DEVELOPMENTAL PSYCHOLOGY

THE LIFESPAN PERSPECTIVE

Development - the pattern of movement or change that begins at
conception and continues through the human life span
Traditional Approach - emphasizes extensive change from birth to
adolescence, little to no change in adulthood, and decline in old age
Life-Span Approach - emphasizes developmental change throughout
childhood and adulthood

DOMAINS OF DEVELOPMENT
Biological Processes - changes in an individual’s physical
nature.
Cognitive Processes - changes in an individual’s thought,
intelligence and language.
Socioemotional Processes - changes in an individual’s
relationships with other people, emotions and personality.

PERIODS OF DEVELOPMENT

CONCEPTIONS OF AGE
Chronological Age - is the number of years that have elapsed
since birth.
Biological Age - is a person’s age in terms of biological health;
functional capacities of a person’s vital organs.
Psychological Age - an individual’s adaptive capacities
compared with those of other individuals of the same
chronological age (e.g., immaturity versus maturity)
Social Age - refers to social roles/expectations related to a
person’s age (e.g., a mother of a 3-year old child versus a
childless mother)

THEORIES OF DEVELOPMENT
Psychoanalytical Theories
◦ Psychosexual: Sigmund Freud
◦ Psychosocial: Erik Erikson

Cognitive Theories
◦ Cognitive Development: Jean
Piaget
◦ Socio-cultural: Lev Vygotsky
◦ Information Processing

Behavioral & Social Learning Theories

◦ Behaviorism: Operant Conditioning - B.F. Skinner
◦ Social Learning - Albert Bandura
PSYCHOANALYTIC THEORY (SIGMUND FREUD)
• Beliefs focus on the formation of personality. According to this
approach, children move through various stages, confronting
conflicts between biological drives and social expectations.
• How these conflicts are resolved determines the person’s ability to
learn, to get along with others, and to cope with anxiety.
• Describe development as primarily unconscious (unaware) and
heavily colored emotion.
• According to Freud, our adult personality is determined by the way we resolve
conflicts between sources of pleasure at each stage and the demands of reality.

PSYCHOSEXUAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (SIGMUND FREUD)

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (ERIK ERIKSON)

 Erickson focused on our desire to affiliate with other people. He
believed that developmental change occurs throughout the lifespan.
 Like Freud, Erikson proposed that individuals go through
distinct, universal stages of development [8 stages of
development]
 At each stage, a unique developmental task confronts individuals with a
crisis that must be resolved.
 Crisis is not a catastrophe but a turning point of increased vulnerability
and enhanced potential.

PSYCHOSOCIAL STAGES OF DEVELOPMENT (ERIK ERIKSON)

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT (JEAN PIAGET)
• Children "construct" their understanding of the world
through their active involvement and interactions.
• Described children's understanding as their "schemas”
and how they use:
Assimilation - using existing schemes to deal with new
information or experiences
Accommodation - adjusting schemes to fit new
information and experiences

COGNITIVE DEVELOPMENT

OPERANT CONDITIONING (B.F. SKINNER)

• Believed that learning could be broken down into smaller
tasks, and that offering immediate rewards for
accomplishments would stimulate further learning.
• According to Skinner, development consists of the pattern of
behavioral changes that are brought about by rewards and
punishments.
• A behavior followed by a rewarding stimulus is more likely to
recur, whereas a behavior followed by a punishing stimulus is
less likely to recur.

SOCIAL LEARNING (ALBERT BANDURA)

• Stressed how children learn by observation and imitation.
• Believed that children gradually become more selective in
what they imitate.
• Holds that behavior, environment and cognition are key
factors in development.
• Observational learning: learning through observation
PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Prenatal Development - is divided into 3 periods lasting
approximately 38-40 weeks:
o Germinal Period - first 2 weeks after conception
Implantation - the attachment of the zygote to the uterine wall,
takes place about 11-15 days after conception.
o Embryonic Period - 2 to 8 weeks after conception
Organogenesis - organ formation that takes place during the first
two months of prenatal development (see next slide)
o Fetal Period - 2 months after conception until birth

PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT
Conception - occurs when a single sperm cell
from the male unites with an ovum (egg) in the
females fallopian tube.

