Calculus 1 (Math 105)

1.2 Combining Functions;

Shifting and Scaling Graphs

Page 1 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Chapter 1: Functions
1.2 Combining Functions; Shifting and Scaling Graphs

1.2.1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients

1.2.1.1 The Difference Quotient

1.2.2 Composite Functions and Domain

1.2.3 Shifting a Graph of a Function

1.2.4 Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function

Page 2 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.1 Sums, Differences, Products, and Quotients
Functions can be defined in terms of other functions. For example, the
function defined by ℎ(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 8𝑥 is the sum of

𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 8𝑥

Thus, if we are given any two functions 𝑓 and 𝑔, we can define the four
𝑓
new functions 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and as follows.
𝑔

Definition 1: Definitions of Operations on Functions

If 𝑓 and 𝑔 are functions with domains 𝐷𝑓 and 𝐷𝑔 , respectively, then we

define the sum, difference, product, and quotient of 𝑓 and 𝑔 as

• Sum: (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑓+𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 .

• Difference: (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) − 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑓−𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 .
• Product: (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑥) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑓𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 .
𝑓 𝑓(𝑥)
• Quotient: (𝑔) (𝑥) = 𝑔(𝑥) 𝐷𝑓/𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 , 𝑔(𝑥) ≠ 0.

Example 1

If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 3𝑥 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 + 6. Find

𝑓
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) ( ) (𝑥 )
𝑔

Solution

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) + 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2) + (𝑥 2 + 6) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 + 4

(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) − 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2) − (𝑥 2 + 6) = −𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 − 8

Page 3 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑥 ) ⋅ 𝑔(𝑥 )

= (3𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 2 + 6) = 3𝑥 3 − 2𝑥 2 + 18𝑥 − 12

𝑓 𝑓(𝑥) 3𝑥−2
(d) ( ) (𝑥 ) = = 2
𝑔 𝑔(𝑥) 𝑥 +6

Example 2

𝑓
If 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 4, find the domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔,
𝑔
𝑔
and .
𝑓

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1, 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 4.

𝐷𝑓 = [1, ∞), 𝐷𝑔 = ℝ.

⇒ 𝐷𝑓+𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓−𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 = [1, ∞) ∩ ℝ = [1, ∞)

𝐷𝑓/𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 , 𝑔(𝑥 ) ≠ 0.

𝑔(𝑥 ) = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 2 − 4 = 0 ⇒ (𝑥 − 2)(𝑥 + 2) = 0

⇒ 𝑥 = ±2

∴ 𝐷𝑓/𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 \{−2,2} = [1, ∞)\{2} = [1,2) ∪ (2, ∞).

𝐷𝑔/𝑓 = 𝐷𝑔 ∩ 𝐷𝑓 , 𝑓(𝑥) ≠ 0

𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 if √𝑥 − 1 = 0 ⇒ 𝑥 = 1.

∴ 𝐷𝑔/𝑓 = 𝐷𝑔 ∩ 𝐷𝑓 = ℝ ∩ [1, ∞) ∖ {1} = [1, ∞) ∖ {1} = (1, ∞).

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Checkpoint 1

1
If 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 1 − 2 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = .
𝑥−1

(i) Find
𝑓
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(𝑥 ) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(𝑥 ) (d) ( ) (𝑥 )
𝑔
𝑓 𝑔
(ii) Find the domains of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and .
𝑔 𝑓

Answer:
𝐷𝑓+𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓−𝑔 − 𝐷𝑓𝑔 = 𝐷𝑓 ∩ 𝐷𝑔 = (1, ∞)
𝐷𝑓/𝑔 = (1, ∞)
𝐷𝑔/𝑓 = (1,5) ∪ (5, ∞)

Solution

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Evaluate Functions

Example 3

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 9 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 6. Find

𝑓
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(5) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(−2) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) (d) ( ) (4)
𝑔

Solution

(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(5) = 𝑓(5) + 𝑔(5)

= ((5)2 − 9) + (2(5) + 6)

= 16 + 16 = 32.

