GJ STC UG Political Science SEMESTER III

SEMESTER- III
BA POLITICAL SCIENCE
CORE III: ISSUES AND POLITICAL PROCESSES IN MODERN INDIA.

Module 2

• Party System in India: Shift from dominant party system to multi-party system.
• Major National Parties
• Coalition Politics.
• Interest groups and Pressure Groups.
• Fourth Estate.

PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA: SHIFT FROM DOMINANT PARTY SYSTEM TO MULTI-

PARTY SYSTEM.

Historical Evolution

A political party system refers to the way political parties are structured and operate
within a political framework. In India, the party system has evolved significantly over
the decades, shaped by the country's vast diversity, federal structure, and socio-
economic conditions. The Indian party system is characterized by a complex and
dynamic interplay between national and regional parties, making it one of the most
diverse and vibrant in the world.

The roots of the Indian party system can be traced back to the pre-Independence era
when the Indian National Congress (INC) emerged as the primary force in the struggle
against British colonial rule. The INC, founded in 1885, became the leading political
party, representing a broad coalition of various interest groups. However, the Indian
political landscape was not homogeneous, with the Muslim League and other regional
and communal parties also playing significant roles.

After India gained independence in 1947, the INC continued its dominance, leading
the country through the initial years of nation-building. The period from 1947 to 1967
is often referred to as the era of single-party dominance, where the INC enjoyed an
overwhelming majority in the central and state legislatures. The party's dominance
was challenged in the 1967 general elections, where for the first time, non-Congress
governments were formed in several states, marking the beginning of a multi-party
system.

The 1970s and 1980s saw the rise of regional parties, which began to challenge the
hegemony of national parties. This period also witnessed the emergence of the
Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) as a significant political force, particularly after the 1984
general elections. The 1990s marked a decisive shift towards coalition politics, with no
single party able to secure a clear majority at the national level. This led to the
formation of coalition governments, a trend that has continued into the 21 st century.

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Types of Party System in India

India's party system can be broadly categorized into three phases:

1. Single-Party Dominance (1947-1967): The INC was the dominant party, both
at the center and in most states. The party's dominance was attributed to its
role in the independence movement, its leadership, and its ability to
accommodate diverse interests within its fold.
2. Multi-Party System (1967 onwards): The decline of the INC's dominance led
to the emergence of a multi-party system, with regional parties gaining
prominence in various states. This period saw the fragmentation of the political
landscape, with several smaller parties influencing the formation of
governments.
3. Coalition Politics (1990s onwards): The inability of any single party to secure
a majority in the 1989 general elections marked the beginning of the coalition
era. Since then, coalition governments have become the norm at the center,
with alliances between national and regional parties playing a crucial role in
governance.

Major Political Parties

1. Indian National Congress (INC): The INC has been a central player in Indian
politics since independence. Despite facing significant challenges and electoral
losses, it remains a key political force, particularly in certain states. The party's
ideology centers around secularism, social justice, and inclusive development.
2. Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP): The BJP has emerged as the principal
challenger to the INC, particularly since the 1990s. The party's rise has been
marked by its emphasis on Hindutva (Hindu nationalism), economic
liberalization, and strong leadership. The BJP currently dominates Indian
politics at the national level, having secured a clear majority in the 2014 and
2019 general elections.
3. Regional Parties: Regional parties have become increasingly influential in
Indian politics, reflecting the country's linguistic, cultural, and regional diversity.
Parties like the All India Anna Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (AIADMK) and
Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu, Trinamool Congress
(TMC) in West Bengal, and Telangana Rashtra Samithi (TRS) in Telangana
have played pivotal roles in their respective states. These parties often hold the
balance of power in coalition governments at the center.

Coalition Politics

The era of coalition politics began in earnest in the 1990s, with the formation of the
National Front government in 1989. Since then, coalition governments have become
the norm, with no single party able to secure a majority on its own. The 1990s and
early 2000s saw the rise of two major coalitions: the National Democratic Alliance
(NDA), led by the BJP, and the United Progressive Alliance (UPA), led by the INC.
These coalitions have governed India alternately, with regional parties playing a crucial
role in their formation and stability.

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Coalition politics has brought both challenges and opportunities. On one hand, it has
led to greater representation of diverse regional interests in the central government.
On the other hand, it has also led to political instability and policy paralysis at times,
as coalition partners often have conflicting agendas.

Impact on Indian Democracy

The party system in India has had a profound impact on the country's democracy:

1. Role in Federalism: The rise of regional parties has strengthened India's

federal structure by giving voice to regional aspirations and ensuring that state-
specific issues are addressed at the national level.
2. Electoral Dynamics: The multi-party system has made Indian elections highly
competitive, with voters having a wide range of choices. This has enhanced the
democratic process by encouraging voter participation and ensuring that no
single party can take its support base for granted.
3. Influence on Policy-Making: The party system, particularly in the coalition era,
has influenced policy-making in India. Coalition governments often must make
compromises to accommodate the diverse interests of their partners, leading
to a more inclusive but sometimes slower decision-making process.

Current Trends in Party System

• Shift Towards Bipolarity: Increasing polarization between BJP and Congress.