Umbilical Cord - a structure that contains two

arties and one vein, and connects the
developing embryo to the mother’s body.

Approximately 1 week after conception, the

developing organism is called a blastocyst.

Placenta - a group of tissues in which small

blood vessels from the mother and offspring
intertwine but do not connect; prevents large
molecules like red blood cells and harmful
substances, such as most bacteria and maternal
wastes, from entering the fetus.

Once the blastocyst attaches the uterine wall, it

is called an embryo

HAZARDS TO PRENATAL DEVELOPMENT

Teratogen - any agent that can cause a birth defect or negatively alter
cognitive and behavioral outcomes

- Prescription and Nonprescription drugs

- Psychoactive drugs: drugs that act in the nervous system to alter states of consciousness, modify
perceptions and change moods.
- Fetal Alcohol Spectrum Disorders (FASD)
- Incompatible blood types
- Environmental hazards
- Maternal diseases
- Other parental factors

METHODS OF CHILDBIRTH
Natural Childbirth- method that aims to reduce the mother’s pain
by decreasing her fear through education about childbirth and by
teaching her and her partner to use breathing methods and
relaxation techniques during delivery.
Prepared Childbirth (aka Lamaz Method) - similar to natural
child birth but includes a special breathing technique to control
pushing in the final stages of labor
Waterbirth - giving birth in a tub of water.
Massage - reduces pain and anxiety during labor
Acupuncture - insertion of very fine needles into specific locations in the body;
pain management/anxiety
Hypnosis - the induction of a psychological state of altered attention and
awareness in which the individual is usually responsive to suggestions.
Music therapy - reduce stress and pain management
Cesarean Delivery - the baby is removed from the mother’s uterus through an
incision made in her abdomen.

THE POSTPARTUM PERIOD

Postpartum Period - lasts about six weeks or until the mother’s
body has completed its adjustment and has returned to a nearly prepregnant state
Physical Adjustments:
- Fatigue
- Loss of Sleep
- Hormone changes
- Involution: the uterus returns to its pre-pregnant size

POSTPARTUM DEPRESSION SYMPSTOMS

 Hopelessness
 Loss of pleasure in activities
 Helplessness
 Mood changes
 Persistent sadness
 Inability to adjust to role of motherhood
 Irritability
 Inability to concentrate
 Low self-esteem
 Sleep /appetite disturbances

INFANCY(PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT OF INFANCY)

PATTERNS OF GROWTH
Cephalocaudal Pattern - sequence in which the earliest growth
always occurs from the top downward
For example: shoulders, midtrunk, and so on

Proximodistal Pattern - sequence in which growth starts in the

center of the body and moves toward the extremities.
For example: infants control the muscles of their trunk and arms
before they control their hands and fingers, and they use their
whole hands before they can control several fingers.

THE BRAIN’S DEVELOPMENT

- At birth, the brain is 25% of its adult weight;
- At 2 years of age, it is 75% of its adult weight

Left-brained vs. Right-brained

Left Hemisphere - speech and grammar
Right Hemisphere- humor and use of metaphors
Left and Right Hemispheres - reading and performing music
SUDDEN INFANT DEATH SYNDROME
• Highest risk is 2-4 months of age
• Experienced by seemingly healthy victims
• Death occurs quickly, with no signs of suffering, and usually
associated with sleep.
• It is NOT caused by suffocation, vomiting, choking, neglect, or
abuse.
• It is NOT contagious

RISK FACTORS OF SIDS

• Babies who sleep with their stomachs.
• Babies who had respiratory or gastrointestinal infections.
• Babies born to mothers who smoke during pregnancy or exposed
to passive smoke after birth.
• Born to mothers who are younger than 20 years old.
• Babies who are premature or those with low birth weight.
• Babies who are placed to sleep on soft surfaces or with loose
beddings and pillows.

