements, then care must be taken to prevent glare.

Under lighting:

• Under lighting is potentially hazardous if insufficient light is provided to protect

pedestrians and/or vehicles from potential injury and damage. Sufficient light is
especially important in areas where heavy pedestrian traffic is expected, such as
near parks, ball fields, and other places that attract crowds of people, or where
children cross streets. Parking areas, access and egress points, loading areas, etc.
should have adequate lighting to help protect drivers, pedestrians, and vehicles.
Security

• Darkness, together with unfamiliar surroundings, can incite strong feelings of

insecurity. To provide a sense of security, possible hiding places and dense shadows
should be minimized by the placement of appropriate light fixtures

Walkway Lights:

• Walkway lights should have enough peripheral distribution to illuminate the

immediate surroundings. Vertical light distribution over walkway areas should
cover or overlap at a height of 2 100 mm (7 ft.) so that visual recognition of other
pedestrians is maintained. When the pedestrian's sense of security is a primary
consideration, low mounting height with close spacing and a vertical illumination
pattern may be the most effective approach

• STREET FURNITURES

• Street Furniture provides for social and recreational gathering of people in outdoor spaces.
 • Any mode of seating provided in the external design space (landscape space) is known as street
furniture. These could be seats with backs or without backs. They are usually made of wood,
concrete, stone or metal casting.

• Concrete or stone seats may act as sculpture elements. These are easy to maintain and less
prone to vandalism.

• Wooden benches with backrests are most comfortable. Concrete and metal cast seats can also
have backs. Seating could also be combined with tree-planters.

OUTDOOR FURNITURE
A Quality Piece Of Garden Or Patio Furniture Really Allows You To Get Outside And Appreciate Your
Outdoors As Well As Providing A Place To Entertain Guests Or Just Enjoy The Company Of Friends Or
Family.

 Patio Dining Sets

These Are Usually The First Piece Of Outdoor Furniture That People Buy. A Good Outdoor Dining Set Will
Be The Hub Of Your Outdoor Entertaining, Especially If You Do A Lot Of Outdoor Dining. Some Of The
Points To Consider Before Buying Are:
- How Many People Will Be Using It, Therefore How Large Does It Need To Be
- Portability Vs Permanent Feature
- What Style Works Best Aesthetically In Your Backyard E.G, Wood, Metal, Wicker...

 Outdoor Conversation Sets

These Are Excellent For Informal Outdoor Entertaining And Generally Relaxing Outside. Outdoor
Conversation Sets Are Basically Just A Replica Of What You Have In Your Living Room - Couches, Side
Tables, Coffee Tables, The Difference Being That They Are Designed To Be Outside And Can Handle The
Elements.

 Fire Pit Tables

These Are A Cost Effective And Practical Alternative To A Traditional Fire Pit. Some Of The Advantages
Are:

- Portability, You Take It With You When You Move Or If You Want Change The Layout Of Your Outdoors
You Can Easily Do It.
- They Come In A Range Of Styles That Are Designed To Match Your Existing Outdoor Furniture.

 Patio Chairs
Patio Chairs Have Come A Long Way Since The Wooden Or Canvas Deck Chairs Most People Remember
From Their Childhood.

Modern Patio Chairs Come In A Variety Of Weather Resistant Materials, Are Easy To Clean And Maintain
And, Most Importantly, Are Extremely Comfortable.

 Hammocks
Hammocks Have Always Been Great For Relaxing Outdoors But Modern Hammocks Offer Even More
Flexibility And Comfort With Self-Framed Hammocks Being Able To Be Placed Anywhere - You No Longer
Need Two Strong Trees To Hang Your Hammock From! Among The Varieties Now Available Are Even
Hammocks With Built In Shade Screens.

 Outdoor Bars
What Better Way To Enjoy Those Long Summer Evenings Than Having Friends Over For A Cold Drink
Outside In Your Yard. Outdoor Bars Form A Social Hub In Your Yard - A Great Place To Hang Out After
Watching That Big Sporting Game Or Simply To Relax After A Long Day At Work.

Chapter – 5
LANDSCAPE CONSTRUCTION:

• It is the segment of landscaping that involves the installation of

materials identified in the landscape design.
• Construction project can range from very small to very large in scale.