• Dominance of BJP: Recent years have seen BJP's dominance at both the
central and state levels.
• Decline of Congress: The gradual decline of Congress and the challenge to
its leadership.
• Role of Regional Parties: Continued significance in states like West Bengal,
Tamil Nadu, and Maharashtra.

Challenges Facing the Party System

• Factionalism and Internal Democracy: Issues within parties regarding

leadership and decision-making.
• Rise of Personality Cults: The focus on individual leaders over party ideology.
• Political Polarization: Increasing ideological divisions between parties.

Conclusion

The Indian party system reflects the country's complex social, cultural, and political
landscape. Over the decades, it has evolved from a single-party dominant system to
a vibrant multi-party system with coalition governments at the centre. While this
evolution has posed challenges, it has also deepened India's democracy by ensuring
broader representation and participation. As India moves forward, the party system is
likely to continue evolving, shaped by changing socio-economic conditions, voter
preferences, and the aspirations of its diverse population.

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SHIFT FROM DOMINANT PARTY SYSTEM TO MULTI-PARTY SYSTEM IN INDIA

India's political landscape has undergone significant transformations since its

independence in 1947. Initially, the country experienced a dominant party system, with
the Indian National Congress (INC) playing a pivotal role. Over time, this evolved into
a multi-party system characterized by the rise of regional parties, coalition politics, and
a more fragmented political environment. This shift marks a critical development in
Indian democracy, reflecting changes in the social, economic, and political fabric of
the nation.

The Dominant Party System: 1947-1967

The Indian National Congress (INC)

• Role in Independence: The INC was central to India's freedom struggle and
emerged as the most prominent political party post-independence. Its
leadership was seen as the primary architect of modern India.
• Dominance in Early Elections: From 1952 to 1967, the INC secured
overwhelming majorities in both national and state elections, making India a de
facto one-party dominant system. Key leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, who
served as Prime Minister until his death in 1964, played a crucial role in
maintaining this dominance.
• Reasons for Dominance: The INC’s dominance was attributed to its legacy as
the party of independence, its broad-based appeal across different social
groups, its commitment to socialistic policies, and its ability to accommodate a
wide range of ideological views within its ranks.

Characteristics of the Dominant Party System

• Umbrella Organization: The INC acted as an umbrella party, representing

various social and economic interests, from the urban elite to the rural poor.
• Absence of Strong Opposition: Opposition parties existed but were
fragmented and weak, unable to challenge the INC's hegemony effectively.
• Centralized Leadership: Leadership within the INC was centralized, with
significant decision-making power concentrated in the hands of top leaders,
particularly Nehru.

Decline of the Dominant Party System: 1967 Onwards

1. The 1967 General Elections

• Electoral Setback: The 1967 elections marked the first significant electoral
setback for the INC. While the party retained power at the national level, it lost
its majority in several states, including Punjab, West Bengal, and Tamil Nadu.
• Emergence of Strong Regional Parties: Regional parties such as the Dravida
Munnetra Kazhagam (DMK) in Tamil Nadu began to assert their influence,
challenging the Congress's dominance in their respective states.

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2. Internal Crises and Political Fragmentation

• Split in the Congress Party: In 1969, the INC split into two factions—Congress
(O) led by the old guard and Congress (I) led by Indira Gandhi. This weakened
the party’s cohesive structure.
• Rise of Regional Leaders: The rise of regional leaders who were more in tune
with local aspirations began to challenge the central leadership of the
Congress, leading to the fragmentation of political power.

The Emergence of the Multi-Party System: 1970s-1990s

1. The Emergency and Its Aftermath

• Imposition of Emergency (1975-1977): The declaration of Emergency by

Indira Gandhi in 1975, which suspended civil liberties and curbed political
freedoms, led to widespread discontent. The 1977 elections resulted in a
landslide victory for the Janata Party, a coalition of various opposition parties,
marking the first non-Congress government at the centre.
• End of Congress Monopoly: The 1977 elections demonstrated the potential
for non-Congress parties to govern, signalling the end of the Congress
monopoly on Indian politics.

2. Rise of Regional and Caste-Based Parties

• Regional Parties: The 1980s saw the rise of strong regional parties like the
Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh and the Asom Gana Parishad
(AGP) in Assam, which catered to regional aspirations and identities.
• Caste-Based Parties: Parties like the Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP) emerged,
focusing on the representation of specific social groups, particularly the Dalits
and backward classes.

3. Coalition Politics

• Formation of Alliances: As no single party could secure a majority on its own,

coalition governments became the norm from the 1990s onwards. Alliances like
the National Democratic Alliance (NDA) and the United Progressive Alliance
(UPA) emerged as major political formations.
• Challenges and Opportunities: Coalition politics brought both challenges,
such as political instability and policy compromises, and opportunities, such as
greater representation of diverse interests and regional voices in national
governance.

Consolidation of the Multi-Party System: 2000s Onwards

1. Dominance of the BJP and the Decline of Congress

• Rise of the BJP: The Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP) emerged as a major
political force, leading the NDA and forming the government in 1998, and later
in 2014, under the leadership of Narendra Modi. The BJP’s growth marked a

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significant shift in Indian politics, with the party securing a majority on its own in
2014 and 2019.
• Congress Decline: The INC has struggled to regain its dominant position,
facing internal challenges and a series of electoral defeats.

