Prepared by: Daudi k.

Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

Current Electricity Ohm’s Law
Defn: electric current is the rate of flow of It’s States that;
charge. It Measured by Ammeter “At constant temperature and other physical
factors, a current in conductor is directly
Mathematically: proportional to the potential different across its
I=Q/t end”
Where: Mathematically:
I = electric current VαI
Q = quantity of charge V=KI
t = time taken by charge to rotate circuit Where:
Make subject Q K= constant = R = resistance
I = Q/t – multiply by t both sides
Q = It Graphically:

From: I =Q/t
I=Coulombs/Second=c/s=ampere=A The
common SI unit of I is ampere (A)

Electric Potential Different (P.d)

Defn: electric potential different is the
work done per unit charge in moving
electric charge from one to another point
Mathematically:
P.d = work done/charge moved
V = w/Q
From the graph above
Slope = ΔV/ΔI = m
From: V =w/Q
Slope = Resistance
I = Joules/ Coulombs = J/c = Volt = 1
The common SI unit of P.d is Volt (v)
Factor Affect Resistance
Electromotive Force (e.m.f) Considerthediagram:
Defn: electromotive force of a cell is a
potential different across the cell terminals
when there is no current flowing through
it. It also called voltage. It measured
VOLTMETER

NB: 1. Length of theconductor

{a} e.m.f is not a force The longer the wire the higher the
{b} e.m.f is a process of convert resistance and viceversa
mechanical energy to electrical
energy 2. Temperature
{c} cell provide e.m.f which set up The higher the temperature, the higher
potentialdifferent the resistance and viceversa
{d} e.m.f driving electric current in a circuit
{e} e.m.f of simple cell is 1.0V and e.m.f of NB:
dry cell is 1.5V c. Constant wire. (Copper alloy),
{f} terminal voltage is the voltage across Changes to a very small extended thus
the cell when electric current drawn why used in a standardresistance.
{g} Resistance across a cell is called d. Connecting wire used in a circuit has a
internalresistance.drycellhasinternal very low resistance to prevent energy
resistance about 0.5Ω wasted in form of heat tomaximum.

1
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
3. Types ofmaterial Resistance, R = ?
Nichrome wire has more resistance Solution
than a copper wire of a same From:R=þL/A
dimension. R =þL/A
R = (1.68 x 10-8 x 20)/5.024 x 10-7
Nb: R = 3.36 x 10-7/5.024 x 10-7
i. Nichrome wire is used in heating R=0.67Ω
element of electricfires
ii. Copper wire is mostly used for Example,
connectingwires A steel bar has a length of 2.3m and
diameter of 2 x 10-5 m. what is resistance?
4. Cross-sectionarea (Resistivity is 10.5 x 10-8 ΩM)
Athinwirehasmoreresistancethana Data given:
thickconductor. Length, l = 2.3m
R α 1/A Diameter, d = 2 x 10-5 m
Radius, r = 1 x 10-5 m
Combine the relation R α 1/A and R α L Area, A = πr2 = π x (1 x 10-5 )2 = 3.14 x 10-
Then: 10m 2

R α L/A – remove proportionality constant Resistivity,þ=10.5x10-8ΩM

R =KL/A Resistance, R =?
Where: Solution
k = resistivity which denoted by letter þ From:R=þL/A
R = þL/A – make þ subject R =þL/A
Þ = RA/L R = (10.5 x 10-8 x 2.3)/3.14 x 10-10
Defn: resistivity is the ability of a material to R = 2.415 x 10-7/3.14 x 10-10
oppose the flow of an electric current. It SI R = 768.72 Ω
unity is Ohm metre (Ωm).
Resistor
Resistivity of Material at 20 0C Defn: Resistor is a device which offers
MATERIAL RESISTIVITY (ΩM) resistance to the flow ofan electric current.
Aluminium 27 x 10-8 It used to control the magnitude of current
Chromium 1.3 x 10-7 and voltage according to ohms law
Copper 1.68 x 10-8
Iron 9.71 x 10-8 Types of Resistor
Lead 2.1 x 10-7 It divided according to the material used
Silver 1.6 x 10-8 to made it and the value of resistance
Constantan 4.9 x 10-7 offered
Manganin 4.8 x 10-7
Nichrome 1.0 x 10-6 TypesofResistorDueToMaterialUsed
Glass 1 x 109 - 1 x 1013 There different resistor which made from
Rubber 1 x 1013 - 1 x 1015 different material, include the following
Quartz 7.5 x 1017 i. Wire woundresistor
ii. Carbonresistor
iii. Metal film resistor
Example,
iv.Metal oxide filmresistor
What is resistance of a copper wire of
length 20m and diameter of 0.080 cm?
Wire Wound Resistor
Data given:
It made up winding wires made of certain
Length, l = 20m
metallic alloys into spools (used to control
Diameter,d=0.080m=0.0008m
amount of resistance)
Radius, r =0.0004m
Diagram:
Area, A = πr2 = π x 0.00042 = 5.024 x 10-7m2
Resistivity, þ = 1.68 x 10-8 ΩM
2
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
called band. The band represent the
exactly value of resistance. It contain
fourth band with different meaning.