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Reflexes - built-in reactions to stimuli; automatic and inborn
o Rooting Reflex
o Sucking Reflex
o Moro Reflex:
o Grasping Reflex
- Some reflexes continue throughout life; others disappear several
months after birth

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT

VISUAL ACUITY DURING THE FIRST MONTHS OF LIFE

1 month - Blurry
2 months - Blurry
3 months - Blurry
1 year - Clear
LANGUAGE DEVELOPMENT (Language Milestones in Infancy)

EMOTIONAL EXPRESSION AND SOCIAL RELATIONSHIP

CRYING - is the most important mechanism newborns have for communicating
with their world
Three types of cries:
1. Basic cry - a rhythmic pattern that usually consists of a cry,
followed by a briefer silence, then a shorted whistle that is some what
higher in pitch than the main cry, then another brief rest before the
next cry.
2. Anger cry - a variation of the basic cry in which more excess air is
forced through the vocal cords.
3. Pain cry - a sudden long, initial loud cry followed by breath
holding; no preliminary moaning is present. The pain cry is
stimulated by a high-intensity stimulus.

Two types of smiling:

1. Reflexive smile - a smile that does not occur in response
to external stimuli and appears during the 1st month after
birth, usually during sleep.
2. Social smile - a smile that occurs in response to an
external stimulus, typically a face in the case of the young
infant. Social smiling occurs as early as 2 months of age.

TEMPERAMENT
Temperament - Individual differences in behavioral styles, emotions,
and characteristic ways of responding
Easy Child - a child who is generally in a positive mood, quickly
establishes regular routines in infancy, and adapts easily to new
experiences.
Difficult Child - a child who tends to react negatively and cry
frequently, engages in irregular daily routines, and is slow to accept
change.
Slow-to-Warm-Up-Child - a child who has a low activity level, is
somewhat negative. And displays a low intensity of mood.
EARLY CHILDHOOD (PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT IN EARLY
CHILDHOOD)

PHYSICAL CHANGES
 Average growth is 2.5 inches and 5 to 7 pounds per year during
early childhood
 As the preschool child grows older, the percentage of increase in
height/weight decreases with each additional year
BRAIN
 Brain growth slows during early childhood
 Increased myelination in which nerve cells are covered and
insulated with a layer of fat cells

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
Gross motor skills:
 Simple movements (such as hopping, jumping, and running back and
 forth) at age 3
 More adventurous (e.g., jungle gym) at age 4
 Hair-raising risks (e.g., climbing) at age 5

Fine motor skills:

 Still clumsy at 3 years
 Improved fine motor coordination at 4 years
 Body coordination by 5 years

PIAGET’S PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

 Ages 2 to 7 years
 Children represent the world with words, images, and drawings
 Children form stable concepts and begin to reason
 Cognitions are dominated by egocentrism and magical belief
 Child gains the ability to mentally represent an object that is not present
 Egocentrism - cannot distinguish one’s own perspective from someone else’s
 Animism - the belief that inanimate objects have lifelike qualities and are capable of action

PIAGET’S PREOPERATIONAL STAGE

Centration and the Limits of Preoperational Thought

Centration - centering attention on one characteristic to the exclusion of all others

Conservation - altering a substance’s appearance does not change its basic properties

MIDDLE AND LATE CHILDHOOD (PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT)

BODY GROWTH AND CHANGE

 Growth averages 2–3 inches per year
 Weight gain averages 5–7 lbs. each year
 Muscle mass and strength gradually increase; baby fat decreases
 Brain volume stabilizes and significant changes in structures and regions occur, especially in the
prefrontal cortex

MOTOR DEVELOPMENT
 Motor skills become smoother and more coordinated
 Improvement of fine motor skills during middle and late childhood due to increased myelination
of the central nervous system
 Boys outperform girls in large muscle activities and girls usually outperform boys on fine motor
skills
HEALTH, ILLNESS, AND DISEASE
- Middle and late childhood is usually a time of
excellent health

Accidents and Injuries

 Motor vehicle accidents are most common cause of severe injury
 Other injuries include bicycles, skateboards, roller skates, and other sports equipment
Overweight Children
 30% of U.S. children are at risk of being overweight

LEARNING DISABILITIES
Dyslexia - severe impairment in their ability to read/spell
Dysgraphia - involves difficulty with handwriting. Children may write
very slowly, their writing products may be virtually illegible, and
they may make numerous spelling errors because of their inability to
match up sounds and letters
Dyscalculia (developmental arithmetic disorder) - involves
difficulty in math computation.