2. Continued Importance of Regional Parties

• Role in State Politics: Regional parties continue to play a crucial role in state
politics, often holding power in states like Tamil Nadu, West Bengal, and
Telangana.
• Influence in National Politics: Regional parties remain influential in national
politics, particularly in coalition governments where their support is often critical.

3. Changing Dynamics of the Party System

• Polarization: Indian politics has become increasingly polarized, with a growing

divide between the BJP and the INC, leading to a quasi-bipolar system at the
national level.
• Impact of social media: The advent of social media has transformed political
campaigning and voter mobilization, with parties using digital platforms to reach
out to a broader audience.

Conclusion

The shift from a dominant party system to a multi-party system in India reflects the
dynamic nature of its democracy. This transformation has been driven by a variety of
factors, including the rise of regional identities, the fragmentation of political power,
and the changing aspirations of the Indian electorate. While the multi-party system has
brought greater representation and diversity to Indian politics, it has also introduced
new challenges, such as coalition management and political instability. As India
continues to evolve, the party system will likely undergo further changes, shaped by
the country's socio-political developments and the aspirations of its people.

MAJOR NATIONAL PARTIES IN INDIA

In India, the Election Commission of India (ECI) is responsible for the recognition of
political parties as national or state parties based on specific criteria. This recognition
is important as it grants the parties certain privileges, including reserved symbols, free
airtime on public broadcasters during elections, and participation in the decision-
making processes of the ECI.

Criteria for Recognition as a National Party

A political party in India is recognized as a national party if it meets any one of the
following conditions:

1. Performance in Lok Sabha Elections:

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The party must secure at least 6% of the valid votes polled in any four
o
or more states in the previous Lok Sabha or State Legislative Assembly
elections.
o In addition to this, the party must also win at least 4 seats in the Lok
Sabha from any state or states.
2. Seats in Lok Sabha:
o The party must win a minimum of 2% of the total seats in the Lok Sabha
(House of the People). These seats should be from at least three
different states.
3. Recognition as a State Party in Multiple States:
o A party is recognized as a national party if it is recognized as a state
party in at least four states.

Criteria for Recognition as a State Party

A political party in India is recognized as a state party if it meets any one of the
following conditions:

1. Performance in Legislative Assembly Elections:

o The party must secure at least 6% of the valid votes polled in the
previous Legislative Assembly election in the state.
o Additionally, the party must win at least 2 seats in the Legislative
Assembly.
2. Performance in Lok Sabha Elections from the State:
o The party must secure at least 6% of the valid votes polled in the
previous Lok Sabha election from the state.
o Additionally, the party must win at least 1 seat in the Lok Sabha from
that state.
3. Seats in Legislative Assembly:
o The party must win at least 3% of the total number of seats in the
Legislative Assembly or at least 3 seats, whichever is higher.
4. Seats in Lok Sabha:
o The party must win at least 1 out of every 25 seats in the Lok Sabha
allotted to the state.
5. Recognition in a Prior Election:
o If a party was recognized as a state party in a previous election, it retains
this status until the next election.

Privileges of National and State Parties

National Parties:

• They have the right to contest elections across the country under the same
symbol.
• They are entitled to free airtime on public broadcasters for election campaigns.
• National parties have representation on the consultative committees of the ECI.

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State Parties:

• State parties have the right to contest elections in their respective states under
the same symbol.
• They may also receive free airtime on public broadcasters during state
elections.
• State parties are considered for consultations by the ECI regarding state-
specific electoral issues.

The recognition of a political party as a national or state party is based on its electoral
performance and presence across the country or within specific states. This
recognition provides the parties with various privileges that help them in their electoral
campaigns and political activities. The criteria set by the ECI ensure that only those
parties with a significant level of public support and electoral performance receive such
recognition, thereby maintaining the integrity and competitiveness of the electoral
process in India.

The National Parties are as follows

Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)

History and Background

• Founded: 2012
• Founder: Arvind Kejriwal, a former Indian Revenue Service officer and
prominent anti-corruption activist, founded the Aam Aadmi Party (AAP)
following the 2011 anti-corruption movement led by Anna Hazare.
• Emergence: The party was born out of a need to provide an alternative to the
traditional political establishment, focusing on transparency, accountability, and
anti-corruption.

Ideology

• Anti-Corruption: AAP was primarily established to combat corruption in public

life, promoting transparency and accountability in governance.
• Welfare State: The party advocates for a welfare state with an emphasis on
education, healthcare, and public services.
• Secularism: AAP upholds secular values and aims to represent all
communities irrespective of religion or caste.

Leadership

• Arvind Kejriwal: The party’s National Convener and the current Chief Minister
of Delhi. Kejriwal is the central figure in AAP, driving its policies and political
strategy.
• Key Leaders: Manish Sisodia, Gopal Rai, and Sanjay Singh are other
significant leaders within the party.

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Role and Impact

• Delhi Government: AAP first came to power in Delhi in 2013, and after a brief
resignation, it returned with a landslide victory in 2015. The party has focused
on improving education, healthcare, and basic services in the capital.
• National Ambitions: While primarily focused on Delhi, AAP has gradually
expanded its footprint to other states, achieving electoral success in Punjab in
2022.

