Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

UNIT-III
TRANSMITTERS & RECEIVERS
Page | 1 Transmitters:

Introduction to Transmitter:
A transmitter is an electronic system that converts a message signal in a convenient
form that may be sent via an antenna system in the surrounding atmosphere.

In simplest term, an RF transmitter accepts an electrical signal from some

information source and transmits a high power analog carrier signal modulated with the
information. The design of a transmitter depends on the type of modulation to be used.

Radio Frequency Transmitter is an electronic system that converts the

information signal into RF signal capable of propagating over long distance.

Fig3.1: Basic block diagram of Transmitter

A radio transmitter consists of several elements that work together to generate

radio waves that contain useful information such as audio, video, or digital data.

• Power supply: Provides the necessary electrical power to operate the transmitter.
• Oscillator: Creates alternating current at the frequency on which the transmitter
will transmit. The oscillator usually generates a sine wave, which is referred to as a
carrier wave.
• Modulator: Adds useful information to the carrier wave. There are two main ways
to add this information. The first, called amplitude modulation or AM, makes slight
increases or decreases to the intensity of the carrier wave. The second, called
frequency modulation or FM, makes slight increases or decreases the frequency of
the carrier wave.
• Amplifier: Amplifies the modulated carrier wave to increase its power. The more
powerful the amplifier, the more powerful the broadcast.
• Antenna: Converts the amplified signal to radio waves.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Basic Functions of Radio Transmitters:

There are three basic function of Transmitter.

1. It must generate a carrier signal with a rated signal frequency

2. It must modulate the carrier signal with the modulating signal
Page | 2
3. It must raise the power level to rated power of the station to facilitate the longer
distance communication

CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO TRANSMITTERS:

1. According to the type of modulation used:

• AM Transmitters
• FM Transmitters
• PAM Transmitters
• SSB Transmitters
• VSB Transmitters etc.

2. According to service involved:

• Radio broadcast transmitters.

• Radio telephony transmitters.
• Radio telegraph transmitters.
• Television transmitters.
• Radar transmitters.
• Navigational transmitters.

3. According to the frequency range involved:

• Low frequency (LF) transmitters (30 KHZ- 300KHZ): (or) Long

wave transmitter. Aeronautical & marine navigation
• Medium frequency (MF) transmitters ( 300 KHZ-3 MHZ): (or)
medium wave transmitter. Am broadcasting (550 to 1650Khz)
• High frequency (HF) transmitters (3 MHZ- 30MHZ): (or) short wave
transmitter. Long distance communication by the virtue of ionosphere
reflection
• Very high frequency (VHF) transmitters (30MHZ-300 MHZ): fm
broadcasting (88 to 108 MHz)
• Ultra high frequency (UHF) transmitters (300 MHZ- 3GHZ): tv
broadcasting, cellular telephony & military services
• Microwave transmitters (>3GHZ): radio & satellite communication

4. According to the power used:

• Low level transmitter

• High level transmitter

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Requirements Of Transmitters:

i. Frequency Accuracy & Stability:

The accuracy and stability of the transmitter/station is mainly decided by the

carrier oscillator. Depending on application, these ratings are specified by the regularity
Page | 3
bodies Master oscillator oscillations will change due to load impedance changes. Hence
buffer amplifiers are used to reduce this effect.

ii. Frequency Agility:

This is the ability to change the operating frequency rapidly. This is not required for
broadcasting stations as they use fixed frequency transmission. But mobile radio need
frequent and Rapid returning to switch the frequencies.

It is difficult to make the frequency of the Crystal or LC oscillators variable. So,

frequency synthesizers are employed to set the actual transmitting frequency.

iii. Spectral Purity:

All transmitters may generate spurious signals that emitted at frequencies other
than the carrier frequency. often they are harmonics of carrier or other combinations.
class-C are mostly responsible for them. They will amplify upto 90% (of harmonics also).
Filtering them is not perfect.

Modern Digital radios use digital filters for effective suppression of them.

iv. EIRP (Equivalent Isotropically Radiated Power):

Every Transmitter is authorised to radiate only a specified output power based on

its class of service. Usual AM transmitters are rated by their career powers or peak
envelope power (PER). FM transmitters are rated by total output power as they are
constant envelope systems this. life between 1W and 100 KW.

v. Power Efficiency:

Transmitter power efficiency is important for every conservation and heat

reduction. This is very important when large power levels are used in the portable sets
using batteries. If some power is observed in the transmitter, then it must be dissipated.
This requires heatsinks or cooling by water or gas this increases the cost.