 Landforms are natural features of the landscape, natural physical

features the earth's surface.

• Valleys
• Hills
• Loess
• Glaciers
• Plateaus
• Mountains
• Plains

USE OF LANDFORMS IN LANDSCAPE DESIGN

 • Study of the landform helps us in site planning and Landscape design.
• Topography and slopes determine, framing, screening of views, plant
growth with which the former is achieved. Sitting of built surfaces and
artefacts in landscape.
• However, the topography and the associated slopes when based on
geology and soil characteristics assist in economic and sustainable
landscape design.

Grading and Grading Plans:

Grading means reshaping the topography of a site. Grading can add interest to a landscape site, solve
many problems and promote proper drainage. The landscape drawing that shows how the surface of
the site is to be shaped is known as a grading plan. Lines on the grading plan called contour lines
indicate the surface features or topography of a site. Grading plans show both existing and proposed
contours, so the landscape contractor can see where to remove soil (cut) and where to add more soil
(fill).

Understanding contour lines:

All points on a contour line have the same elevation (or a contour line is formed by joining the points of
same elevation). Contours that are equally spaced apart symbolize an evenly sloping surface. Contours
that are far apart symbolize a slight grade. Contours that are closely spaced together symbolize a steep
slope. Water always drains perpendicular to contour lines. Every fifth contour on the map is called an
index contour; it is a heavier line and makes the landmarks easier to read. Some or all the contours on a
map will be labeled with their elevation.

Grading for drainage means that the contours of the land are shaped to move excess surface water and
snowmelt water away from areas where it could cause problems.

Improper grading of the plot can result in poor surface drainage, ponding or flooding around the
basement wall, foundation damage and basement dampness and other undesirable effects.

The two most common types of plot grading are:

Back to front: With this type of grading, the rear lot line is the high point. First of all an elevated apron
must be created around the house. This allows the surface drainage to flow towards the back and then
forward to the street at the edges of the property. Back-to-front grading is typical of properties on a
hillside or mountainside.

Split. With this type, the house is the high point and the lot is graded so that surface drainage flows
forward to the street and backward toward the rear lot line, which is then generally drained by a swale
and catch basin system (see Figure). This is the more common type and is typical of housing
developments on relatively flat land.

Cross sections/Profiles of contours:

It’s a precise method of determination of variation in slope of the topography. By marking off the
horizontal distance between contour lines along a base line and then plotting the elevation or altitude of
these points, a section can be drawn showing the gradient of slope and shape of the topography along
the line of section.

Example of a contour profile

Earth work calculations:

Earthwork includes:

1. Excavation 2.Grading: Moving earth to change elevation 3. Back fill or fill: Adding earth to raise grade
4.Compaction: Increasing density.

Calculating earthwork:

1. End Area method: used in sites where length is much greater than width.
2. Grid or contour line method: used for parking lots and site leveling. The grid size varies from
10’X10’ to 50’X50’. The greater the terrain variance, the smaller the grid.

Confusing stuff:
 End area method: Procedure

a. Take cross-sections at regular intervals, typically, 100’ intervals.

b. Calculate the cross-section end areas

c. The volume of earthwork between sections is obtained by taking the average of the end areas at
each station in square feet multiplied by the distance between sections in feet and dividing by 27 to
obtain the volume in cubic yards.

Irrigation Systems:
Sprinkler irrigation: Sprinkler Irrigation is a method of applying irrigation water which is similar to
rainfall. Water is distributed through a system of pipes usually by pumping. It is then sprayed into the air
and irrigates entire soil surface through spray heads so that it breaks up into small water drops which
fall to the ground.

Higher pressure sprinklers that have rotating heads are called rotors and are driven by a ball drive, gear
drive, or impact mechanism. Rotors can be designed to rotate in a full or partial circle. Guns are similar
to rotors, except that they generally operate at very high pressures.

Sprinklers provide efficient coverage for small to large areas and are suitable for use on all types of
properties. It is also adaptable to nearly all irrigable soils since sprinklers are available in a wide range of
discharge capacity.