Bahujan Samaj Party (BSP)

History and Background

• Founded: 1984
• Founder: Kanshi Ram, who established the BSP to represent the interests of
the Dalits, Scheduled Castes, Scheduled Tribes, and Other Backward Classes.
• Focus: The BSP emerged as a significant force in North India, particularly in
Uttar Pradesh, advocating for the upliftment of marginalized communities.

Ideology

• Ambedkarite Philosophy: The BSP follows the ideology of Dr. B.R.

Ambedkar, focusing on social justice, equality, and the eradication of caste-
based discrimination.
• Social Transformation: The party seeks to transform the social structure by
empowering Dalits and other marginalized communities.
• Secularism: The BSP advocates for a secular state, free from religious and
caste-based discrimination.

Leadership

• Mayawati: A former Chief Minister of Uttar Pradesh and the most prominent
leader of the BSP. She continues to be the central figure in the party.
• Kanshi Ram: The revered founder and ideological guide of the BSP,
instrumental in shaping the party’s direction.

Role and Impact

• State Governments: The BSP has held power in Uttar Pradesh and has played
a significant role in the state’s politics.
• National Influence: While its influence has waned in recent years, the BSP
remains an important player, especially on issues concerning Dalits and
marginalized communities.

Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP)

History and Background

• Founded: 1980

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• Roots: The BJP was founded as the political successor to the Bharatiya Jana
Sangh, which was established in 1951 by Syama Prasad Mookerjee. The Jana
Sangh merged with other parties to form the Janata Party in 1977, but after its
collapse, the BJP was formed.
• Rise to Prominence: The BJP grew significantly in the 1990s, particularly after
the Ram Janmabhoomi movement, and emerged as a major national party.

Ideology

• Hindutva: The BJP advocates Hindutva, a cultural nationalism that

emphasizes the importance of Hindu values and traditions in shaping Indian
identity.
• Right-Wing Nationalism: The party supports right-wing policies, focusing on
strong national defense, economic liberalization, and cultural nationalism.
• Economic Policy: The BJP favors market-oriented reforms, economic
liberalization, and promoting entrepreneurship.

Leadership

• Narendra Modi: The current Prime Minister of India and the most prominent
leader of the BJP. Modi has been a transformative figure for the party, leading
it to major electoral victories in 2014 and 2019.
• Key Leaders: Amit Shah (Home Minister and former BJP President), Rajnath
Singh, and Yogi Adityanath are other key figures.

Role and Impact

• Government Formation: The BJP first formed the central government in 1998
under Atal Bihari Vajpayee and returned to power in 2014 and 2019 with a clear
majority under Narendra Modi.
• Dominant Force: The BJP is currently the dominant political party in India,
holding power at the center and in several states.

Communist Party of India (Marxist) [CPI(M)]

History and Background

• Founded: 1964
• Split from CPI: The CPI(M) was formed following a split in the Communist Party
of India (CPI) over ideological differences, particularly concerning relations with
the Soviet Union and China.
• Strongholds: The CPI(M) has traditionally been strong in states like West
Bengal, Kerala, and Tripura.

Ideology

• Marxism-Leninism: The CPI(M) adheres to Marxist-Leninist ideology,

advocating for a socialist state and the establishment of a classless society.
• Pro-Worker and Peasant: The party focuses on the rights of workers and
peasants, pushing for land reforms, labor rights, and social justice.

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• Anti-Imperialism: The CPI(M) opposes imperialist policies and advocates for

a non-aligned foreign policy.

Leadership

• Sitaram Yechury: The current General Secretary of the CPI(M). Other

prominent leaders include Prakash Karat, Brinda Karat, and Pinarayi Vijayan,
the current Chief Minister of Kerala.
• Historical Leaders: Important leaders in the party’s history include E.M.S.
Namboothiripad, Jyoti Basu, and Harkishan Singh Surjeet.

Role and Impact

• State Governments: The CPI(M) has been a significant force in state politics,
particularly in West Bengal (ruled from 1977 to 2011) and Kerala, where it
currently leads the Left Democratic Front (LDF) government.
• National Influence: The CPI(M) has been influential in forming Left Front
alliances and has played a crucial role in opposition politics at the national level.

Indian National Congress (INC)

History and Background

• Founded: 1885
• Role in Independence: The Indian National Congress (INC) was the leading
force in India's struggle for independence from British rule. It emerged as the
primary platform for Indian nationalists, advocating for self-rule.
• Post-Independence Dominance: After independence, the INC became the
dominant political party, leading the government for several decades. It was
central to nation-building efforts under leaders like Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira
Gandhi, and Rajiv Gandhi.

Ideology

• Secularism: The INC has historically championed secularism, advocating for

the separation of religion from politics.
• Social Democracy: The party supports social democratic policies, with an
emphasis on welfare programs, economic equity, and social justice.
• Inclusive Nationalism: The INC promotes an inclusive form of nationalism,
aimed at representing the diverse social, cultural, and linguistic groups within
India.

Leadership

• Mallikarjun Kharge: The current President of the INC. Prominent leaders

include Sonia Gandhi, Rahul Gandhi, and Priyanka Gandhi Vadra.
• Historical Leaders: Key figures in the party's history include Mahatma Gandhi,
Jawaharlal Nehru, Indira Gandhi, Rajiv Gandhi, and Manmohan Singh.