ATTENTION DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)

 Characterized by inattention, hyperactivity, and impulsivity:
Inattention - difficulty focusing on any one thing that they may get bored with a task after only a few
minutes—or even seconds.
Hyperactivity - high levels of physical activity---almost constantly in motion
Impulsivity - difficulty curbing their reactions; do no think before they act

 Possible Causes
- Genetics
- Brain damage during prenatal or postnatal development
- Cigarette and alcohol exposure during prenatal development
- Low birth weight

DEVELOPMENT OF SELF
SELF-ESTEEM – global evaluations of the self (self-worth/self-image)
◦ it’s how you rate what you know about yourself or sometimes called
your SELF-EVALUATION.

SELF-CONCEPT – domain specific evaluation of the self

◦ It is the sum total of all the knowledge and information you have about
yourself
◦ It includes who you think you might become and you believe you were
like in the past.
◦ It answers the question “WHO AM I?”

SELF-EFFICACY – belief that one can master a situation and produce

favorable outcomes
◦ Self Efficacy statement – “I CAN.”
◦ Helplessness statement – “I CAN’T.”

INDUSTRY VS. INFERIORITY (ERICKSON)

Industry vs. Inferiority (Erickson)
 Industry - children become interested in how things work
 Inferiority - parents who see their children’s efforts as mischief
may encourage inferiority
BULLYING: A SERIOUS PROBLEM
 Verbal or physical behavior intended to disturb someone less powerful
 70-80% of victims and bullies are in the same classroom
 Boys and younger middle school students are most likely to be affected
 Outcomes of bullying:
 Depression, suicidal ideation, and attempted suicide
 More health problems

DIFFERENT TYPES OF BULLYING

Cyber bullying - Through email, instant messaging, Internet chat rooms,
and electronic gadgets like camera cell phones, cyber bullies forward and
spread hurtful images and/or messages. Bullies use this technology to
harass victims at all hours, in wide circles, at warp speed.
Emotional bullying - can be more subtle and can involve isolating or
excluding a child from activities (i.e., shunning the victim in the
lunchroom or on school outings) or spreading rumors. This kind of
bullying is especially common among girls.
Physical bullying - can accompany verbal bullying and involves things like
kicking, hitting, biting, pinching, hair pulling, or threats of physical harm.
Racist bullying- preys on children through racial slurs, offensive
gestures, or making jokes about a child's cultural traditions.
Sexual bullying - involves unwanted physical contact or sexually
abusive or inappropriate comments.
Verbal bullying- usually involves name-calling, incessant mocking,
and laughing at a child's expense.

ADOLESCENCE (PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT)

PUBERTY
Puberty - a period of rapid physical maturation involving hormonal
and bodily changes that occur primarily during early adolescence
- Sexual Maturation, Height, and Weight
• Menarche is a girl’s first menstruation
• Marked weight and height gains
• Pubic hair growth
• Facial and chest hair growth in males
• Breast growth in females

ADOLESCENT SEXUALITY
 Developing a Sexual Identity Involves:
 Learning to manage sexual feelings (sexual arousal and attraction)
 Developing new forms of intimacy
 Learning skills to regulate sexual behavior to avoid undesirable consequences
 Sexual Identity Includes:
 Activities
 Interests
 Styles of behavior
 Indication of sexual orientation
- Gay males and lesbians struggle with same-sex attractions
ADOLESCENT PREGNANCY
 Creates health risks for baby and mother
 U.S. has 1 of the highest rates in the world
 Low birth weight, neurological problems, childhood illness
 Mothers drop out of school and never catch up economically
 Daughters of teenage mothers were 66% more likely to become teenage mothers themselves
(Meade, Kershaw, & Ickovics, 2008)

LEADING CAUSES OF DEATH IN ADOLESCENCE

 Accidents
 Homicide (especially among African Americans-WHY?)
 Suicide
 Almost half of the deaths from 15 to 24 years of age are due to unintentional injuries,
approximately ¾ of them are motor vehicles accidents.
 Risking driving such as speeding, tailgating, and driving under the influence of alcohol/drugs

SUBSTANCE USE AND ABUSE

 United States has one of the highest rates of adolescent drug use of any industrialized nation
 Adolescent alcohol and cigarette consumption has declined in recent years
 Use of painkillers (Vicodin, Oxycontin) is increasing***
 Drug taking reflects the sensation seeking of the teenagers years. But adolescents also live in a
drug-dependent culture.
 They see adults relying on caffeine to stay alert, alcohol and cigarettes to cope with daily hassles
and other comfort remedies to relieve stress, depression, and physical discomfort.

