Nervous System

BIOLOGY

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Nervous System
 The nervous system is a network of tissues that communicate via electro-chemical signals.

 It is responsible for receiving and processing information in the body.

 Gathers information from both inside and outside the body - Sensory Function

 Processes the information in the brain and spine, Integration of body processes.

 Sends information to the muscles, glands, and organs so they can respond appropriately - Motor
Function .

 Response to stimuli It controls and coordinates all essential functions of the body including all other body
systems allowing the body to maintain its proper functioning and balance.

 The nervous system is divided into three main branches: -

 Autonomic Nervous System

 Peripheral Nervous System

 Central Nervous System

Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

Central Nervous System Autonomous Nervous System

Spinal Cord Brain Efferent Nerves Afferent Nerves

Parasympathetic Nervous
Sympathetic Nervous System
System

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Autonomous Nervous System

 The autonomic nervous system comprises of nerves that connect the central nervous system to the
heart, blood vessels, glands, and smooth muscles

 The autonomic nervous system controls all the automatic (involuntary) functions in the body, including
breathing, sweating, digestion, and heartbeat.

 The autonomic nervous system is divided into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous systems.

 The parasympathetic nervous system becomes active during state of relaxation. It helps the bodyto
conserve and store energy. It slows the heartbeat, decreases blood pressure, and promotes the digestive
process.

 The sympathetic nervous system gets the body prepare for emergency action. It is involved in thethe
fight-or-flight response, which is the sudden reaction to stressful or threatening situations.

Autonomous Nervous System

Peripheral Nervous System

 The Peripheral nervous system is comprised of all the nerves that are present outside the brain and spinal
cord. These include:

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 12 pairs that are attached to the surface under the brain.

Cranial Nerves

 31 pairs that are attached to the spinal cord.

Spinal Nerves

 Relays information from the skin, sensory organs, & muscles to the Central Nervous
The somatic nervous System (Brain andSpinal cord).
system  It also carries the responses from the CNS to the skeletal muscles for voluntary
responses

Peripheral Nervous System

Points to Remember
 Afferent nerves carry messages from the muscles and sense organs to the central nervous system.

 Efferent nerves carry messages from the central nervous system to the muscles and sense organs.

Neuron
 Neurons are the communicators of the nervous system. Neurons receive information, integrate it, and
pass it along. They communicate with one another, with cells in the sensory organs, and with muscles
and glands.

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Structure of Neuron
 Each neuron has a cell body, which is the central area of the neuron. It
contains the nucleus and other structures common to all cells in the
body, such as mitochondria.

 Neuron has highly branched fibers that reach out from the neuron are
called dendritic trees.

 Each branch is called a dendrite. These dendrites receive information

from other neurons or from sense organs.

 The single long fiber that extends from the neuron is the axon. Axons
send information to other neurons, to muscle cells, or to gland cells.

 Some of these axons have a coating layer called the myelin sheath. It is a
dense lipid layer which insulates the axon – makes the axon look gray

 The gaps or nodes in the myelin sheath is called the Node of Ranvier.

 The cells which produce the myelin or fat layer in the Peripheral
Nervous System are called Schwann Cells.

 Nerve transmission can get damaged when myelin sheaths disintegrate. Neuron Structure

 At the end of each axon lie bumps called terminal buttons. Terminal buttons release neurotransmitters
which are chemicals that can cross over to neighboring neurons and activate them.

 The junction between an axon of one neuron and the cell body or dendrite of a neighboring neuron is
known as a synapse.

Points to Remember
 Synapse is a structure that permits a neuron (or nerve cell) to pass an electrical or chemical signal to
another neuron or to the target effector cell.

 Neurotransmitters is a type of chemical messenger which transmits signals across a chemical synapse,
such as a neuromuscular junction, from one neuron (nerve cell) to another "target" neuron, muscle cell,
or gland cell.

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Components of Reflex Arc

Receptor  reacts to a stimulus

Afferent pathway (sensory  It conducts impulses to the CNS

neuron)
 It consists of one or more synapses in the CNS (most are in the spine)
Interneuron
 Efferent pathway (motor neuron) conducts impulses from CNS to the effector.
 Muscle fibers (as in the Hamstring muscle) or glands respond by contracting or
Effector secreting a product.

 They are initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the
Spinal reflexes involvement of higher brain centers.

Types of Neuron
 It transmits the information from a source to the Central Nervous System

Sensory Neurons  Example: When we touch a hot surface with your fingertips, the sensory neurons will be the
ones firing and sending off signals to the rest of the nervous system about the information,
they have received.
 They have a long axon and short dendrites and transmit messages from the Central Nervous
System to the muscles.

Motor Neurons  Those neurons that travel from spinal cord to muscle are called lower motor neurons.

 Those neurons that travel between the brain and spinal cord are called upper motor
neurons.
Inter-neurons  These neurons exist and function between sensory & motor neurons in the CNS.
 A stimulus is a change in the environment with sufficient strength to initiate a response.
Impulses
 Excitability is the ability of a neuron to respond to the stimulus and convert it into a nerve
impulse

Central Nervous System

 The central nervous system receives and processes information from the senses.

