1.

Physical Pendulum and Its Time Period

A physical pendulum is a rigid body that oscillates about a fixed point of support under the influence
of gravity. The time period of a physical pendulum is the time it takes to complete one full oscillation.
It is given by the formula:

T = 2π√(I/mgL)

where:

I is the moment of inertia of the pendulum about the pivot point

m is the mass of the pendulum

g is the acceleration due to gravity

L is the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass of the pendulum

2. Compound Pendulum and Its Time Period

A compound pendulum is a special type of physical pendulum in which the center of mass does not
lie on the line of action of the gravitational force. The time period of a compound pendulum is
approximately given by the formula:

T = 2π√(L/g)

where:

L is the equivalent length of the compound pendulum. This is the length of a simple pendulum that
would have the same time period as the compound pendulum.

3. Length of Equivalent Simple Pendulum

The length of equivalent simple pendulum is the length of a simple pendulum that would have the
same time period as a compound pendulum. It is given by the formula:

L = k^2 / h

where:

k is the radius of gyration of the compound pendulum about the pivot point

h is the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass of the compound pendulum

4. Condition for Maximum and Minimum Time Period

The time period of a compound pendulum is maximum when the distance between the pivot point
and the center of mass is equal to the radius of gyration of the pendulum about an axis passing
through the pivot point. The time period is minimum when the distance between the pivot point and
the center of mass is zero.

5. Expression for Time Period and Its Minimum Value

The time period of a compound pendulum can be expressed using the following formula:

T = 2π√(k^2 + h^2) / g

where:
k is the radius of gyration of the pendulum about an axis passing through the center of mass

h is the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass of the pendulum

The time period is minimum when the distance between the pivot point and the center of mass is
equal to the radius of gyration. In this case, the time period is given by:

T = 2πk√(1/g)

6. Points Collinear with Center of Gravity

There are four points collinear with the center of gravity of a compound pendulum about which its
time period is the same. These points are:

The pivot point

The center of mass

The point of percussion

The point of suspension

7. Maximum Time Period

The time period of a compound pendulum becomes maximum when the distance between the pivot
point and the center of mass is equal to the radius of gyration of the pendulum about an axis passing
through the pivot point. In this case, the time period is given by:

T = 2π√(k^2 / g)

where k is the radius of gyration of the pendulum about the pivot point.

8. Center of Suspension and Center of Oscillation

The center of suspension is the point about which a physical pendulum oscillates. The center of
oscillation is the point where the force of gravity appears to act on the pendulum.

In a compound pendulum, the center of suspension and center of oscillation are interchangeable.
This means that if the pivot point is moved to the center of oscillation, the pendulum will still
oscillate with the same time period.

9. Reversible Compound Pendulum

A reversible compound pendulum is a compound pendulum in which the time period is the same
when the pivot point is moved to the center of oscillation. This is true for all compound pendulums.

The expression for the acceleration due to gravity in terms of two nearly equal time periods about
the two parallel knife edges of a reversible compound pendulum is given by:

g = 4π^2L / (T1^2 - T2^2)

where:

L is the distance between the two knife edges

T1 is the time period about one knife edge

T2 is the time period about the other knife edge

10. Oscillatory Motion and Its Characteristics

Oscillatory motion is a type of motion in which an object repeatedly moves back and forth about a
fixed position, called the equilibrium position. This motion is characterized by its periodicity, meaning
that the object repeats its motion after a certain time

11. Role of Restoring Force and Inertia of Motion in an Oscillator

In an oscillator, the restoring force is the force that always tries to bring the object back to its
equilibrium position. The inertia of motion is the tendency of the object to resist a change in its
motion. The restoring force and inertia of motion work together to create oscillatory motion.

For example, in a simple pendulum, the restoring force is provided by gravity. When the pendulum is
pulled away from its equilibrium position, gravity pulls it back towards the equilibrium position. The
inertia of motion keeps the pendulum moving past the equilibrium position, until the restoring force
eventually brings it back to the equilibrium position.