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Role and Impact

• Government Formation: The INC has formed the central government multiple
times, most recently under the United Progressive Alliance (UPA) coalition from
2004 to 2014.
• Challenges: In recent years, the INC has faced electoral setbacks, with a
significant decline in its influence at both national and state levels.

National People's Party (NPP)

History and Background

• Founded: 2013
• Founder: P.A. Sangma, a prominent political leader from Meghalaya and a
former Speaker of the Lok Sabha, founded the National People's Party (NPP).
• Regional Focus: The NPP primarily focuses on the interests and issues of the
northeastern states of India, particularly Meghalaya.

Ideology

• Regionalism: The NPP advocates for the development and empowerment of

the northeastern region of India, emphasizing the preservation of local culture,
rights, and autonomy.
• Good Governance: The party promotes transparent and accountable
governance, aiming to address the specific needs of the northeastern states.

• Secularism: The NPP maintains a secular stance, representing the diverse

ethnic and religious communities in the region.

Leadership

• Conrad Sangma: The current leader of the NPP and Chief Minister of
Meghalaya. He is the son of P.A. Sangma and has played a significant role in
expanding the party's influence.
• P.A. Sangma: The founding leader and a key figure in the party's early
development.

Role and Impact

• State Government: The NPP has formed the government in Meghalaya and
has a significant presence in other northeastern states.
• National Recognition: The NPP is recognized as a national party due to its
influence in multiple states, particularly in the northeast, and has played a role
in national coalition politics.

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COALITION POLITICS IN INDIA

Introduction

Coalition politics in India is a political phenomenon that has evolved significantly since
the country gained independence in 1947. Unlike single-party dominance seen in the
early decades, coalition politics refers to the practice where multiple political parties
join forces to form a government, usually when no single party secures an absolute
majority in the legislature. This approach has become increasingly prevalent in India,
particularly since the 1990s, and has fundamentally altered the landscape of Indian
democracy.

India's political system, characterized by its federal structure and diversity, naturally
lends itself to coalition politics. The multiplicity of regional and national parties,
representing various ethnic, linguistic, and cultural groups, has made it difficult for any
single party to dominate the political arena entirely. This diversity has necessitated the
formation of coalitions, where parties with differing ideologies and agendas come
together to form a government.

Historical Background

The early years of independent India were marked by the dominance of the Indian
National Congress (INC), which managed to secure a majority in the first few general
elections. However, by the late 1960s, cracks began to appear in the Congress's
dominance. The first major instance of coalition politics at the national level emerged
in 1977, following the Emergency (1975-1977) imposed by then-Prime Minister Indira
Gandhi.

In the 1977 general elections, the Congress was defeated by a coalition of opposition
parties known as the Janata Party. This coalition was an amalgamation of several
parties, including the Bharatiya Jana Sangh (the precursor to the Bharatiya Janata
Party or BJP), the Congress (O), the Bharatiya Lok Dal, and the Socialist Party. The
Janata Party's victory marked the beginning of a new era in Indian politics, where
coalition governments became a viable alternative to Congress rule.

The 1980s saw the return of single-party dominance with the Congress under Indira
Gandhi and later Rajiv Gandhi. However, the emergence of regional parties like the
Telugu Desam Party (TDP) in Andhra Pradesh and the Dravida Munnetra Kazhagam
(DMK) in Tamil Nadu indicated a shift towards regionalization of Indian politics, setting
the stage for coalition governments in the future.

The Rise of Coalition Politics (1989 onwards)

The 1989 general elections marked a watershed moment in Indian politics. The
Congress failed to secure a majority, leading to the formation of a coalition government
headed by V.P. Singh of the Janata Dal, supported by the BJP and the Left Front from
the outside. This coalition, known as the National Front, was short-lived, but it set the
precedent for future coalition governments.

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The 1990s saw a series of coalition governments, as no single party could secure a
clear majority. The era was marked by political instability, with multiple governments
falling within short periods. For instance, the 1996 general elections resulted in a hung
parliament, leading to the formation of the United Front coalition, supported by the
Congress from the outside. This coalition saw two prime ministers, H.D. Deve Gowda
and I.K. Gujral, but it too was short-lived.

The BJP's rise during this period, particularly under the leadership of Atal Bihari
Vajpayee, was another significant development in coalition politics. The BJP-led
National Democratic Alliance (NDA) was formed in 1998, bringing together various
regional parties like the AIADMK, TDP, and the Akali Dal. The NDA government, with
Vajpayee as Prime Minister, marked the first stable coalition government in India,
lasting a full term from 1999 to 2004.

Key Coalition Governments in India

1. National Front (1989-1991): Led by V.P. Singh, this was one of the first major
coalition governments at the national level. It was supported by the BJP and
the Left parties from the outside, but internal contradictions and the Mandal
Commission controversy led to its downfall.
2. United Front (1996-1998): This was a coalition of 13 parties, including the
Janata Dal, DMK, and TDP. The United Front saw two prime ministers, H.D.
Deve Gowda and I.K. Gujral, but the government was unstable due to the lack
of a clear majority and reliance on outside support from the Congress.
3. National Democratic Alliance (1998-2004, 2014-present): The NDA, led by
the BJP, has been one of the most successful coalitions in Indian history. Under
Atal Bihari Vajpayee, the NDA provided a stable government from 1999 to
2004. After a decade in opposition, the NDA returned to power in 2014 under
Narendra Modi, marking the beginning of a new era in Indian politics with a
strong central leadership.
4. United Progressive Alliance (2004-2014): The UPA, led by the Congress and
chaired by Sonia Gandhi, was formed in response to the NDA. It included
several regional parties like the DMK, NCP, and RJD. The UPA government,
under Prime Minister Manmohan Singh, lasted two terms and focused on social
welfare programs and economic reforms. However, it was plagued by
corruption scandals, leading to its defeat in 2014.