(b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(−2) = 𝑓 (−2) − 𝑔(−2)

= ((−2)2 − 9) − (2(−2) + 6)

= −5 − 2 = −7

(c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) = 𝑓 (−1) ⋅ 𝑔(−1)

= [(−1)2 − 9][2(−1) + 6]

= (−8)(4) = −32.

𝑓 𝑓(4) 42 −9 7 1
(d) ( ) (4) = = = = .
g 𝑔(4) 2(4)+6 14 2

Page 6 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 4

The Figure below shows the graph of functions 𝑓 and 𝑔. Use their graph
to calculate:
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(1) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(2) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(1) (d) (𝑓𝑔)(0)
𝑓 𝑔 𝑓
(e) ( ) (0) (f) ( ) (0) (e) ( ) (2)
𝑔 𝑓 𝑔

Solution

(𝑓 + 𝑔)(1) = 𝑓(1) + 𝑔(1)

= 1 + (−1) = 0
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(2) = 𝑓(2) − 𝑔(2)
= 4 − 0 = 4.
(𝑓𝑔)(1) = 𝑓(1)𝑔(1)
= (1)(−1) = −1

(𝑓𝑔)(0) = 𝑓(0) ⋅ 𝑔(0) = (0)(−2) = 0

𝑓 𝑓(0) 0
( ) (0) = = =0
𝑔 𝑔(0) −2
𝑔 𝑔(0) −2
( ) (0) = = (undefined).
𝑓 𝑓(0) 0
𝑓 𝑓(2) 4
( ) (2) = = (undefined).
𝑔 𝑔(2) 0

Page 7 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

 𝑓 𝑔
The Figures below represent the graphs of 𝑓 + 𝑔, 𝑓 − 𝑔, 𝑓𝑔, and ,
𝑔 𝑓

respectively in the example above.

Page 8 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 2

Use the graphs of 𝑓 and 𝑔 in the previous Example to calculate:

𝑔
(a) (𝑓 + 𝑔)(0) (b) (𝑓 − 𝑔)(1) (c) (𝑓𝑔)(−1) (d) ( ) (2)
𝑓
Answer:
(𝑓 + 𝑔)(0) = −2
(𝑓 − 𝑔)(1) = 2
(𝑓𝑔)(−1) = −3
(𝑔/𝑓)(2) = 0
Solution

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Difference Quotient
The expression

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥)
, ℎ≠0
ℎ

is called the difference quotient of 𝑓.

It enables us to study the manner in which a function changes in value as

the independent variable changes.

Example 5

Determine the difference quotient of 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 7.

Solution

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) − 𝑓(𝑥) [(𝑥 + ℎ)2 + 7] − [𝑥 2 + 7]

=
ℎ ℎ
[𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 + 7] − [𝑥 2 + 7]
2
=
ℎ
𝑥 + 2𝑥ℎ + ℎ + 7 − 𝑥 2 − 7
2 2
=
ℎ
2𝑥ℎ + ℎ2 ℎ(2𝑥 + ℎ)
= = = 2𝑥 + ℎ, ℎ ≠ 0.
ℎ ℎ

Note that

𝑓(𝑥 + ℎ) ≠ 𝑓(𝑥) + 𝑓(ℎ).

Page 10 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Checkpoint 3

Determine the difference quotient of 𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 𝑥.

Answer:
4𝑥 + 2ℎ − 1.
Solution

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1.2.2 Composite Function and Domain
Composition of functions is another way in which functions can be
combined.

This method of combining functions uses the output of one function as

the input for a second function.

For instance, when 𝑓(𝑥) = √𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 4, the composition of 𝑓 with

𝑔 is given by

𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = √𝑔(𝑥)
= √𝑥 + 4
In particular,

𝑔(0) = 0 + 4 = 4 and 𝑓(4) = √4 = 2.

So, if we apply these two functions consecutively, we get

𝑓(𝑔(0)) = 𝑓(4) = 2

In a diagram, this would look like

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Definition 2: Definition of the Composition of Two Functions

• Let 𝑓 and 𝑔 be two functions such that 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓 for all
𝑥 in the domain of 𝑔.
• Then the composition of the two functions, denoted by 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, is the
function whose value at 𝑥 is given by

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)].