Efficiency is not only considered for every stage but also for overall transmitter.
Overall efficiency is reduced by factors such as heater power in vacuum tubes and losses in
power supply.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

AM Transmitter:
AM transmitter takes the audio signal as an input and delivers amplitude modulated
wave to the antenna as an output to be transmitted.

Page | 4
Types Of AM Transmitters:
1. Low Level AM Transmitter
2. High Level AM Transmitter

Low Level AM Transmitters:

In Low level AM transmitter, the modulation is done at low Power levels. i.e.,
Modulation is done before Power amplification.

Antenna

Stabilised RF Class A Linear

Power
Oscillator Buffer Modulator Amplifier
Amplifier Amplifier

AF Audio
Class A AF
Modulating Processing
Amplifier
Signal & filtering

Fig.3.2: Block Diagram of Low Level AM Transmitter

Stabilised RF Oscillator:

• The RF oscillator produces the carrier signal. The RF oscillator is stabilized in order
to maintain the frequency deviation within the prescribed limit. The carrier
frequency is equal to the transmitter frequency.
• Usually the transmitter operates on assigned frequencies or channels. Crystal
provides the best way to obtain the described frequency with good stability.
• We cannot use the LC oscillator because they have low frequency stability.

Class A Buffer Amplifier:

• The buffer is a class A amplifier which isolates the RF oscillator from the rest of high
power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level.

Modulator:

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

• The carrier signal from the crystal oscillator is applied to the modulator with a
modulating signal. At the output of the modulator we get the AM wave.

AF Modulating Source:

• The modulating signal is obtained from a source such as a microphone and applied
Page | 5
to a buffer processing unit.

Audio Processing & filtering:

• The AF modulating signal is passed through an audio processing unit before

applying it to the modulator.
• This block carries out some form of “speech processing” in the form of filtering and
amplitude control.
• The weak signals amplified automatically with a higher gain and strong signals are
amplified with smaller gain. This will bring all the signals to a sufficient level.

Class A Buffer Amplifier:

• The buffer is a class A amplifier which isolates the AF source from the rest of high
power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level.
• The amplified modulating signal is applied to the modulator along with the carrier.
At the output of the modulator we get the AM wave.

Linear Amplifier:

• The AM signal is then amplified using a chain of linear amplifier to raise the power
level.
• The linear amplifier can be class A, AB or B type amplifiers. The linear amplifier are
used in order to avoid the wave form distortion in AM wave.

Power Amplifier:

• The distortion less AM wave from Linear Amplifier is given to Power Amplifier to
increase the power levels to meet the Antenna Power reqirements.

Antenna:

• The amplitude modulated signal is then transmitted using transmitted antenna.

The transistorized modulator circuits can be used for low level modulator due to
the low power which is to be handled.

The low level transmitter does not require a large AF modulator power so its
design is simplified.

Overall efficiency is much lower compared to high level modulation. This reduce to
the use of less efficient linear amplifiers.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

High Level AM Transmitters:

In High level AM transmitter, the modulation is done at high Power levels.

i.e., Modulation is done after Power amplification.
Antenna
Page | 6
Stabilised RF Class A Class C RF High
Oscillator Buffer Power Level
Amplifier Amplifier Modulato
r

AF Audio
Class A AF Class B AF
Modulating Processing
Amplifier Power
Signal & filtering
Amplifier

Fig.3.3: Block Diagram of High Level AM Transmitter

Stabilised RF Oscillator:

• The RF oscillator produces the carrier signal. The RF oscillator is stabilized in order
to maintain the frequency deviation within the prescribed limit. The carrier
frequency is equal to the transmitter frequency.
• Usually the transmitter operates on assigned frequencies or channels. Crystal
provides the best way to obtain the described frequency with good stability.
• We cannot use the LC oscillator because they have low frequency stability.

Class A Buffer Amplifier:

• The buffer is a class A amplifier which isolates the RF oscillator from the rest of high
power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level.

Class C RF Power Amplifier:

• The output of this class A amplifier is applied to a class C power amplifier. It raises
the power level of the carrier to an intermediately high value.

AF Modulating Source:

• The modulating signal is obtained from a source such as a microphone and applied
to a buffer processing unit.

Audio Processing & filtering:

• The AF modulating signal is passed through an audio processing unit before

applying it to the modulator.
• This block carries out some form of “speech processing” in the form of filtering and
amplitude control.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

• The weak signals amplified automatically with a higher gain and strong signals are
amplified with smaller gain. This will bring all the signals to a sufficient level.

Class A Buffer Amplifier:

• The buffer is a class A amplifier which isolates the AF source from the rest of high
Page | 7
power circuit and amplifies it to an adequate level.
• The amplified modulating signal is applied to the modulator along with the carrier.
At the output of the modulator we get the AM wave.