12. Undamped and Damped Oscillations

Undamped oscillations are oscillations in which the energy of the oscillator is constant. This means
that the amplitude of the oscillations does not decrease over time.

Examples of undamped oscillations include:

A simple pendulum oscillating in a vacuum

A spring oscillating with no friction

Damped oscillations are oscillations in which the energy of the oscillator is gradually lost over time.
This means that the amplitude of the oscillations decreases over time.

Examples of damped oscillations include:

A pendulum oscillating in air

A spring oscillating with friction

13. Free and Forced Oscillations

Free oscillations are oscillations in which the oscillator is not subjected to any external forces. The
oscillator is simply set in motion and allowed to oscillate on its own.

Examples of free oscillations include:

A simple pendulum swinging from rest

A spring oscillating after being plucked

Forced oscillations are oscillations in which the oscillator is subjected to an external force that drives
the oscillations. The external force can be either periodic or non-periodic.

Examples of forced oscillations include:

A child swinging on a swing

A tuning fork vibrating in response to a sound wave

14. Q-factor of an Oscillator

The Q-factor of an oscillator is a measure of how damped the oscillations are. It is defined as the
ratio of the energy stored in the oscillator to the energy lost per cycle of oscillation.

A higher Q-factor indicates a less damped oscillator, while a lower Q-factor indicates a more damped
oscillator.

The Q-factor of an oscillator depends on the damping coefficient of the oscillator. A higher damping
coefficient corresponds to a lower Q-factor.

15. Simple Harmonic Oscillators or Damped

(a) A simple pendulum oscillating in air is a damped oscillator. The air resistance provides a damping
force that gradually decreases the amplitude of the oscillations.

(b) A bar pendulum oscillating in air is also a damped oscillator. The air resistance and friction
between the bar and the pivot point provide damping forces that gradually decrease the amplitude
of the oscillations.

16. Coherent Sources

Coherent sources are sources of waves that have a constant phase difference between them. This
means that the waves from the two sources are in sync with each other.

Different methods to obtain coherent sources include:

Using lasers

Using diffraction gratings

Using interferometers

17. Superposition of Two Harmonic Waves

When two harmonic waves of the same amplitude and frequency, but traveling in opposite
directions, are superimposed, the resultant wave has an amplitude that is equal to the difference in
the amplitudes of the two original waves. The resultant wave is also a harmonic wave.

The equation for the resultant amplitude is:

A = 2A1cos(φ)

where:

A is the amplitude of the resultant wave

A1 is the amplitude of each of the original waves

φ is the phase difference between the two original waves

The plot of the resultant amplitude with respect to position is a sinusoidal wave with an amplitude
that is equal to the difference in the amplitudes of the two original waves.

18. Progressive and Stationary Wave

A progressive wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are moving. The wave energy is
transported through the medium by the motion of the particles.
A stationary wave is a wave in which the particles of the medium are not moving. The wave energy is
not transported through the medium. Instead, the energy oscillates back and forth between two
points.

19. Production of Newton's Rings

Newton's rings are formed by placing a plano-convex lens on a flat glass plate and illuminating the

19. Production of Newton's Rings

Newton's rings are formed by placing a plano-convex lens on a flat glass plate and illuminating the
setup with a monochromatic light source. When the light encounters the air film between the lens
and the plate, it partially reflects and partially refracts. The reflected and refracted waves interfere
with each other, forming a series of bright and dark rings.