Challenges and Advantages of Coalition Politics

Advantages:

1. Representation of Diversity: Coalition politics allows for the representation of

India's vast diversity. Regional parties, representing specific linguistic, ethnic,
or cultural groups, can voice their concerns in the national government.
2. Checks and Balances: In a coalition government, no single party can
dominate the decision-making process. This leads to greater consensus and
more balanced policies.
3. Flexibility in Governance: Coalition governments tend to be more flexible, as
they require constant negotiation and compromise among partners. This can
lead to more inclusive and adaptable policies.

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Challenges:

1. Political Instability: Coalition governments are often unstable, with frequent

changes in alliances and leadership. This can lead to policy paralysis and short-
term decision-making.
2. Compromise on Ideology: In coalition politics, parties with differing ideologies
often have to compromise on their core beliefs to maintain the alliance. This
can dilute the policy agenda and lead to incoherent governance.
3. Regionalism: The rise of regional parties in coalition politics has sometimes
led to a focus on parochial interests at the expense of national priorities.

The Future of Coalition Politics in India

The future of coalition politics in India will likely be shaped by the continued rise of
regional parties and the changing dynamics of national politics. While the BJP under
Narendra Modi has managed to secure a strong mandate in recent elections, the
nature of India's democracy suggests that coalition politics will remain a significant
feature.

As regional parties continue to assert their influence, the challenge for national parties
like the BJP and Congress will be to build and maintain broad-based coalitions that
can provide stable governance. The success of future coalitions will depend on the
ability of parties to negotiate, compromise, and work together for the common good,
despite their differences.

Conclusion

Coalition politics in India is a reflection of the country's complex social, cultural, and
political landscape. While it has led to challenges such as political instability and policy
compromises, it has also allowed for greater representation and inclusivity in
governance. As India continues to evolve, coalition politics will remain an integral part
of its democratic process, shaping the future of its governance and political culture.

INTEREST GROUPS AND PRESSURE GROUPS IN INDIA

Introduction

Interest groups and pressure groups are vital components of a democratic society.
They serve as intermediaries between the public and the government, influencing
policy decisions, advocating for specific causes, and representing the interests of
various segments of society. In India, with its diverse and pluralistic society, interest
groups and pressure groups play a crucial role in shaping public policy and political
discourse.

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Definitions and Distinctions

• Interest Groups: Interest groups are organized bodies that seek to influence
public policy without seeking to control the government directly. They represent
specific interests, such as business, labor, agriculture, or social issues. These
groups work through lobbying, public campaigns, research, and advocacy to
achieve their objectives.
• Pressure Groups: Pressure groups are a subset of interest groups that actively
seek to pressure the government and other decision-makers to adopt policies
favorable to their interests. While all pressure groups are interest groups, not
all interest groups engage in direct pressure tactics. Pressure groups often
employ methods such as protests, strikes, petitions, and direct lobbying to
influence policy decisions.

Types of Interest and Pressure Groups in India

1. Business and Industry Groups:

o Federation of Indian Chambers of Commerce and Industry (FICCI):
FICCI is one of the oldest and most influential business associations in
India. It represents the interests of Indian businesses and industries,
advocating for policies that promote economic growth, investment, and
industrial development.
o Confederation of Indian Industry (CII): CII is another prominent
business association that represents the interests of Indian industries. It
works closely with the government on policy issues related to trade,
investment, and economic reforms.
2. Labor Unions:
o All India Trade Union Congress (AITUC): AITUC is one of the oldest
and largest trade unions in India, affiliated with the Communist Party of
India (CPI). It represents the interests of workers and labourers,
advocating for better wages, working conditions, and labour rights.
o Indian National Trade Union Congress (INTUC): Affiliated with the
Indian National Congress, INTUC is another major trade union in India.
It represents workers' interests and advocates for social justice and
economic equality.
3. Agricultural and Farmers’ Groups:
o Bharatiya Kisan Union (BKU): BKU is one of the most prominent
farmers' organizations in India, representing the interests of farmers,
particularly in northern India. It has been active in advocating for fair
prices for agricultural produce, debt relief, and better agricultural
policies.
o All India Kisan Sabha (AIKS): AIKS, affiliated with the Communist Party
of India (Marxist), is another significant farmers' organization. It focuses
on issues such as land reform, agricultural subsidies, and rural
development.
4. Environmental Groups:
o Greenpeace India: Greenpeace India is part of the global environmental
organization Greenpeace. It works on various environmental issues,
including climate change, deforestation, and pollution, through
campaigns, advocacy, and direct action.