Class B AF Power Amplifier:

• The output of this class A AF amplifier of modulating signal is applied to a class B

power amplifier. It raises the power level of the modulating signal to an
intermediately high value.

High Level Modulator:

• After increasing the power levels of modulating and Carrier signals, these are given
to High Level Modulator to get High Level AM signal.

Antenna:

• The high level amplitude modulated signal is then transmitted using transmitted
antenna.

Highly efficient class C amplifiers are used in high level modulation. Efficiency is more
than low level modulation.

Comparison between Low-Level and High-Level Modulation:

S.No. Parameter Low Level Modulation High Level Modulation

1 Power level : Modulation is carried out at Modulation is carried out at

low power level. high power level.

2 Amplifier stages: Need lesser amplifier stages. Need More amplifier stages.

3 Power efficiency After modulation linear Non linear amplifiers can also
: amplifiers can only be used. be used. This leads to higher
This gives lower power power efficiency.
efficiency.
4 Power losses : Power losses is less, the Power losses in amplifiers is
cooling problem is not severe. higher, the cooling problem is
severe.
5 Applications : Used in TV transmitters. Used as higher power
broadcast transmitters.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

FM Transmitters:
FM requires the instantaneous carrier frequency to be carried in accordance with
the modulating signal.

Used in radio, TV sound broadcasting & police wireless transmission.

Page | 8
In FM transmitter the FM signal is transmitted by a transmitter. The information is
contained in its frequency variation. The FCC (Federal Communication Commission) has
assigned a band of 20 MHz to the commercial FM broad cast service. This band extends
from 88 MHz to 108 MHz. This 20 MHz band is divided in 100 channels, each having a
bandwidth of 200 KHz.
For providing high quality reliable music the maximum frequency deviation allowed
is 75 KHz, with a maximum modulating signal frequency of 15 KHz.

Types Of FM Transmitters:
1. Direct FM Transmitter
2. Indirect FM Transmitter

Direct FM Transmitter:
Direct FM can be produced by following types of techniques:

1. FM using Reactance Tube

2. FM using Reactance FET
3. FM using Reactance BJT
4. FM using Varactor Doide

Reactance Modulator Fm Transmitter:

In this any one of the four reactances (Reactance tube, Reactance BJT, Reactance
FET or Varactor diode) is used to frequency modulate the carrier signal.

Fig.3.4: Block diagram of Reactance Modulator FM Transmitter

The FM transmitter has three basic sections.

1. The exciter section contains the carrier oscillator, reactance modulator and
the buffer amplifier.
2. The frequency multiplier section, which features several frequency
multipliers.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

3. The power output section which includes a low level power amplifier, the
final power amplifier and the Impedance Matching network to properly load
power section with the antenna impedance.

Exciter:
Page | 9 • The function of carrier oscillator is to generate a stable sine wave signal at the rest
frequency when no modulation is applied. It must be able to linearly change with
frequency when fully modulated, with no change in amplitude.
• The buffer amplifier acts as a constant high impedance load on the oscillator to help
stabilize the oscillator frequency. The buffer amplifiere may have a small gain.
• The modulator acts to change the carrier oscillator frequency by application of the
Message signal. the positive peak of the message signal generally raises the
oscillator frequency above the carrier frequency and the negative message peak
lower the oscillator frequency to a value below the carrier frequency. The greater the
peak to peak message signal, the larger the oscillator deviation.
• The reactance moderator is the impedance of the circuit as a reactance that is
connected in parallel with the resonant circuit of the oscillator. If the message signal
amplitude changes then immediately reactance of the circuit will change. This
change in reactance will going to change the frequency of oscillator.

Frequency Multiplier:
• Frequency multiplier are tuned input and tuned output RF amplifiers in which the
output resonant circuit is tuned to a multiple of the input frequency.
• Common frequency multipliers are 2x, 3x, 4x multiplication. There cannot a 1.5x
multiplier, for instance.
Power Section:
• The final power section develops a career power, to be transmitted and often low
power amplifier driven the final power amplifier.

Indirect Fm Transmitter:

• In indirect method, a narrow band FM signal is first obtained using an integrator

and phase modulator. Then narrow band FM signal is passed through a chain of
frequency multipliers to obtain wideband FM signal.