20. Diameter of nth Dark Ring in Newton's Rings

The diameter of the nth dark ring in Newton's rings is given by the formula:

D_n = 2√(nλR)

where:

D_n is the diameter of the nth dark ring

n is the order of the dark ring

λ is the wavelength of the light

R is the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens

21. Determination of Refractive Index of Liquid

The refractive index of a liquid can be determined using Newton's rings by measuring the diameters
of the dark rings with and without the liquid present between the lens and the plate. The formula for
the refractive index is:

n_liquid = (D_air / D_liquid)^2

where:

n_liquid is the refractive index of the liquid

D_air is the diameter of the nth dark ring with air between the lens and the plate

D_liquid is the diameter of the nth dark ring with the liquid between the lens and the plate

22. Calculating Radii of Dark Rings for Different Wavelengths

In a Newton's ring experiment using a sodium vapor lamp with two wavelengths, 5890 Å and 5896 Å,
the nth dark ring for 5890 Å coincides with the n+2nd dark ring for 5896 Å. This means that the path
difference between the two waves is the same for both wavelengths at the nth dark ring position.
The path difference is given by:

Δx = 2nhλ

where:
Δx is the path difference

n is the order of the dark ring

h is the thickness of the air film at the nth dark ring

λ is the wavelength of the light

Setting the path difference equal for both wavelengths and solving for h, we get:

h = (nλ1λ2) / (λ2 - λ1)

Substituting this value of h into the formula for the diameter of the nth dark ring, we get:

D_n = 2√(nλR / (λ2 - λ1))

23. Determining Refractive Index of Water Using Newton's Rings

To determine the refractive index of water using Newton's rings, the following steps are involved:

Measure the diameter of several dark rings with air between the lens and the plate.

Introduce water between the lens and the plate.

Measure the diameter of the same dark rings with water present.

Calculate the refractive index of water using the formula:

n_water = (D_air / D_water)^2

24. Condition for Destructive Interference

Destructive interference occurs when two waves are in phase opposition, meaning that their crests
and troughs are exactly opposite each other. In this case, the resultant wave has an amplitude that is
zero.

The condition for destructive interference is:

Δx = (n + 1/2)λ

where:

Δx is the path difference between the two waves

n is an integer

λ is the wavelength of the light

25. Diameter of Dark Ring and Determination of Wavelength

The diameter of the nth dark ring in Newton's rings is given by the formula:

D_n = 2√(nλR)

where:

D_n is the diameter of the nth dark ring

n is the order of the dark ring

λ is the wavelength of the light

R is the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens

By measuring the diameters of the dark rings and knowing the radius of curvature of the lens, the
wavelength of the light can be determined.

26. Determining Grating Element

When a diffraction grating is illuminated with a normal incident light, it produces a diffraction pattern
with several orders of spectra. The angle of diffraction for each order of spectra is given by the
formula:

sin θ_n = nλ / d

where:

θ_n is the angle of diffraction for the nth order of spectra

n is the order of the spectra

λ is the wavelength of the light

27. Diameter of Bright Ring in Newton's Rings

The diameter of the bright ring in Newton's rings is given by the formula:

D_n = 2√((n + 1/2)λR)

where:

D_n is the diameter of the nth bright ring

n is the order of the bright ring

λ is the wavelength of the light

R is the radius of curvature of the plano-convex lens

28. Calculating Wavelength of Light

In a Newton's ring experiment, the diameter of the bright ring is measured to be 0.70 cm. Using the
formula for the diameter of the bright ring, and knowing the radius of curvature of the lens (2.5 m),
the wavelength of the light can be calculated as follows:

λ = (D^2R) / (4(n + 1/2))

where:

λ is the wavelength of the light

D is the diameter of the bright ring (0.70 cm)

R is the radius of curvature of the lens (2.5 m)

n is the order of the bright ring (n = 0 for the first bright ring)

Substituting the values, we get:

λ = (0.70^2 * 2.5) / (4(0 + 1/2)) = 0.350 m = 350 nm

29. Maximum Wavelength for Third Order Spectrum

The maximum wavelength for the third-order spectrum of a diffraction grating is given by the
formula:

λ_max = 3d

where:

λ_max is the maximum wavelength

d is the grating element

Substituting the value of d (5654 lines/cm), we get:

λ_max = 3 * (1/5654 cm) = 526 nm

This means that the maximum wavelength that can be observed in the third-order spectrum of this
diffraction grating is 526 nm.