Advantages:

1. Can be applied to areas of variable topography.

2. Flexibility is possible because sprinkler heads are available in a wide range of discharge
capacities.
3. Chemical and fertilizer applications are easily used with sprinkler systems.

Disadvantages:

1. Water application efficiency under sprinkler irrigation is strongly affected by wind.

2. High maintenance requirements, constant and meticulous maintenance of sprinkle irrigation
systems is crucial
3. High operating pressures.

Drip or trickle irrigation system:

Drip irrigation, also known as trickle irrigation or micro irrigation or localized irrigation , is
an irrigation method which saves water by allowing water to drip slowly to the roots of plants, either
onto the soil surface or directly onto the root zone, through a network of valves, pipes, tubing,
and emitters. It is done with the help of narrow tubes which delivers water directly to the base of the
plant.

Advantages:

1. High water application efficiency.

2. Leveling of the field not necessary.
3. Ability to irrigate irregular shaped fields.
4. Moisture within the root zone can be maintained
5. Minimized soil erosion.
6. Highly uniform distribution of water i.e., controlled by output of each nozzle.
7. Lower labour cost.

Disadvantages:

1. Expense. Initial cost can be more than overhead systems.

2. The sun can affect the tubes used for drip irrigation, shortening their usable life.
3. If the water is not properly filtered and the equipment not properly maintained, it can result in
clogging.
 Layout of drip or trickle system

Paths:
Functioning as a link between elements in the landscape, a pathway provides a garden with
structure and opens the spaces to exploration. Pathways transform a stagnant site into a series of
experiences. Paths and walkways are generally used to connect various points in a landscape (they
can lead the users to specific points in a landscape), thus guiding the user to move around without
any discomfort or confusion. They also help in the protection of flower beds, plantations, lawns etc
from unnecessary foot traffic.

Paths and walkways can be made from natural materials with low maintenance or no maintenance,
resulting in beautiful and functional landscaping design.

Pathways are often used in more natural settings, while walkways are more permanent additions
that often serve a particular purpose. Many times, walkways lead to a place, such as a door, while
pathways are used for less formal settings as a way to enjoy the atmosphere. Walkways, 4- to 6-feet
wide, are typically much wider than pathways, 2- to 3-feet wide, to allow for side-by-side walking.
Walkways are generally for high traffic areas and pathways for areas less used.

Materials:

Pathways: loose gravel, mulch

Walkways: poured concrete, slabs of stone, pavers like natural stone pavers, brick pavers, concrete
pavers etc. (note: Pavers are generally factory products and are available in various sizes, shapes,
colors and are very durable. Brick and concrete pavers specially, can take heavy foot traffic loads.)

Depending upon the location, the design of the pathways and walkways differs….like in formal
settings, it is recommended to have straight, symmetrical pathways whereas for informal settings,
curvilinear pathways can be used.

Laying brick pavers

Section of stone pathway

parking: please refer

http://strawberrycreek.berkeley.edu/pdfs/start@source/sats6sitedesign&land.pdf

steps: outdoor steps might be incorporated into a walkway design where they is a
necessity to lessen the steepness of the walk. there might be a raised patio where a
transition is required to get to a lower or an upper level. landscape steps can also be
used where they would make for easier access along a steep area. steps are often
incorporated, adding functionality to an otherwise inaccessible location. one function
is to create safe passage and easier movement up and down grades. steps can also
highlight or create garden levels by making outdoor "rooms." informal steps can be
made by using stepping stones placed directly into the ground in a random fashion.
more formal steps are constructed with connected straight edges like those found
inside a building. flagstone steps are an example of formal steps.

common materials used: brick and stone.

section of stone slab steps

Screens or privacy fences:

Privacy fences are often an essential feature of the urban or suburban yard, and
they may even play a role on some rural landscapes. Privacy fences work in both
directions. Firstly, they screen out unpleasant external sights and sounds that would
otherwise impinge upon the senses. Secondly, privacy fences screen your
movements from the prying eyes of neighbors. Screens also help in defining spaces.
 Types: hardscape fences (made out of masonry or wood or vinyl construction) and
softscape fences (usage of trees or plants as fences).