Fig.3.5: Block diagram of Indirect FM Transmitter

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

• The generated FM signal is then routed through power amplifier and an antenna
Impedance Matching network for broadcasting.
• For Commercial FM radio broadcasting carrier frequency ranges from 88MHz to
108MHz with transmission bandwidth of 200 KHz.
Page | 10 • The carrier signal is obtained from a crystal oscillator that is isolated from the rest
of the system by a buffer amplifier.
• The message signal is amplified, pre emphasized, integrated then applied to a phase
modulator. The Other input of the phase modulator is carrier signal.
• Carrier signal frequency modulated with the variations of amplitude of message
signal.
• The FM Signal is then frequency multiplied up to required carrier signal.
• Then it is power amplified by using class C power amplifier and then fed to antenna
for transmission.

Fm stereo transmitter:
Stereo systems involved generating two separate audios as from left and right side
microphones, when played on left and right speakers the listeners gains greater surround
feeling of live listening. The FM signal which is received on Mono receiver must contains
left + right channels' but it should be received separately on Stereo receiver. This means
that left and right channels must be received separately.

Fig.3.5: Block diagram of Stereo FM Transmitter

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

The block diagram(Fig.3.5) shows the arrangement for obtaining the composite
modulating signal and the final stereophonic FM signal transmission. The left and right
channels are picked up by their respective microphones. These outputs are separately pre-
emphasised using individual pre-emphasis circuits in the two channels. These signals are
then applied to a matrix network where the right channel signal is inverted to produce
Page | 11 -R. Within this Matrix network the right channel signal R and its inversed one -R added to
the left channel signal to produce (L + R) and (L – R) signals respectively. The two audio
output signals are still occupying a range of 30 Hz to 15KHz audio frequency.
The (L-R) signal and 38KHz carrier signal are then applied to a balanced modulator
that suppresses the carrier and provides a double sideband (DSB) signal at its output. The
upper and lower sidebands extend from 30Hz to 15KHz above and below the suppressed
38KHz carrier. The lowest frequency of the lower side band of (L-R) is 23 KHz while the
highest frequency of the upper side band of (L-R) is 53KHz.
The (L – R) is translated from audio to a higher frequency range to keep it separated
from (L + R) signal which still occupies 30Hz to 15KHz range. The (L + R) signal is given a
slightly delay so that both (L + R) and translated (L - R) (which takes some time to be
translated) are applied to the FM modulator. The 19KHz master oscillator is applied
directly to the FM modulator which serves as a pilot carrier to be used at the receiver
end. This master oscillator frequency is doubled by a frequency doubler to generate the
38KHz carrier required for DSB generation.

Fig.3.6: Composite Modulating Signal

Standard Broadcasting Ranges:

• AM (Medium Wave) : 550 to 1650KHz

• AM (Short Wave) : 3 to 18MHz
• FM : 88 to 108MHz
• Television : (VHF)➔ 54 to 88 MHz &174 to 216 MHz
(UHF)➔ 470 to 890 MHz

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Differences between AM and FM Broadcasting:

S..No. AM Broadcating FM Broadcating

1 It requires smaller transmission It requires larger bandwidth.
bandwidth.
Page | 12 2 It can be operated in low, medium & It needs to be operated in very high and
high frequency bands. high frequency bands
3 It has wider coverage its range is restricted to 50 km.
4 The demodulation is simple. The process of Demodulation is complex.
5 The stereophonic transmission is not In this, stereophonic transmission is
possible. possible
6 The system has poor noise It has an improved noise performance
performance
7 The AM signal reception does not The FM signal reception exhibits a
have any threshold in the useful range threshold that is useful range of signal to
of signal to noise ratio noise ratio.

Receivers:
Introduction to Receiver:

Radio receiver is an electronic equipment which pick ups the desired signal, reject
the unwanted signal and demodulate the carrier signal to get back the original modulating
signal.
A radio receiver is the opposite of a radio transmitter. It uses an antenna to capture
radio waves, processes those waves to extract only those waves that are vibrating at the
desired frequency, extracts the audio signals that were added to those waves, amplifies the
signals.

Fig.3.7: Basic Block Diagram of Radio Receiver

• Antenna: It captures the radio waves. Typically, the antenna is simply a length of
wire. When this wire is exposed to radio waves, the waves induce a tiny alternating
current in the antenna.
• RF amplifier: A sensitive amplifier that amplifies the very weak radio frequency
(RF) signal from the antenna so that the tuner can process the signal.
• Tuner: A circuit that can extract signals of a particular frequency from a mix of
signals of different frequencies. On its own, the antenna captures radio waves of all
frequencies and sends them to the RF amplifier, which dutifully amplifies them all.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

• Detector: It separates the audio information from the carrier wave. For AM
signals, this can be done with a diode that just rectifies the alternating current
signal.
• Audio amplifier: This component’s task is to amplify the weak signal that comes
from the detector so that it can be heard. This can be done using a simple transistor
amplifier circuit.
Page | 13
Basic Functions of Radio Receivers:

1. Collect the electromagnetic waves transmitted by the transmitter.

2. select the desired signal and reject all other signals.
3. amplify the selected modulated carrier signal.
4. detect the modulating signal from the modulated signal.
5. Amplify the modulating signal to operate the load loudspeaker.