30. Calculating Wavelength of Light in Newton's Rings

In a Newton's ring arrangement, the radius of curvature of the lens is 2 m, and the radii of the nth
dark ring and n+4th dark ring are 3 mm and 5 mm, respectively. Using the formula for the diameter
of the nth dark ring, we can calculate the wavelength of the light as follows:

λ = 4(R^2(D^2 - D'^2)) / (π^2(n^2 - (n + 4)^2))

where:

λ is the wavelength of the light

R is the radius of curvature of the lens (2 m)

D is the diameter of the nth dark ring (6 mm)

D' is the diameter of the n+4th dark ring (10 mm)

n is the order of the dark ring

Substituting the values, we get:

λ = 4(2^2(6^2 - 10^2)) / (π^2(0^2 - (0 + 4)^2)) = 0.5431 µm = 543.1 nm

Therefore, the wavelength of the light is 543.1 nm.

31. Determining Radius of Curvature of Lens

In a Newton's ring experiment, the diameter of the 16th bright ring is measured to be 12.2 mm, and
the wavelength of the light is known to be 5431 Å. Using the formula for the diameter of the bright
ring, the radius of curvature of the lens can be calculated as follows:

R = 4(D^2) / (π^2λ(n + 1/2))

where:

R is the radius of curvature of the lens

D is the diameter of the bright ring (12.2 mm)

λ is the wavelength of the light (5431 Å = 5.431 × 10^-7 m)

n is the order of the bright ring (n = 15 for the 16th bright ring)

Substituting the values, we get:

R = 4((12.2 × 10^-3)^2) / (π^2(5.431 × 10^-7)(15 + 1/2)) = 0.064 m = 64 mm

Therefore,

33. Dispersion in the 2nd order spectrum

The dispersion of a diffraction grating is a measure of how much light is spread out across the
spectrum. It is defined as the change in angle of diffraction for a given change in wavelength.

For a plane diffraction grating with 6000 lines/cm, the dispersion in the 2nd order spectrum for
normal incidence of light in the range 5893Å is approximately 0.27 degrees per Ångström.

34. Maximum order of spectrum

The maximum order of spectrum that can be observed for a monochromatic light of wavelength
6000Å incident on a plane diffraction grating with grating element 6.0x10-5cm is given by the
formula:

m_max = 1 / (d sin θ)

where:

m_max is the maximum order of the spectrum

d is the grating element (6.0x10-5cm)

θ is the angle of diffraction for the first-order spectrum (90 degrees in this case)

Substituting the values, we get:

m_max = 1 / (6.0x10-5cm * sin 90 degrees) = 16666

Therefore, the maximum order of spectrum that can be observed is 16666.

35. Advantage of increasing the number of lines in a grating

Increasing the number of lines in a diffraction grating has several advantages, including:

Increased resolving power: The resolving power of a diffraction grating is directly proportional to the
number of lines per unit length. This means that a grating with more lines will be able to distinguish
between more closely spaced spectral lines.

Increased dispersion: The dispersion of a diffraction grating is also proportional to the number of
lines per unit length. This means that a grating with more lines will spread the light out across the
spectrum more, making it easier to observe different spectral features.

Reduced stray light: Gratings with more lines are less likely to diffract light into unwanted directions.
This means that there will be less stray light in the diffraction pattern, making it easier to see the
desired spectral features.

36. Fresnel single slit phenomenon and relative intensities of successive maxima
The Fresnel single slit phenomenon describes the diffraction pattern that occurs when light passes
through a narrow slit. The diffraction pattern consists of a series of bright and dark bands, with the
brightest band in the center. The relative intensities of the successive maxima are approximately
1:4/9π2: 4/25 π2… etc.