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𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is read as " 𝑓 composed with 𝑔 " (also called the composite of 𝑓 and 𝑔).

Example 6

Consider the functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3.

Find (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1).

Solution

The expression (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) or, equivalently, 𝑓[𝑔(−1)] means to evaluate

the function 𝑓 at 𝑔(−1).

𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 − 3
𝑔(−1) = (−1)2 − 3
= −2 Evaluate 𝑔 at − 1.
𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) = 𝑓[𝑔(−1)] = 𝑓 (−2) Replace 𝑥 with 𝑔(−1).
= 2(−2) − 1 = −5 𝑔(−1) = −2

A graphical depiction of the composition (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) would look something

like the Figure below.

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We can find a general expression for 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥 )] by evaluating 𝑓 at 𝑔(𝑥 ).

𝑓(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 − 1 - Replace 𝑥 with 𝑔(𝑥).

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓 [𝑔(𝑥 )] = 2[𝑔(𝑥 )] − 1 - Replace 𝑔(𝑥) with 𝑥2 − 3.

= 2[ 𝑥 2 − 3] − 1 - Simplify.

= 2𝑥 2 − 7 (∗)

If we evaluate this function at −1 , we have

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 7

⇒ (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(−1) = 2(−1)2 − 7 = 2 − 7 = −5

This is the same as the result that was obtained early.

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In general, the composition of functions is not a commutative operation.
That is,

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) .

To verify this, we will compute (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) = 𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)], again using the

functions 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3.
𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3
𝑔[𝑓(𝑥)] = [𝑓(𝑥)]2 − 3 ⋅ Replace 𝑥 with 𝑓(𝑥).
= [2𝑥 − 1]2 − 3 ⋅ Replace 𝑓(𝑥) with 2𝑥 − 1.
= 4𝑥 2 − 4𝑥 − 2 (∗∗) ⋅ Simplify.

From (∗) and (∗∗), we conclude that (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) ≠ (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) , therefore,

composition is not a commutative operation.

Checkpoint 4

If 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 − 3𝑥 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 2𝑥 + 1, find

(a) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥) (b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (c) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(0) (d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(0)
Answer:
(a) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥 2 − 6𝑥 + 1.
(b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 4𝑥 2 − 2𝑥 − 2.
(c) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(0) = −2.
(d) (𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(0) = 1.

Solution

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Page 17 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
• To evaluate (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑐) for some constant 𝑐, you can use either of the
following methods.

• Method 1: First evaluate 𝑔(𝑐). Then substitute this result for 𝑥 in 𝑓(𝑥).

• Method 2: First determine 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)]. Then substitute 𝑐 for 𝑥.

Example 7

Evaluate (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3), where 𝑓(𝑥) = 2𝑥 − 7 and 𝑔(𝑥) = 𝑥 2 + 4.

Solution

Method 1:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3) = 𝑓 [𝑔(3)]
= 𝑓 [(3)2 + 4] Evaluate 𝑔(3).

= 𝑓 (13)
= 2(13) − 7 = 19 Substitute 13 for 𝑥 in 𝑓.

Method 2:
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 )) = 2[𝑔(𝑥 )] − 7 Form 𝑓[𝑔(𝑥)].

= 2[ 𝑥 2 + 4] − 7
= 2𝑥 2 + 1
Then (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(3) = 2(3)2 + 1 = 19 Substitute 3 for 𝑥.

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Domain of Composite Function
Some care must be used when forming the composition of functions.

For instance, if 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 + 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 4, then

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(2) = 𝑔[𝑓(2)] = 𝑔(3) = √3 − 4 = √−1

which is not a real number.

Definition 3: The domain of the composite function 𝒇 ∘ 𝒈

The domain of the composite function 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is the set of all 𝑥 such

that:

(1) 𝑥 is in the domain of 𝑔,

(2) and 𝑔(𝑥) is in the domain of 𝑓.