Requirements Of Receivers:

i. The radio receiver has to be cost effective

ii. Has to work according to application as for AM or FM signals
iii. Tune to and amplify desired radio station
iv. Filter out all other stations
v. Demodulator has to work with all radio stations regardless of carrier frequency

CLASSIFICATION OF RADIO RECEIVERS:

We can classify the radio receiver in two ways as under

Depending upon application

• AM Broadcast Receivers – These receivers are used to receive the broadcast of

speech or music transmitted from AM transmitters which operate on long wave,
medium wave or short wave bands.

• FM Broadcast Receivers – These receivers are used to receive broadcast

programs from FM broadcast transmitters which operate in VHF or UHF bands.

• Communication Receivers – These receivers are used for reception of telegraph

and short wave telephone signals. This means that communication receivers are
used for various purposes other than broadcast services.

• Television Receivers – These receivers are used to receive television broadcast in

VHF or UHF bands.

• Radar Receivers – These are used to receive RAdio Detection And Ranging
(RADAR) signals.

Depending upon the fundamental aspects:

i. Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

ii. Super heterodyne Receiver

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Tuned Radio frequency (TRF) receiver:

Page | 14

Fig.3.8: Basic Block Diagram of Tuned Radio Frequency (TRF) Receiver

It consists of two or three stages of RF amplifier, detector, audio amplifier and

power amplifier

The RF amplifier stages placed between the antenna and the detector are used to
increase the strength of the received signal before it is applied to the detector. These RF
amplifiers are tuned to fixed frequency and amplify the desired band of frequencies.
Therefore, they provide amplification for selected band of frequencies and reject all other
frequencies.

The amplified signal then demodulated using detector to recover the modulating
signal. The recovered signal is amplified further by audio amplifier followed by power
amplifier which provides sufficient gain to operate a loudspeaker.

Drawbacks of TRF Receiver:

i. Instability:
Because of using a number of amplification stages is, high gain is achieved at
particular frequency. If our gain is very high around 20,000 at high frequency,
sometimes leads to leakages and become positive feedback at the input stages,
resulting in oscillations. These oscillations are unavoidable at high frequencies.
This cause instability in the oscillations.
ii. Poor Selectivity:
The selectivity of a receiver is its ability to distinguish between a desired
signal and an undesired signal. The selectivity of TRF receiver is poor. in fact it is
difficult to achieve sufficient selectivity at high frequencies due to the enforced
use of single tuned circuits.
iii. Variable Bandwidth:
In practical cases, TRF receiver has the problem of the bandwidth variations
over the tuning range. For example, in AM broadcast system (550KHz to
1650KHz), let us consider that a tuned circuit is required to have a bandwidth of
10KHz
𝑓
We know, Quality Factor Q= 𝑟⁄𝐵𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ
For 550KHz frequency, Q = 550/10 = 55

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

For 1650KHz frequency, Q = 1650/10 = 165. In practical cases, 165 quality

factor is not achieved due to several losses depending upon frequency. Practically
we may get Quality factor 120. With this Quality factor, we can calculate bandwidth

𝑓
Bandwidth = 𝑟⁄𝑄 = 1650K/120 = 13.75KHz.
Page | 15
Therefore, due to this increased bandwidth of 13.8KHz in place of fixed
bandwidth of 10KHz, the receiver would pickup or select adjacent frequencies(i.e.,
stations) with the desired frequency or station. This means that the bandwidth of the TRF
receiver varies with the incoming frequency.

Super heterodyne Receiver:

Fig.3.9: Basic Block Diagram of Super heterodyne Receiver

All the drawbacks of TRF receiver have been removed in a super heterodyne
receiver. The basic super heterodyne receiver is most widely used. This means that the
Super heterodyne principle is used in all types of receivers like television receiver, radar
receiver, Communication receiver etc.
In super heterodyne receiver, the incoming RF signal frequency is combined with
the oscillator signal frequency through a mixer and is converted into a signal of low fixed
frequency. This lower fixed frequency is known as intermediate frequency. However
the intermediate frequency signal contains the same modulation as the original signal. This
intermediate frequency signal is now amplified and then demodulated to reproduce the
original signal.
The word heterodyne stands for mixing. Here we have mixed the incoming signal
frequency with the local oscillator frequency. Therefore, this receiver is called super
heterodyne receiver.
Thus, in the super heterodyne receiver, a constant frequency difference is
maintained between the local oscillator frequency and incoming RF signal frequency
through capacitance tuning in which the capacitances are ganged together and operated by
a common control knob.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