PREVENTION
 Promote effective parenting, including monitoring of their activities
 Teach skills for resisting peer pressure/increase self-esteem
 Reduce social acceptability of drug taking by emphasizing health and safety risks.
 Get adolescences to commit to not using drugs.

EATING DISORDER: ANOREXIA NERVOSA

Anorexia Nervosa - the relentless pursuit of thinness through starvation
Three Main Characteristics:
 Weight less than 85% of what is considered normal for a person’s age and height
 An intense fear of gaining weight that does not decrease with weight loss
 Having a distorted image of their body shape
 10 times more likely to occur in females than males

EATING DISORDER: BULIMIA

Bulimia Nervosa - eating disorder in which the individual
consistently follows a binge-and-purge pattern
Most bulimics:
 Are preoccupied with food
 Have an intense fear of becoming overweight
 Are depressed or anxious
 Have a distorted body image
 Typically fall within a normal weight range

NARCISSISM
Narcissism - a self-centered and self-concerned approach toward
others.
 Typically, narcissists are unaware of their actual self and how others perceive them.
 This lack of awareness contributes to their adjustment problems.
 Excessively self-centered and selfcongratulatory, viewing their own needs and desires as
paramount
IDENTITY VS CONFUSION (ERIKSON)
Identity versus Identity Confusion - during this time, adolescents are
faced with deciding who they are, what they are all about, and
where they are going in life
 Adolescents experiment with different roles and personalities
 Adolescents who cope with conflicting identities emerge with a new sense of self

Adolescents who do not successfully resolve the identity crisis suffer identity confusion. The confusion
takes one of two courses:
1. Individuals withdraw, isolating themselves from peers/family, or
2. They immerse themselves in the world of peers and lose their
identity in the crowd.

DATING AND ROMANTIC RELATIONSHIP

Three stages (Connolly & McIsaac, 2009)
1. .Entry into romantic attractions and affiliations at about 11 to 13 yrs of age
o Developing a crush
2. Exploring romantic relationships at approximately 14 to 16 years of age
o Causal dating/dating in groups
3. Consolidating dyadic romantic bonds at about 17 to 19 years of age
o Bonds are often more stable and enduring typically lasting one year

JUVENILE DELINQUENCY
Juvenile Delinquent - an adolescent who breaks the law or engages in
behavior that is considered illegal
 Males more likely to engage in delinquency than females
 Rates among minority groups and lower-SES youth are especially high

Causes of Delinquency
 Lower class culture
 Parents less skilled in discouraging antisocial behavior
 Siblings and delinquent peers

DEPRESSION
 Rates of ever experiencing major depressive disorder range from 15 to 20 percent for
adolescents
 Certain family factors place adolescents at risk for developing depression
 Poor peer relationships are associated with adolescent depression
 Depressed adolescents recovered faster when they took an antidepressant and received
cognitive behavior therapy than when they received either treatment alone

SUICIDE
 Suicide is the 3rd leading cause of death in 10- to 19-year-olds
 Far more adolescents contemplate or attempt it unsuccessfully than actually commit it
 Females are more likely to attempt suicide, but males are more likely to succeed

EARLY ADULTHOOD (PHYSICAL, COGNITIVE, AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT)

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Peak physical performance typically occurs between 19 and 26
 Muscle tone and strength usually begin to show signs of decline around age 30

Health
 Emerging adults have twice the mortality rate of adolescents
 Few chronic health problems
 Increase in bad health habits
 Positive health behavior equals positive life satisfaction
PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
Substance Abuse (Alcohol)
 Binge Drinking: having 5 or more alcoholic drinks in a row in the past two weeks.
 Increases in college
 More common among college men (fraternity)
 Pregaming: drinking alcohol before going out

BINGE DRINKING IN THE ADOLESCENCE/EARLY ADULTHOOD TRANSITION

- Note that the percentage of individuals engaging in binge drinking peaked at 21 or 22 years of age
and then gradually declined throughout the remainder of the 20s.