37. Missing order spectra in a plane transmission grating

If the width of the opaque space is equal to that of the transparent space in a plane transmission
grating, then the even order spectra will be missing. This is because the even order spectra are
produced by light that diffracts from the edges of the opaque spaces, and when the opaque spaces
are equal in width to the transparent spaces, these edges are effectively cancelled out.

38. Distinction between optical interference and optical diffraction

Optical interference and optical diffraction are two closely related phenomena that are both caused
by the superposition of light waves. However, there are some key differences between the two.

Optical interference: Optical interference occurs when two or more light waves of the same
frequency are superimposed. The resulting wave pattern will be either bright or dark depending on
the phase difference between the original waves.

Optical diffraction: Optical diffraction occurs when light waves are diffracted by an obstacle or
aperture. The resulting wave pattern will be a series of bright and dark bands, with the width of the
bands being inversely proportional to the width of the obstacle or aperture.

39. Gradient, divergence, and curl

The gradient, divergence, and curl are three important vector operators that are used in vector
calculus.

Gradient: The gradient of a scalar field is a vector that points in the direction of the maximum rate of
increase of the scalar field. It is denoted by the symbol ∇φ.

Divergence: The divergence of a vector field is a scalar that measures the amount of the vector field
that is flowing out of a small region of space. It is denoted by the symbol ∇·A.

Curl: The curl of a vector field is a vector that measures the amount of rotation in the vector field. It
is denoted by the symbol ∇×A.

In Cartesian coordinates, the gradient, divergence, and curl can be expressed as follows:

∇φ = (∂φ/∂x, ∂φ/∂y, ∂φ/∂z)

∇·A = (∂Ax/∂x + ∂Ay/∂y

40. Evaluating φ at (1,-2,3)

The given equation for φ is:

φ = ax^2 - 2by + c^2z^2

We are given that a, b, and c are constants and we are asked to evaluate φ at the point (1,-2,3).
Plugging in these values, we get:

φ = a(1)^2 - 2b(-2) + c^2(3)^2

Simplifying the expression, we get:

φ = a + 4b + 9c^2

Without knowing the specific values of a, b, and c, we cannot determine the exact value of φ at
(1,-2,3).

41. Evaluating curl A

The given equation for A is:

A = x^2 I + y^2 j + j z^2 k

To evaluate the curl of A, we use the following formula:

curl A = ∇ × A = (∂Az/∂y - ∂Ay/∂z) i + (∂Ax/∂z - ∂Az/∂x) j + (∂Ay/∂x - ∂Ax/∂y) k

Plugging in the components of A, we get:

curl A = (∂(jz^2)/∂y - ∂(y^2)/∂z) i + (∂(x^2)/∂z - ∂(jz^2)/∂x) j + (∂(y^2)/∂x - ∂(x^2)/∂y) k

Simplifying the expression, we get:

curl A = 0 i + 2x k - 2y j

Therefore, the curl of A is 0 i + 2x k - 2y j.

42. Evaluating xr

The given equation for r is:

r = xi + yj + zk

To evaluate xr, we use the following formula:

xr = r × r = (yi - zj) i + (zi - xk) j + (xk - yi) k

Plugging in the components of r, we get:

xr = (yj - zk) i + (zi - xk) j + (xk - yi) k

Simplifying the expression, we get:

xr = (-z - y) i + (-x + z) j + (-y - x) k

Here are the answers to the remaining questions:

41. Evaluating curl A

Given: A = i xy + j yz + k zx

To calculate the curl of A, we use the formula:

curl A = ∇ × A = (∂Az/∂y - ∂Ay/∂z) i + (∂Ax/∂z - ∂Az/∂x) j + (∂Ay/∂x - ∂Ax/∂y) k

Plugging in the components of A, we get:

curl A = (∂(zx)/∂y - ∂(yz)/∂z) i + (∂(xy)/∂z - ∂(zx)/∂x) j + (∂(yz)/∂x - ∂(xy)/∂y) k

Simplifying the expression, we get:

curl A = xi - yk
Therefore, the curl of A is xi - yk.