The intermediate frequency (IF) amplifier generally contains a number of

Transformers each consisting of a pair of mutually coupled tuned circuits. Thus, with this
large number of double tuned circuits, operating at specially chosen frequency, the IF
amplifier provides most of the gain (i.e., sensitivity) and bandwidth requirement (i.e.,
selectivity) of the receiver. This means that the IF amplifier determines the sensitivity and
Page | 16 selectivity of the super heterodyne receiver.
Since the characteristics of the IF amplifier are independent of the incoming
frequency to which the receiver is tuned. The selectivity and sensitivity of super heterodyne
receiver are quite uniform throughout its tuning range and not subject to the variations
like the TRF receiver. Further since the IF amplifier works at a fixed IF frequency. The
design of this system is quite easy. Provide high gain and constant bandwidth.
Because of it’s narrow bandwidth, the IF amplifier rejects all other frequencies
except intermediate frequency. Actually, this rejection process reduces the risk of
interference from other stations or sources. In fact, this selection process is the way to the
super heterodyne receiver’s exceptional performance.
After the IF amplifier the signal is applied to the input of demodulator which
extracts original signal (audio signal). This audio signal is amplified by an audio amplifier
to get a particular voltage level. This amplified audio signal is further amplified by a power
amplifier to get a specified power levels so that it may activate the loudspeaker speaker.
The loud speaker is a transducer which converts this audio electrical signals into
audio sound Signals and thus original signal is reproduced i.e., the original transmission is
achieved.
Automatic Gain Control (AGC) feedback circuit adjusts the gain of the IF amplifier
(sometimes the RF amplifier also) to compensate for the input signal amplitude
fluctuations and thus maintains constant output volume.
The advantage of the super heterodyne receiver make it the most suitable for the
majority of the radio receiver applications like AM, FM, SSB, TV and even radar receiver.

Performance Parameters of receiver (or) Characteristics of Receiver:

i. Selectivity:
Selectivity refers to the ability of a receiver to select a signal of a desired
frequency while rejecting all other frequencies. Selectivity in a receiver can be
obtained by using tuned circuits. These are LC circuits tuned to resonant at a
desired signal frequency. The Q of the tuned circuit determines the selectivity.
Resonant frequency, 𝑓𝑟 = 1⁄
2𝜋√𝐿𝐶
𝑋𝐿⁄
Quality Factor, Q = 𝑅
𝑓𝑟⁄
Band width = 𝐵. 𝑊.
As the high frequency signal having increased resistance, if the resistance
increases the quality factor decreases, for decreased quality factor Bandwidth is
more. If bandwidth is more then selectivity is less. Similarly for less band width
selectivity is high.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Page | 17

Fig.3.10: Selectivity Curve for a good receiver

ii. Sensitivity:
The sensitivity of a communication receiver refers to the ability of the
receiver to pick up weak Signals and amplify them.
It is a function of the receiver gain, i.e., the more gain that a receiver has, the
smaller the input signal necessary to produce desired output power.

Fig.3.11: Sensitivity Curve for a good receiver

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

iii. Fidelity:

Fidelity refers to the ability of the receiver to reproduce all the modulating
frequencies equally.

The Fidelity at the lower modulating frequency determined by the low

Page | 18 frequency response of the IF amplifier and the fidelity at the higher modulating
frequencies determined by the high frequency response of the IF amplifier.

Fidelity is difficult to obtain in AM receiver because the fidelity requires more

bandwidth of IF amplifier resulting poor selectivity.

Fig.3.12: Fidelity Curve for a good receiver

iv. Double Spotting:

When a receiver picks up the same short wave station at two nearby points
on the receiver dial, the double spotting phenomenon takes place. The main
cause for spotting is poor front-end selectivity, i.e., inadequate image frequency
rejection. The front end of the receiver does not select different adjacent signal
very well.
The adverse effect of double spotting is that a weak station may be marked by
the reception of a nearby strong station at the spurious point on the dial. On the
other hand, double spotting may be used to calculate the IF of an unknown
receiver. The spurious point on the dial is precisely 2fi below the correct
frequency. If Image frequency rejection is improved, then certainly there will be
a corresponding decrease in the double spotting occurrence.

v. Frequency Changing and Tracking (or) Tuning of a Super

heterodyne Receiver:
In a super heterodyne receiver, the local oscillator frequency is made to track
with the tuned circuits which are tuned to the incoming signal frequency in
order to make a constant frequency difference at the output of mixer. For
general AM broadcast system, the intermediate frequency (IF) is 455KHz. This

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

indicates that the local oscillator should always be set at a frequency which is
455 KHz above the incoming signal frequency.