PHYSICAL DEVELOPMENT
 Substance Abuse (Cigarette Smoking and Nicotine)
 Smoking linked to 30% of cancer deaths, 21% of heart disease deaths, and 82% of chronic
pulmonary disease deaths
 Fewer people smoke today than in the past
 50 million Americans still smoke today
 Nicotine - is the active drug in cigarettes and is also a stimulant
that increases the smoker’s energy and alertness, a pleasurable and
reinforcing experience. It also stimulates neurotransmitters that
have a calming or pain-reducing effect.

MARRIAGE
- Average age of marriage in the U.S. is currently 27 for males and 26 for females

STENBERG’S TRIARCHIC THEORY OF LOVE

(1) Passion - physical and sexual attraction to another. It is the
motivation that fuels romance, attraction, and desire.
(2) Intimacy - emotional feelings of warmth, closeness, and
sharing.
(3) Commitment - cognitive appraisal of the relationship and the
intent to maintain the relationship even in the face of
problem.

RISKS FACTORS: DIVORCE

 Youthful marriage
 Low educational level
 Low income
 No religious affiliation
 Having parents who divorced
 Having a baby before marriage are factors that are associated with increases in divorce
 Alcoholism/substance problem
 Psychological problems
 Domestic violence
 Infidelity
 Inadequate division of house labor

SINGLE ADULTS
 Dramatic rise in the last 30 years
 Advantages of being single
 Having time to make decisions about one’s life course
 Time to develop personal resources to meet goals
 Freedom to make autonomous decisions and pursue one’s own schedule and interests
 Opportunities to explore new places and try out new things
 Privacy
CAREERS AND WORK
 Developmental Changes
 From mid-twenties on, individuals often seek to establish their emerging career in a particular
field
 Finding a Path to a Purpose
 Only 20% of 12 – 22-year-olds had a clear vision of where they want to go in life

LATE ADULTHOOD (COGNITIVE AND SOCIOEMOTIONAL DEVELOPMENT COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING

IN OLDER ADULTS)
 Speed of Processing - Often due to a decline in brain and CNS functioning
 Attention:
Selective attention - focusing on a specific aspect of experience that
is relevant while ignoring others that are irrelevant
• Older adults are generally less adept at this
Divided Attention - concentrating on more than one activity at the
same time.
Sustained Attention - focused and extended engagement with an
object, task, event, or other aspect of the environment

COGNITIVE FUNCTIONING IN OLDER ADULTS

 Some decrements in language may appear in late adulthood
 Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon
 Difficulty understanding speech
 Speech of older adults is lower in volume, slower, less precisely articulated, and less fluent
 Slower information processing speed and decline in working memory may be responsible for
some of the decline in language skills

WORK AND RETIREMENT

 On average, workers will spend 10%–15% of their lives in retirement
 Life paths for individuals in their 60s are less clear today
 7 million retired Americans return to work after they retire
 An increasing number of adults are beginning to reject the early retirement option

ADJUSTMENT TO RETIREMENT
 Older adults who adjust best to retirement are:
 Healthy
 Active and have an adequate income
 Are better educated
 Have extended social networks and family
 Were satisfied with their lives before retiring
 Flexibility and planning are key factors in whether individuals adjust well to retirement

MENTAL HEALTH
Depression
 Major depression - mood disorder in which the individual is deeply
unhappy, demoralized, self-derogatory, and bored
- Less common among older adults than younger adults
 Common predictors:
 Earlier depressive symptoms
 Poor health or disability
 Loss events
 Low social support
- 25% of individuals who commit suicide in the U.S. are 65 years of age or
older
DEMENTIA, ALZHEIMER, AND OTHER AFFLICTIONS
 Dementia - any neurological disorder in which the primary symptoms involve a deterioration of
mental functioning
 Alzheimer Disease - a common form of dementia that is characterized by a gradual deterioration
of memory, reasoning, language, and eventually, physical function
 Parkinson Disease - a chronic, progressive disease characterized by muscle tremors, slowing of
movement, and facial paralysis

ERIKSON’S THEORY
Integrity vs. Despair - involves reflecting on the past and either
piecing together a positive review or concluding that one’s life has
not been well spent
Life review - looking back at one’s life experiences, evaluating
them, and interpreting/reinterpreting them