42. Evaluating xr

Given: r = xi + yj + zk

To calculate the cross product of r with itself, we use the formula:

r × r = (yi - zj) i + (zi - xk) j + (xk - yi) k

Plugging in the components of r, we get:

r × r = (-z - y) i + (-x + z) j + (-y - x) k

Simplifying the expression, we get:

r × r = -2xi - 2yj - 2zk

Therefore, the cross product of r with itself is -2xi - 2yj - 2zk.

43. Solenoidal and irrotational vectors

A solenoidal vector is a vector field whose divergence is zero. This means that the vector field does
not have any sources or sinks. In other words, the net flux of the vector field through any closed
surface is zero.

An irrotational vector is a vector field whose curl is zero. This means that the vector field does not
have any rotational flow. In other words, the circulation of the vector field around any closed curve is
zero.

It is important to note that a vector field can be both solenoidal and irrotational. For example, the
gradient of a scalar field is both solenoidal and irrotational.

44. Showing that 2φ = 0 implies solenoidal φ

Given: 2φ = 0

Dividing both sides by 2, we get:

φ=0

The divergence of zero is always zero. Therefore, if φ = 0, then the divergence of φ is zero, which
means that φ is solenoidal.

45. Gauss's divergence theorem and Stokes' theorem

Gauss's divergence theorem and Stokes' theorem are two fundamental theorems in vector calculus
that relate the flux of a vector field through a closed surface to its divergence and the line integral of
a vector field around a closed curve to its curl, respectively.

Gauss's divergence theorem:

∫∫S F · dS = ∫∫∫V ∇ · F dV

where:

S is a closed surface

F is a vector field
dS is an element of surface area

V is the volume enclosed by S

dV is an element of volume

Stokes' theorem:

∫C F · dl = ∫∫S (∇ × F) · dS

where:

C is a closed curve

F is a vector field

dl is an element of arc length

S is the surface bounded by C

dS is an element of surface area

Both Gauss's divergence theorem and Stokes' theorem have a wide range of applications in physics
and engineering, including electromagnetism, fluid mechanics, and heat transfer.

46. Evaluating 2(1/r) and (1/rn ) when r is position vector

Given: r = xi + yj + zk

Evaluating 2(1/r):

2(1/r) = 2 / √(x^2 + y^2 + z^2)

Evaluating (1/rn):

(1/rn) = 1 / √(x^n + y^n + z^n)

where n is any real number.

47. Evaluating dot products and cross products when u is a constant vector

(i) u ⋅ u = ||u||^2, where ||u|| is the magnitude of u.

(ii) u ⋅ u = u^2, where u is the scalar magnitude of u.

(iii) u × u = 0, since the cross product of a vector with itself is always zero.

48. Evaluating rn where r is a position vector

Given: r = xi + yj + zk

rn = (x^n + y^n + z^n)^(1/n)

49. Evaluating ∇(1/r) where r is a position vector

Given: r = xi + yj + zk

∇(1/r) = -r/r^3

50. Determining whether A is solenoidal or irrotational

Given: A = x^2 I + y^2 j + j z^2 k

To determine whether A is solenoidal or irrotational, we need to find its divergence and curl.

Divergence of A:

∇ · A = (∂(x^2)/∂x + ∂(y^2)/∂y + ∂(jz^2)/∂z) = 2x + 2y + 2jz

Curl of A:

∇ × A = (∂(jz^2)/∂y - ∂(y^2)/∂z) i + (∂(x^2)/∂z - ∂(jz^2)/∂x) j + (∂(y^2)/∂x - ∂(x^2)/∂y) k = 0 i + 2x k - 2y j

Since the divergence of A is not zero, A is not solenoidal.

Since the curl of A is not zero, A is not irrotational.

Therefore, A is neither solenoidal nor irrotational.