Page | 19

Fig3.13: Tuning of a Super heterodyne Receiver

The front end of the receiver tuned circuits are made to track together simply by
mechanically linked or ganged capacitors. A ganged capacitor has 3 capacitor sections, one
each for the RF Amplifier, Mixer and the local oscillator. In addition to this, small variable
capacitances known as trimmers are connected in parallel with each section. These
capacitances can be adjusted for proper operation at high frequency. However for lowest
frequency adjustment, small variable capacitors are known as padders are connected in
series with the inductor of the tank circuit.

The various tuned circuits are mechanically coupled so that only one tuning control
and dial are required. This means that no matter what is the incoming signal frequency,
the RF and mixer input tuned circuits must be tuned to it. The local oscillator must
simultaneously be tuned to the precisely higher than the signal by the signal frequency by
the intermediate frequency. However, any error that may exist in the frequency difference
would result in an incorrect frequency being fed to the intermediate frequency (IF)
amplifier. This error must naturally be avoided. Such type of errors is known as tracking
errors. These tracking errors result in stations appearing away from their correct position
on the dial.

It is quite possible to keep the maximum tracking error below 3 KHz. Value as low
as this is quite acceptable.

Image Frequency and Its Rejection:

We know that a super heterodyne receiver is a better receiver than a TRF receiver.
However a super heterodyne receiver suffers from a major drawback known as Image
frequency problem. The problem of image frequency is inherent to a super heterodyne
receiver and arises because of the use of heterodyne principle. In fact, the frequency
conversion process carried out by the local oscillator and the mixer often allow an
undesired frequency in addition to the desired incoming frequency.

In a standard broadcast receiver, the local oscillator frequency is always made

higher than the incoming signal frequency. It is kept equal to the signal frequency plus the
intermediate frequency.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

fo = f s + fi ------------1

Where, fo = Local Oscillator Frequency

fs = Desired Incoming Frequency

Page | 20 fi = Intermediate Frequency

From eqn(1), we have

fi = fo − f s
Hence, the intermediate frequency is the difference between the local oscillator
frequency and the signal frequency.

Now, if a frequency fsi manages to reach the mixer, such that

f si = f o + f i -----------2

Then this frequency fsi would also produce fi when it is mixed with fo. This
undesired or spurious intermediate frequency signal will also be amplified by the IF stage
and thus would cause interference. This has the effect of two sources or stations being
received simultaneously. This situation is obviously undesirable.

The term fsi is known as the image frequency and is defined as the signal frequency
plus twice the intermediate frequency.

Substitute eqn(1) in eqn(1), we get f si = f o + f i

 f si = f s + f i + f i

 f si = f s + 2 f i
Thus this spurious frequency signal cannot be distinguished by the IF stage and
hence would be treated in the same manner as the desired frequency signal.

The rejection of an image frequency signal by a single tuned circuit may be defined
as the ratio of the gain at the signal frequency to the gain at the image frequency. This is
given by

 = 1+ Q2 2

f si f
Where ,  = − s
fs f si

And Q = Quality factor of the tuned circuit in a loaded condition.

Automatic Gain Control (AGC):

The principle of operation of AGC contain the following steps:

i. From rectification of carrier voltage in a linear the youth diode detector, a DC

voltage proportional to the carrier amplitude.

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

ii. To apply this DC voltage as a reverse biased voltage at the input of the RF
amplifier, frequency mixer and IF amplifier.

Thus, now if the carrier signal amplitude increases, the AGC bias increases and the
gains of all the tuned stages preceding the detector decrease resulting in decrease in
Page | 21 carrier amplitude at the input of the detector bringing it back to its original or normal
value. Now, if the carrier amplitude decreases due to some reason, then the reverse action
takes place in AGC. Hence, the AGC smoothens out the variations in the carrier amplitude
to a very large extent.

Fig3.14: Linear diode detector with Capacitor filter and simple AGC

Fig3.14 shows the circuit of linear detector with capacitor filter and simple AGC. In
this circuit, the half wave rectified voltage is developed across load resistor R. Capacitor C
filters the RF components due to which only the DC and the modulating frequency voltage
are obtained across the load resistor R. The DC component is removed from the output by
the use of coupling capacitor Cc. AGC is picked up from the load resistor R.