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o Centre for Science and Environment (CSE): CSE is a public interest

research and advocacy organization that focuses on sustainable
development, environmental protection, and public health. It conducts
research, policy analysis, and advocacy to influence environmental
policies.
5. Caste and Community-Based Groups:
o Dalit Panthers: Dalit Panthers is a social organization that emerged in
the 1970s to fight against caste-based discrimination and oppression. It
represents the interests of Dalits (formerly known as "Untouchables")
and advocates for social justice, equality, and affirmative action.
o Vishwa Hindu Parishad (VHP): VHP is a Hindu nationalist organization
that seeks to promote and protect Hindu culture and values. It is closely
associated with the broader Sangh Parivar, including the Rashtriya
Swayamsevak Sangh (RSS) and the Bharatiya Janata Party (BJP).
6. Women’s Groups:
o All India Democratic Women's Association (AIDWA): AIDWA is a
women's organization affiliated with the Communist Party of India
(Marxist). It works to promote gender equality, women's rights, and
social justice, focusing on issues such as violence against women,
education, and employment.
o Self Employed Women’s Association (SEWA): SEWA is a trade union
representing self-employed women workers in India. It works to improve
the economic and social status of women through collective bargaining,
microfinance, and advocacy.
7. Religious and Ethnic Groups:
o Shiromani Gurdwara Parbandhak Committee (SGPC): SGPC is a
Sikh religious organization that manages gurdwaras (Sikh temples) and
represents the interests of the Sikh community. It plays a significant role
in religious and political affairs in Punjab.
o All India Muslim Personal Law Board (AIMPLB): AIMPLB is an
organization that represents the interests of the Muslim community in
India, particularly concerning issues related to Islamic personal law. It
advocates for the preservation of Muslim personal law and opposes any
attempts to implement a uniform civil code.

Role and Influence of Interest and Pressure Groups

Interest and pressure groups in India play a crucial role in the democratic process by
representing various segments of society and ensuring that their voices are heard in
the policy-making process. Some of the key roles and influences of these groups
include:

1. Policy Advocacy: Interest and pressure groups actively engage with

policymakers, providing research, data, and recommendations on specific
issues. They influence the formulation and implementation of policies that affect
their constituencies.
2. Public Awareness: These groups play a vital role in raising public awareness
about specific issues. Through campaigns, media engagement, and public
events, they bring attention to issues that may otherwise be overlooked.

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3. Lobbying: Interest and pressure groups often engage in lobbying activities,

directly interacting with legislators and government officials to influence policy
decisions. This lobbying can take the form of direct meetings, petitions, or even
financial contributions to political parties.
4. Representation of Marginalized Groups: Many interest and pressure groups
represent marginalized or underrepresented segments of society, such as
Dalits, women, or religious minorities. They advocate for the rights and interests
of these groups, ensuring that their concerns are considered in the political
process.
5. Balancing Power: In a diverse society like India, where various interests and
ideologies coexist, interest and pressure groups help balance power by
ensuring that no single group dominates the political landscape. They
contribute to a more inclusive and pluralistic democracy.

Challenges Faced by Interest and Pressure Groups

While interest and pressure groups play an essential role in Indian democracy, they
also face several challenges:

1. Fragmentation: The multiplicity of interest and pressure groups in India often

leads to fragmentation, with different groups representing similar interests but
pursuing different strategies or goals. This can dilute their influence and
effectiveness.
2. Resource Constraints: Many interest and pressure groups, particularly those
representing marginalized communities, operate with limited resources. This
can hinder their ability to engage in sustained advocacy or lobbying efforts.
3. Political Manipulation: Interest and pressure groups are sometimes co-opted
or manipulated by political parties for their own purposes. This can compromise
the independence and integrity of these groups.
4. Lack of Transparency: The activities of interest and pressure groups,
particularly their financial dealings, are not always transparent. This lack of
transparency can lead to questions about their legitimacy and accountability.

Conclusion

Interest and pressure groups are indispensable components of Indian democracy,

providing a voice to various segments of society and influencing the policy-making
process. Despite the challenges they face, these groups continue to play a crucial role
in shaping public policy, advocating for social justice, and ensuring that India's diverse
population is represented in the political arena. As India continues to evolve, the role
of interest and pressure groups will remain vital in addressing the complex challenges
of governance and ensuring a more inclusive and democratic society.

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THE FOURTH ESTATE IN INDIA

Introduction

The term "Fourth Estate" refers to the press and media, which are considered one of
the most crucial pillars of democracy alongside the executive, legislature, and
judiciary. In India, the Fourth Estate plays a vital role in informing the public, shaping
public opinion, holding the government accountable, and acting as a watchdog against
corruption and abuses of power. The media in India, encompassing print, electronic,
and digital platforms, has a rich history and a significant influence on the country's
socio-political landscape.