Page 19 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

In the 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 diagram above, we can see that
✓ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 ⊆ 𝐷𝑔
✓ 𝑅𝑓∘𝑔 ⊆ 𝑅𝑓
✓ If 𝑔(𝑥) ∈ 𝑅𝑔 ⋂𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔

Page 20 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

We need to be careful in determining the domain for a composite function.

Excluding Values from the Domain of (𝒇 ∘ 𝒈)(𝒙) = 𝒇(𝒈(𝒙))

The following values must be excluded from the input 𝑥 :

• If 𝑥 is not in the domain of 𝑔, it must not be in the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

i.e. if 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑔 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔
• Any 𝑥 for which 𝑔(𝑥) is not in the domain of 𝑓 must not be in the
domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

i.e. if 𝑔(𝑥) ∉ 𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 .

For instance, in the diagram below, we con see that

𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 and 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 𝑥′ ∈ 𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑥 ∈ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 .

𝑦 ∈ 𝐷𝑔 but 𝑔(𝑦) = 𝑦′ ∉ 𝐷𝑓 ⇒ 𝑦 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 .
𝑧 ∉ 𝐷𝑔 ⇒ 𝑧 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 .

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Example 8

2 3
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = , find
𝑥−1 𝑥
(a) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (b) the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔.

Solution

2
(a) Because (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) means 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)), we must replace 𝑥 in 𝑓(𝑥) =
𝑥−1

with 𝑔(𝑥).

2 2 2 2𝑥
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = = = =
𝑔(𝑥) − 1 3 − 1 3 − 𝑥 3 − 𝑥
𝑥 𝑥

2𝑥
Thus, (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = .
3−𝑥

(b) We determine values to exclude from the domain of (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) in two

steps.

Excluding Values from the Domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔

3
Step 1: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑔 𝑔(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0 ⇒ 0 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔
𝑥
2 𝑔(𝑥 ) = 1 ⇒ 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 ,
Step 2: 𝑥 ∉ 𝐷𝑓 𝑓(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 1.
𝑥−1
(We need to find 𝑥)
3
⇒ =1⇒𝑥=3
𝑥
⇒ 3 ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔

We see that 0 and 3 must be excluded from the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔. The

domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 is

ℝ\{0,3} = (−∞, 0) ∪ (0,3) ∪ (3, ∞).

To find the excluded values from the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 in a fast way:

Page 22 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi
 • substitute 𝑔 into 𝑓 without doing any simplifications,

• then you can exclude all values that make 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 undefined from
this step.

For the example above,

2 2
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥)) = =3 .
𝑔(𝑥)−1 −1
𝑥

2
We can see that the last expression, 3 is defined if:
𝑥
−1

✓𝑥≠0 3
(From the denominator in 𝑥 )

3
✓ −1≠0 (From the denominator in 3
2
)
𝑥 𝑥
−1

⇒𝑥≠3
⇒ {0,3} ∉ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 ⇒ 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = ℝ\{0,3}

Example 9

1
Given 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = − 1 and 𝑔(𝑥) = √𝑥 − 5, find 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔, 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓 and state their
𝑥
domain.
Solution

We can see that

1
𝑓(𝑥 ) = − 1, 𝑥 ≠ 0
𝑥

𝑔(𝑥 ) = √𝑥 − 5, 𝑥 ⩾ 5

(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = 𝑓(𝑔(𝑥 ))

= 𝑓(√𝑥 − 5)

1
= − 1, 𝑥 > 5.
√𝑥−5

It is clear that 𝐷𝑓∘𝑔 = (5, ∞).