Advantages of hardscape screens over softscape screens:

1. Speedy results: building wooden or vinyl privacy fences and masonry walls
furnishes instant privacy. You will have to wait for plants to grow high enough to
provide privacy.

2. Maintenance: well-built privacy fences or walls will rarely need to be tended to.
Plants, by contrast, need to be watered, weeded, etc.

Nonetheless, planting "living-wall" privacy fences is often preferable to erecting

masonry walls or wooden or vinyl fencing. Bamboo hedges, for example, commonly
serve as such living-wall privacy fences. Advantages of softscape fences over
hardscape fences:

 Cost.
 Their beauty in terms of color, form and texture.
 Seasonal variation in some cases, ranging from spring flowers to autumn foliage.
 Fruit production in some cases, which can attract birds or even be edible for
humans.
 The shape of some shrubs can be controlled by pruning, effectively rendering
them works of art (hedges).

The correctly chosen fence can be visually pleasing while still providing the desired
degree of privacy and security. Low picket and post and rail fences can mark a
boundary without giving a solid or intrusive feel. As such they are particularly
appropriate for front boundaries and should be painted or stained to complement the
house. Close boarded timber fences are often used to enclose back gardens.

Retaining walls:

Retaining walls are built in order to hold back ground which would otherwise move
downwards. Their purpose is to stabilize slopes and provide useful areas at different
elevations. They are designed to resist lateral pressure of soil.
Decks:

A deck is a flat surface capable of supporting weight, similar to a floor, but typically
constructed outdoors, often elevated from the ground, and usually connected to a
building. Professionally designed deck systems offer several possibilities to enhance the
outdoor living space of the home. In addition to expanding the functional space of the
indoors, decks are also effective in redefining grade by bridging slopes or bumps found
in the topography of a site. With the incorporation of trellises, built-in benches, or
handrails, the deck forms a connection between the natural landscapes and built
architectural characteristics of the property. Decks can also be covered by
a canopy or pergola to control sunlight.

Wood or timber "decking" can be used in a number of ways - as part of garden

landscaping, to extend living areas of houses, and as an alternative to stone based
features such as patios.
Trellis:

A trellis is an architectural structure, usually made from interwoven pieces of wood,

bamboo or metal that is often made to support climbing plants.

A trellis can also refer to a structure, usually made from interwoven wood pieces,
attached to the roof or exterior walls of a house. ( like a pergola)

Arched trellises are often used in the garden as a gateway feature. Trellises add a
unique vertical element to the landscape while defining the suggested boundaries of
outdoor spaces. These structures invite the comforts of privacy and shade to any
outdoor location. They are also effective in directing pedestrian traffic. While providing
support for plant material, trellises and other garden structures may be used to screen
unsightly views or frame priceless vistas. Trellises provide an attractive way to create
barriers and partitions within a garden. Trellises can divide the garden into distinct
areas, enclose the entire garden space or provide extra cover along a fence or wall.
Flowers and vines grown on a trellis provide not only privacy, but also protection from
wind and wandering animals.
Laying sprinkler irrigation network

Plot plan and design

The first step in designing a residential system is to measure the property and indicate
the location of the house.

Be sure to include all concrete or brick walks and patios, driveways and fences. While
you are measuring, locate any trees, shrubs and lawns and draw them on the sketch.

On the plot plan, divide the property into areas. The areas should be rectangles or
squares and as large as possible. Consider the information in step 2 above while
dividing up the plot plan: front yard, back yard and side yard, lawn or shrub areas and
shady areas. Label your areas a, b, c, d, etc. (see the example plot plan above).
Select sprinkler heads
There are three basic types of sprinklers for residential use: large area rotors,
rotating stream spray sprinklers and small area fan spray sprinklers. Large area
rotors and rotating stream spray sprinklers should never be installed on the same
zone as small area fan spray sprinklers. High efficiency spray nozzles such as
pro-spray® mp rotators® should be considered in place of traditional spray
nozzles.
1. Large area rotors will cover areas that measure 8 meters
By 8 meters and larger.
2. Small area sprays are typically used in areas smaller than 8 meters by 8
meters. Within both of these groups are pop-up sprinklers which are installed
even with the ground level, and riser-mounted shrub heads, which are installed
above ground level.
 types of sprikler heads;

Locating sprinkler heads

Large area sprinklers should be 8 meters to 12 meters apart. Small area sprays should
be 3 meters to 5 meters apart. This spacing will allow sprinklers to overlap their throw to
assure even water distribution.