Historical Evolution of the Fourth Estate in India

The history of the Fourth Estate in India dates back to the colonial period, where the
press played a crucial role in the freedom struggle. Key milestones in the evolution of
the press in India include:

1. Early Beginnings:
o The first newspaper in India, The Bengal Gazette, was published in 1780
by James Augustus Hickey. It was known for its critical stance against
the British East India Company and was eventually shut down due to its
confrontational approach.
o The 19th century saw the emergence of several Indian-owned
newspapers, such as The Hindu (1878), The Times of India (1838), and
The Amrita Bazar Patrika (1868). These publications played a significant
role in raising awareness about social issues and rallying support for the
independence movement.
2. Role in the Independence Movement:
o During the struggle for independence, the press became a powerful tool
for mobilizing public opinion against British rule. Newspapers like Young
India and Harijan, published by Mahatma Gandhi, were instrumental in
spreading the message of non-violence and civil disobedience.
o The press faced significant censorship and repression under British rule,
with many publications being banned or heavily restricted. Despite this,
the press continued to be a critical platform for nationalist leaders to
communicate with the masses.
3. Post-Independence Era:
o After India gained independence in 1947, the press continued to play a
vital role in the new democracy. The Constitution of India guarantees
freedom of speech and expression under Article 19(1)(a), which has
allowed the media to operate with relative freedom.
o The 1970s witnessed a major challenge to press freedom during the
Emergency (1975-1977) imposed by then-Prime Minister Indira Gandhi.
The government imposed strict censorship on the press, leading to the
shutdown of several newspapers and the arrest of journalists. The
Emergency period remains a significant episode in the history of press
freedom in India.

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Role and Influence of the Fourth Estate in Contemporary India

The Fourth Estate in India has evolved into a diverse and dynamic entity,
encompassing traditional print media, television, radio, and, more recently, digital, and
social media. Its role and influence can be seen in several key areas:

1. Informing the Public:

o The media serves as the primary source of information for the public,
covering a wide range of topics from politics, economy, and social issues
to entertainment, sports, and culture. It plays a crucial role in educating
the public and keeping them informed about national and international
events.
2. Shaping Public Opinion:
o Through news coverage, editorials, and opinion pieces, the media has a
significant impact on shaping public opinion. Television debates,
investigative journalism, and digital platforms contribute to public
discourse on important issues, influencing the views and perceptions of
the masses.
3. Holding the Government Accountable:
o The media acts as a watchdog, monitoring the actions of the government
and other institutions of power. Investigative journalism has exposed
numerous cases of corruption, maladministration, and human rights
abuses, prompting public outcry and legal action.
o High-profile cases such as the Bofors scandal, the 2G spectrum case,
and the Commonwealth Games scam are examples of how the media
has played a crucial role in uncovering corruption and holding those in
power accountable.
4. Promoting Transparency and Democracy:
o A free and independent media is essential for promoting transparency
and accountability in governance. By providing a platform for diverse
voices and opinions, the media contributes to the functioning of a healthy
democracy.
o The media also plays a critical role during elections, covering campaign
activities, candidate profiles, and voter issues. It helps in ensuring that
the electoral process is transparent and that voters are well-informed
before making their decisions.
5. Advocacy and Social Change:
o The media in India has often taken up the role of advocating for social
change. Campaigns for gender equality, environmental conservation,
and human rights have found strong support in the media, leading to
increased awareness and, in some cases, policy changes.
o For example, media campaigns have played a significant role in raising
awareness about issues such as female infanticide, dowry deaths, and
violence against women, leading to stronger laws and social reforms.

Challenges Facing the Fourth Estate in India

Despite its critical role, the Fourth Estate in India faces several challenges that affect
its independence, credibility, and effectiveness:

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1. Media Ownership and Concentration:

o A significant challenge is the concentration of media ownership in the
hands of a few corporate entities, which can lead to biased reporting and
a lack of diversity in viewpoints. The influence of corporate owners and
advertisers can also result in self-censorship and a reluctance to cover
issues that might offend powerful interests.
2. Political Pressure and Intimidation:
o Journalists and media organizations in India often face political pressure,
intimidation, and violence, particularly when covering sensitive issues or
challenging those in power. The murder of journalists such as Gauri
Lankesh and the threats faced by investigative reporters highlight the
risks associated with press freedom in India.
o The use of defamation laws, sedition charges, and other legal
mechanisms to silence critical voices is another concern, as it can lead
to a chilling effect on free speech and investigative journalism.
3. Fake News and Misinformation:
o The rise of digital and social media has brought with it the challenge of
fake news and misinformation. The spread of false information,
particularly through social media platforms, has become a major
concern, as it can lead to social unrest, polarization, and undermining of
democratic processes.
o Efforts to combat fake news, such as fact-checking initiatives and media
literacy programs, are crucial in addressing this challenge, but more
needs to be done to regulate and control the spread of misinformation.
4. Economic Viability:
o Traditional media, particularly print newspapers, are facing economic
challenges due to declining readership and advertising revenues. The
shift to digital platforms has not fully compensated for these losses,
leading to layoffs, closures, and a reduction in the quality of journalism.
o The economic pressures on media organizations can also result in a
reliance on sensationalism and clickbait journalism, undermining the
credibility and integrity of the Fourth Estate.

Conclusion

The Fourth Estate in India is a cornerstone of its democracy, playing a crucial role in
informing the public, shaping opinions, and holding the government accountable.
However, it faces significant challenges that threaten its independence and
effectiveness. Ensuring the continued vibrancy and integrity of the media requires
concerted efforts from all stakeholders, including the government, media
organizations, and civil society. A free, independent, and responsible Fourth Estate is
essential for the functioning of a healthy democracy and the safeguarding of India's
pluralistic and diverse society.

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