 The central nervous system consists of fo Brain and Spinal cord. Both the brain and the spinal cord lie in a
fluid called the cerebrospinal fluid, which cushions and nourishes the brain.
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 The body is connected to the brain by the spinal cord, through a network of nerves.

 It runs from the brain down to the small of the back and is responsible for spinal reflexes, which are
automatic behaviors that require no input from the brain.

 The spinal cord is responsible for communication and coordination between the brain, and the body. It
sends messages from the brain to the other parts of the body, and from those parts back to the brain.

 The brain is the main organ in the nervous system. It integrates information from the senses and
coordinates the body’s activities.

Components of Central Nervous System

Brain

Brain

Forbrain Cerebrum, Diencephalon – Thalamus & Hypothalamus

Mid Brain Pons, Corpora Quadrigemina, Cerebral Peduncles

Hind Brain Cerebellum, Medulla Oblongata

They are initiated and completed at the spinal cord level. Occur without the involvement
Spinal reflexes
of higher brain centers.

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 The spinal cord is protected by two connective tissue coverings, the meninges and
Spinal Cord
vertebrae, and a cushion of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)
 Meninges are the three protected coverings around the brain & spine and help
cushion, protect, and nourish the brain and spinal cord.

 Dura mater is the most outer layer very tough in nature.

 Arachnoid mater is the middle layer and adheres to the dura mater and has weblike
Meninges attachments to the innermost layer.

 Pia mater is very thin, transparent, tough, and protects the entire brain, following it
into all its crevices (sulci) and spinal cord cerebrospinal fluid, which buffers,
nourishes, and detoxifies the brain and spinal cord, flows through the subarachnoid
space, between the arachnoid mater and the pia mater.

Brain

Fore Brain Mid Brain Hind Brain

(Prosencaphalon) (Mesencaphalon) (Rhombencaphalon)

Cerebrum Diencaphalon Cerebelum Medulla

Oblangata

Corpora Quadrigemina Cerebral Cortex

The Human Brain

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The biggest part of the brain is the forebrain, which includes:

 Thalamus

 Hypothalamus

 Limbic system

 Cerebrum

 Brain’s switchboard, it’s a sensory way-station.

 It filters and then relays information to various brain regions.

 The main function of the thalamus is to relay motor and sensory signals to the cerebral cortex.
Thalamus
 All sensory information except smell-related data must go through the thalamus on the way to
the cerebrum.

 It lies under the thalamus and helps to control the pituitary gland and the autonomic nervous
system.

Hypothalamus  The hypothalamus plays an important role in regulating activities, internal organs, monitoring
information from the autonomic nervous system, regulating body temperature and biological
drives such as hunger, thirst, sleep etc.

 It includes the hippocampus, the amygdala, and the septum. The limbic system processes
Limbic system emotional experience & emotional memory.

 The biggest part of the brain, controls complex processes such as abstract thought and
learning, perception, intelligence, reasoning, emotion, thought, and planning.

 The wrinkled, highly folded outer layer of the cerebrum is termed as the cerebral cortex.
Cerebrum
 The cerebrum is divided into right and left hemispheres that are connected by an arch of white
matter called the corpus callosum.

Broca’s area  It is located in the frontal lobe – important in the production of speech.

 It is the comprehension of language and the production of meaningful speech.

Wernicke’s area

 Frontal Lobe – a motor area involved in movement and in planning & coordinating behavior

 Parietal Lobe– sensory processing, attention, and language

Lobes of the
Cerebrum  Temporal Lobe – auditory perception, speech, and complex visual perceptions

 Occipital Lobe– It is a visual center plays a role in processing visual information

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 The midbrain is the part of the brain that lies between the hindbrain and the forebrain.

Midbrain  The midbrain helps us to locate events in space.

(Mesencephalon)  It also contains a system of neurons that releases the neurotransmitter dopamine.

 The hindbrain consists of the medulla, the pons, and the cerebellum.

 The medulla lies next to the spinal cord, controls functions outside conscious control, such
as breathing and blood flow. It also controls vital reflexes as heartbeat and respiration, for
autonomic (involuntary) functions ranging from vomiting to sneezing.
Hindbrain
(Rhombencephalon)  The pons affects activities such as waking, sleeping and dreaming.

 The cerebellum receives information from the sensory systems, the spinal cord, and other
parts ofthe brain and then regulates motor movements. The cerebellum coordinates
voluntary movements such as posture, coordination, balance, and speech, resulting in
smooth and balanced muscular activity.

Brain Waves
Brain waves are defined as the rhythmic fluctuation of electric potential between parts of the brain as seen
on an electroencephalogram (EEG).

 To measure brain waves electrodes are placed onto the scalp using the EEG.

 There are four types of brainwaves:

 Beta: Awake, normal alert

 Alpha: Relaxed, calm, meditation, creative visualization

 Theta: Deep relaxation and meditation, problem-solving

 Delta: Deep, dreamless sleep

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