Additionally, a sprinkler should be spaced so that it will spray both the head next to it
and the head across from it.

Step 1. The critical points on a plan are the corners. Draw a quarter pattern sprinkler in
each corner. Using a compass, draw an arc showing the sprinkler’s watering pattern.

Step 2. If the quarter heads will not spray each other

(Head-to-head spacing), place heads along the perimeters. Draw these sprinklers’
watering patterns.

Step 3. Now look to see if the perimeter heads will be spraying across the area to the
heads on the other side.

If they do not, add full circle heads in the middle. An easy way to locate these heads is
to draw perpendicular grid lines from one perimeter head to another. Again, using the
compass, draw an arc showing this sprinkler’s watering pattern to make sure there is
complete coverage.

Divide sprinklers into zones

Unless you have a very small yard, you probably do not have enough water capacity to
irrigate the entire yard at once. Many areas will require more water than the residence
has available (system design capacity.
Locate valves and size pipes

Every zone on the plot plan must have its own valve. The valve controls the on-off flow
of water to a sprinkler zone. Indicate one control valve for each zone and then group the
valves together in an assembly called a valve manifold.

Determine where you want the valve manifold for each area. You may want a manifold
in the front yard and one in the back yard, or you may want more locations. Manifold
placement is entirely up to you. We recommend placing the manifold in an accessible
spot for easy maintenance. Place the manifold close to the area the valves will serve,
but where you will not be sprayed when activating the system manually.
 UNIT-6
CONTEMPORARY CONCEPTS AND CONCERNS
Urban landscape:

• the space all around and between buildings, ranging from streets and squares to
parks, gardens, urban woods, stream corridors, cemeteries and many other
types of green space is an important part of the green infrastructure of a city, as
important for sustainability as transport, services and energy infrastructure.

• urban landscape is not necessarily green but it frequently incorporates a range

of green elements such as grass, ground covers, shrubs and trees, all of which
perform many functions such as shelter, cooling or shading, air cleaning by
filtering pollutants, aesthetic value, places for people to congregate and use for a
range of activities and as habitat for urban wildlife.
Why it is use?

• An urban environment without well-designed public outdoor spaces or green

landscape elements is sterile, unattractive and uncomfortable, whatever the
merits of the architecture of the vicinity.

• Spaces are vital to set off the buildings and the need for external, accessible
circulation space enhances the functionality of the built forms of an urban area.

• However, because of the many environmental benefits as noted above, the

landscape can perform an important role in micro-climate reducing the need for
air conditioning, improving infiltration of storm water, providing shelter and so
reduce the need for heating and in general reducing the urban heat island effect.

• Thus, urban design without a proper consideration of the landscape at all scales
is missing a key element without which it will not function properly.

When to use it?

• Landscape design is a core requirement in any building project or urban design

and cannot be seen as a kind of add on to the architecture.

• in particular, when sustainable architecture needs to reduce energy consumption,

to provide better ecological values and to make the outdoors accessible,
attractive, free from pollution and pedestrian friendly the skills of a landscape
architect are needed.

Even the most densely built up urban environments can benefit from some vegetation,
from good surfaces and improved accessibility. Thus it is not an option to ignore
landscape design any more than any other infrastructure.

People choose shady places to sit if they can, and the trees cool the air through
evapotranspiration.
A small grassy area in a city centre provides a honeypot for people to relax and get
some sun.

Consideration while designing urban landscape:

Step 1: survey the kinds of spaces which exist in the area around the development and
beyond, considering how people use them for movement (desire lines etc) and look for
places where pedestrian areas and car free zones can be established. Consider the
options for avoiding or removing sealed surfaces in places where circulation is not
needed.

Step 2: survey the existing routes of services in order to identify places where planting
might be possible. Some services could be rerouted during development in order to
provide more possibilities for plants, especially trees. This is especially important in
streets.