Page 23 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = 𝑔(𝑓(𝑥 ))

1
= 𝑔 ( − 1)
𝑥

1 1
= √( − 1) − 5, ( − 1) − 5 ⩾ 0
𝑥 𝑥

1 1
= √ − 6, −6⩾0
𝑥 𝑥

1 1 1
= √ − 6, 0 < 𝑥 ≤ . (Exercise: Solve the inequality −6⩾0)
𝑥 6 𝑥

1
∴ 𝐷𝑔∘𝑓 = (0, ]
6

Checkpoint 5

4 1
Given 𝑓(𝑥) = and 𝑔(𝑥) = , find
𝑥+2 𝑥
(a) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (b) (𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥) (c) the domain of 𝑓 ∘ 𝑔 and 𝑔 ∘ 𝑓
Answer:
4𝑥 1
(𝑓 ∘ 𝑔)(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ 0, 𝑥 ≠ − .
1+2𝑥 2
𝑥+2
(𝑔 ∘ 𝑓)(𝑥 ) = , 𝑥 ≠ −2.
4

Solution

Page 24 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.3 Shifting a Graph of a Function
• A common way to obtain a new function from an existing one is by
adding a constant to each output of the existing function, or to its
input variable.
• The graph of the new function is the graph of the original function
shifted vertically or horizontally, as follows.

Example 10

(a) Adding 1 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 + 1

shifts the graph up 1 unit (see the Figure below).
b) Adding −2 to the right-hand side of the formula 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get
𝑦 = 𝑥 2 − 2 shifts the graph down 2 units (see the Figure below).

Page 25 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(c) Adding 3 to 𝑥 ∣ in 𝑦 = 𝑥 2 to get 𝑦 = (𝑥 + 3)2 shifts the graph 3 units to
the left, while adding −2 shifts the graph 2 units to the right (see the
Figure below).

(d) Adding −2 to 𝑥 in 𝑦 = |𝑥|, and then adding −1 to the result, gives 𝑦 =

|𝑥 − 2| − 1 and shifts the graph 2 units to the right and 1 unit down (see
the Figure below).

Page 26 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

1.2.4 Scaling and Reflecting a Graph of a Function
• To scale the graph of a function 𝑦 = 𝑓(𝑥) is to stretch or compress
it, vertically or horizontally.
• This is accomplished by multiplying the function 𝑓, or the
independent variable 𝑥, by an appropriate constant 𝑐.
• Reflections across the coordinate axes are special cases where 𝑐 =
−1.

Example 11

Here we scale and reflect the graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥.

Solution

(a) Vertical: Multiplying the right-hand side of 𝑦 = √𝑥 by 3 to get 𝑦 = 3√𝑥

stretches the graph vertically by a factor of 3 , whereas multiplying by 1/3

compresses the graph by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.32).

Page 27 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

(b) Horizontal: The graph of 𝑦 = √3𝑥 is a horizontal compression of the

graph of 𝑦 = √𝑥 by a factor of 3 , and 𝑦 = √𝑥/3 is a horizontal stretching

by a factor of 3 (Figure 1.33). Note that 𝑦 = √3𝑥 = √3√𝑥 so a horizontal

compression may correspond to a vertical stretching by a different

scaling factor. Likewise, a horizontal stretching may correspond to a

vertical compression by a different scaling factor.

(c) Reflection: The graph of 𝑦 = −√𝑥 is a reflection of 𝑦 = √𝑥 across the

𝑥-axis, and 𝑦 = √−𝑥 is a reflection across the 𝑦-axis (Figure 1.34).

Page 28 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi

Example 12

Given the function 𝑓(𝑥) = 𝑥 4 − 4𝑥 3 + 10 (the Figure (a)), find formulas to

(a) compress the graph horizontally by a factor of 2 followed by a

reflection across the 𝑦-axis (the Figure (b)).

(b) compress the graph vertically by a factor of 2 followed by a reflection

across the 𝑥-axis (the Figure (c)).
Solution

We multiply 𝑥 by 2 to get the horizontal compression, and by −1 to give

reflection across the 𝑦-axis.

The formula is obtained by substituting −2𝑥 for 𝑥 in the right-hand side of

the equation for 𝑓 :

𝑦 = 𝑓(−2𝑥) = (−2𝑥)4 − 4(−2𝑥)3 + 10

= 16𝑥 4 + 32𝑥 3 + 10

(b) The formula is

1 1
𝑦 = − 𝑓(𝑥) = − 𝑥 4 + 2𝑥 3 − 5
2 2

Page 29 of 29 Math 105 (Semester 1 2024/2025) Dr. Omar Alsuhaimi