This DC voltage is given to the RF section in reverse bias which results in reducing
gain of the circuit.

FM Receiver:

Fig3.15: Block diagram of FM Receiver

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

RF amplifier: The RF amplifier increases the signal strength before the signal is fed to
mixer when tuned to the desired frequency. The RF amplifier is designed to handle large
bandwidth of 150 kHz.
Mixer: The incoming RF signal of frequency (fs) is applied to a mixer which also receives
the output from the local oscillator (fo). A new frequency called intermediate frequency IF
is produced whose value is difference of local oscillator signal fo and signal frequency fs.
Page | 22 Local oscillator: The receiver converts incoming carrier frequency to the IF by using
local oscillator frequency higher than incoming tuned frequency. Colpitts oscillator is used
as the local oscillator.
IF amplifier: IF signal is amplified by one or more number of amplifiers, which raises the
strength of IF signal. It has multistage class A amplifier providing better selectivity and
gain.
Limiter: It removes all the amplitude variation in FM signal caused by noise. Differential
amplifiers are preferred for limiter.
Discriminator: It recovers the modulating signal from the IF signal. It converts
frequency variation into corresponding voltage variation and produces the modulating
signal.
De-emphasis network: It reduces the relative amplitude of high frequency signals that
are boosted in the transmitter and brings them back to their original level.
AF amplifier: It amplifier the modulating signal recovered by the FM detector. The
speaker converts the electrical signal into sound signal.

Fm stereo receiver:

Fig.3.16: Block diagram of Stereo FM Receiver

The block diagram of a stereo FM receiver is shown in Fig.3.16. The FM stereo

system has been designed in such a way that it is compatible with monophonic FM
receiver. FM stereo receivers are identical to standard FM receiver up to the discriminator

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

unit. If an FM receiver is tuned to a stereo transmission, the output of the discriminator

will contain output ranging from 30Hz to 15 KHz (L+R) signal, the 19KHz sub carrier and
the 23KHz to 53KHz (L-R) signal.

A monophonic receiver tuned to a stereo station will only allow the frequency
Page | 23 components ranging from 30Hz to 15KHz to pass through the audio amplifier to the
speaker. It thus reproduces the full monophonic broadcast (L+R) signal as shown in
Fig.3.16. The stereo receiver block diagram shown in Fig.3.16 becomes complex after
discriminator. The signal from the output of the discriminator is first separated into the
three components by using appropriate filters. The (L+R) signal is obtained through the
low pass filter. The band pass filter (23 KHz to 53 KHz) selects the (L-R) DSB. A narrow
band pass filter with centre frequency of 19 KHz separates out the pilot carrier. This is
multiplied by a frequency multiplier (x2) to obtain 38 KHz carrier which is the suppressed
carrier of the (L-R) DSB signal. Combining the 38 KHz and (L-R) DSB signal in the
nonlinear device of detector, the sum and difference frequencies are generated. The
difference frequency 30 Hz to 15 KHz (L-R) components are selected by the low pass filter.
The (L-R) signal is thus translated back in the audio range. This translated (L-R) signal is
finally applied to the matrix network along with (L + R) signal. The (L+R) signal is passed
through a delay network before it is finally applied to Matrix network. This is done to make
(L+R) signal in the same phase as (L-R) signal. The function of the matrix network can be
understood with the help of Fig.3.17 which shows the internal arrangement of this unit.
The (L - R) and the (L+R) signals are combined in adder to obtain (L+R)+(L-R)= 2L
Signal. The (L-R) signal is applied to an inverter to obtain - (L-R) = -L+R signal. This
signal is added to another adder along with (L+R) signal to produce -L+R+L+R = 2R
signal. The two individual signals corresponding to left and right channels are then De
emphasized and applied to left and right speakers respectively.

Fig.3.17: Matrix Network

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE

 Analog & Digital Communications Transmitters & Receivers

Comparison of AM and FM Receiver:

AM Receiver FM Receiver

Page | 24 AM: 540 kHz – 1600 kHz FM: 88 MHz – 108 MHz

AM detector basically envelope detector FM demodulator basically a frequency to

amplitude converter

No limiter and de-emphasis stage limiter and de-emphasis stage needed

IF 455 kHz IF 10.7MHz

For AM radio, each station occupies a For FM radio, each station occupies a
maximum bandwidth of 10 kHz maximum bandwidth of 200 kHz

AM: Bandwidth = 2fm FM: Bandwidth = 2(β + 1)fm

(Carson’s Rule)

Input signal is AM wave Input Signal is FM wave

K. MANASA (8519802089) BALAJI INSTITUTE OF TECHNOLOGY & SCIENCE