Step 3: analyse the microclimate around the site, looking for places where shelter and
shade might be beneficial. Monitoring an area over the course of several months would
show where wind is a problem, for example. Plants at different heights are needed to
optimise the shelter/shade potential.

Step 4: analyse slopes and changes in level both for drainage (to establish sustainable
urban drainage) and for inclusive access (slopes and steps should be avoided).

Step 5: consider the types of plants that might be included – grass, ground covers,
shrubs, trees etc, and the kinds of functions they might perform according to the
evaluation of the site and its environs. The choice of species of varieties will need
careful thought as not all are suitable for urban environments.

Step 6: develop design ideas which optimise the people friendly opportunities of a place
and also the role green elements can play while relating these to the character and
structure of the built environment.

Rural landscape:

• Landscape design in rural settings generally involves working in places where

buildings may be seen as intrusions.

• rural landscapes can vary from those close to towns where an urban influence is
present or where the residents tend to have urban values (commuter areas for
example) through to national parks and other quite “natural” areas where
buildings are sparse and usually of vernacular origin in terms for the design and
use of materials.
 • The scale of the landscape may also vary, from small and intimate to large and
open so that buildings can easily look out of place if not anchored into the
landscape.

• Documents such as landscape character assessments which are inventories of

landscapes may provide ideas for locating buildings, fitting them into the
landscape and using elements such as trees, hedges and walls to unify them into
the scene.

The rural landscape has many traditional features of the way buildings fit in, with trees
and hedges providing structure, local styles and materials still characteristic and much
potential for sustainable development.

Why to use it?

• Buildings therefore need to respect the character of the landscape while not
being mere pastiches of traditional vernacular examples.

• Citing is especially important but use of materials, colours and forms, use of
elements such as landform, trees and hedges can help to ensure that new or
modified buildings can be positive elements.

• Large buildings such as farm storage sheds, power plants or other industrial may
need to be treated by screening using earthworks and planting or by integrating
them into the landscape with the help of colour treatments, landform and use of
simple uncluttered forms.

When to use it?

 • Whenever built development is proposed for a rural site the use of landscape
elements to help to integrate the construction into the scene should be
considered.

• Because of the openness of many rural landscapes buildings can be seen over
significant distances and may stand out as separate elements unless integrated.
Bigger structures may appear to dominate the scene or else all may be dwarfed
in large scale landscapes.

• if there is any risk of the building competing with a highly valued rural landscape
then good design to integrate it should be considered. Also, because landscape
in the rural setting often includes land not in the ownership of the developer, the
effect of off-site trees, buildings and other elements may need to be considered
in the landscape composition.

Consideration while designing rural landscape:

• The scale of the landscape in relation to the building(s) and the need for reducing
the apparent bulk or for avoiding the building appearing to float.

• The materials, colours, textures and vegetation found in the landscape to be

used as guidance for the design of both building and landscape elements.

• The guidance given by any landscape character assessments available for the
area.

• The presence of landscape elements on and off site that could be used to
integrate the development into the landscape.

• The condition of landscape elements such as trees, hedges, walls, which may
change or need to be enhanced for long term effectiveness.

• The species and varieties of plants found in the area and which should be
considered when planning and designing landscape works.

• the forms of the land and terrain as sources of shapes when considering the use
of earthworks as part of the design (including disposal of excavated material and
its incorporation into the landscape

Design procedure:

• Step 1: following on from site planning, consider the local landscape character,
concentrating on the forms and patterns of landscape elements which could be
used as inspiration on integrating the development into the landscape. Collect
 samples of materials, colours and other aspects which may help to identify ways
in which the development could be integrated.

• Step 2: survey the existing landscape elements, obtaining professional guidance

on the condition and health of living elements such as trees, hedges, water
bodies, meadows and other semi-natural areas. Develop a list of potential
vegetation to be used in the design. Identify the features which can be used in
the design and where these may need strengthening or rejuvenating.

• step 3: using the building footprint, consider the layout of access roads, tracks
and paths and the routing of services in ways that facilitate efficient function,
respect the local conditions and avoid unnecessary removal or disturbance of
valuable vegetation or water bodies. Try to use forms derived from the
landscape, such as curving lanes, the shape of hedges or field boundaries or the
sweep of a slope as means of unifying the building(s) into the landscape. if the
building is to perform a function (such as a farm building) ensure that this does
not override aesthetic requirements.

• Step 4: prepare a design showing the building(s) together with landscape

elements such as roads, paths, existing and proposed trees, water features,
earthwork contours, walls and hedges etc. construct perspectives showing how
these elements contribute to the setting and composition of the building(s) from
several key views.

• Step 5: prepare a set of layout plans with specifications for the excavation,
earthworks, drainage and surfacing, and for the planting and management of the
vegetation.

• step 6: landscapes develop from the day the contract to create them is
completed and become mature many decades later so that management plans
guiding the development of the design over time are crucial.

Green architecture:

Definition:

Green architecture, or green design, is an approach to building that minimizes

harmful effects on human health and the environment. the "green" architect or
designer attempts to safeguard air, water, and earth by choosing eco-friendly
building materials and construction practices.

Green architecture may have many of these characteristics:

• ventilation systems designed for efficient heating and cooling

 • energy-efficient lighting and appliances

• water-saving plumbing fixtures

• landscapes planned to maximize passive solar energy

• minimal harm to the natural habitat

• alternate power sources such as solar power or wind power

• non-synthetic, non-toxic materials

• locally-obtained woods and stone

• responsibly-harvested woods

• adaptive reuse of older buildings

• use of recycled architectural salvage

• efficient use of space

What is a microclimate?

A microclimate is when the climate in a small area is different to the general area
around it

Many different things can cause this

Climate is the average weather conditions of a place over a long period of time.

Different things can cause this

Role of landscape components in modifying micro climate:

• The microclimate of a particular location or site is controlled – to a great extent –

by its landscape and terrain.

• In a predominantly hot country like india the plantation of trees plays a vital role
in preventing the build-up of heat.

• They shade the ground (and the walls of low-rise buildings) with their canopy
and, combined with their transpiration, trees can lower temperatures in their
immediate surroundings by as much as 5°c.
 • Also, in conjunction with shrubs they can help in channelling prevailing breezes
and improve comfort levels indoors as well as outdoors.

• It is important, from the point of view of sustainability, to preserve what we can of

a site’s natural ecosystem. This includes not just the flora and fauna but also the
natural drainage patterns.

• Factors affecting micro climate w.r.t to temperature, humidity, precipitation and

percolation:

Appropriate plantation:

• It is not merely enough to know where you are going to grow something; it is
equally important to know what you are growing and how it affects the local
ecosystem.

Improving comfort levels

• Trees are often the first line of defence when it comes to passive cooling of a
bungalow or other low-rise structure.

• They provide shade which prevents the build-up of heat not only on the ground
but also on the walls of the building.

• Shade on the ground means the breeze coming in through your window is cooler
and shade on the walls means less heat gets transferred indoors. Aside from
shading, trees also cool by transpiration to the extent that they can, if properly
located, reduce ambient temperatures by as much as 5° compared to the
surroundings.

Usage of water:

• This is a very important factor to take into consideration especially if you’re

thinking of sustainable landscaping. Many ornamental trees and bushes are
extremely high-maintenance and don’t even get me started on lawns. They may
look very pleasing to the eye but, with few exceptions, they guzzle frightening
amounts of water and are often heavily sprayed with chemical pesticides —
which naturally leech into the groundwater.

Reduce hard paving:

• City folk seem to have an obsession with paving every inch of land they see. This
leads to a huge increase of rainwater runoff which, in turn, overloads the storm-
water systems and results in flooding – sometimes with disastrous
consequences. Soil, especially when well planted, allows a large percentage of
 the rain that falls on it, to penetrate the ground and recharge the water table
beneath. This allows plants to grow more naturally, gives us sweet water in the
dry season and, in coastal areas, prevents the egress of saline water.

• preventing soil erosion:

• Erosion of soil is a very real problem that can crop up when we encounter sloping
land on a site. In this article. The first was done entirely via plantation and the
second (where the foundation of a building had to be supported) involved
terracing of the land — in conjunction with plantation of course.