Table of Colour Codes

Colour Colour tolerance
number
Carbon Resistor 0 Black
It made by mixing carbon granules with 1 Brown ±1%
varying amount of clay and moulding 2 Red ±2%
them intocylinders 3 Orange
Diagram: 4 Yellow
5 Green
6 Blue
7 Purple
8 Grey
9 White
Metal Film Resistor Gold ±5%
It made up of a stable ceramic core Silver ±10%
coated with metal oxide such as nickel No colour ±20%
chromium. It more accuracy and more
expensive than carbonresistor Diagram:
Diagram:

i. First band – firstdigit

Metal Oxide Film Resistor ii. Second band – seconddigit
It made up of a stable ceramic core iii. Thirdband(multiplier)–numberofzero
coated with metal alloys such as tinoxide iv.Fourth band (tolerance) – percentage
accuracy
TypesofResistorDueToValueOffered
Resistor created from different value may The value is given by
be fixed or variable resistancevalue R = 4th band of 1st digit 2nd digit multiplier
i. Fixedresistor
ii. Variableresistor Example,
From a the diagram of resistor above find
Fixed Resistor the exactly resistance
It has a resistor value which cannot i. First band (yellow) –4
change. For Example, 2Ω, 3Ω, 4Ω etc. ii. Second band (purple) –7
Example, most carbon resistor are fixed iii. Multiplier (red) – 2 = 00 number of zero
resistor iv.Tolerance (gold) –±5%
Therefore: R = ±5% of 4700Ω
Variable Resistor The actual value resistance is ±5% of
It has a resistor value which can change. 4700Ω
Example, potentiometers, thermistors and
photo resistors and rheostat Combination of Resistors
There are two main methods of
Resistor Colour Codes connecting circuits componentinclude:
Resistor which used electronic device iii. Seriesconnection
always painted different colourtexture iv. Parallelconnection
3
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
NB:
Series Connection i. In series the total resistance is higher
In this series arrangement the resistors are than individualresistors
connected end to end. ii. In parallel the total resistance is lower
than individualresistors
iii. Parallel arrangement result low
resistance
iv. Parallel connection uses in house
wiring

Example,
Consider the diagram below
From:
P.d across Sum of P.d arounda
=
the battery conducting path
Therefore:V=V1+V2 ----------------- (1)
But: I = same at all points roundcircuit
From: V = IR
Now: V=IRt -----------------(2)
V1=IR1 ----------------- (3) {a} What is the total resistance of the
V2=IR2 ----------------- (4) circuit?
Substitute:equation(2),(3)and(4)into(1) {b} What current flows in thecircuit?
Then: Rt = R1+ R2 {c} What is the potential drop across each
Therefore: resistor?
Total resistance (Rt) for resistor in series is {d} What is the electric potential at point
equal to the sum of individual resistance. A?
Rt=R1+R2+… .... +Rn Data given
Where: Rn = the last resistor Electromotive force, E = 9V
First resistor, R1 =4 Ω
Parallel Connection Second resistor, R2 =6 Ω
Resistors are connected across two Third resistor, R3 =5Ω
common points in a parallelarrangement. Total resistance, Rt =?
Electric current, I =?
Potential drop across R1, V1 = ?
Potential drop across R2, V2 = ?
Potential drop across R3, V3 = ?
Electric potential at point A, Va = ?
Solution:
{a} Total resistance, Rt = ?
Therefore:It =I1+I2 --------------- (1)
Since arrangement is series
But: V = same at all points round circuit
Rt = R1 + R2 + R3
From: I = V/R
Rt = 4 + 6 + 5
Now:It=V/Rt ------------------(2)
Rt = 15 Ω
I1=V/R1 ----------------- (3)
I2=V/R2 ----------------- (4)
{b} Electric current, I = ?
Substitute:equation(2),(3)and(4)into(1)
From:I=E/Rt
Then:1/Rt= 1/R1 +1/R2
I =9/15
Therefore:
I =0.6A
Total resistance (RT) for resistor in series is
equal to the sum of individual resistance.
{c} Potential drop across R1, V1 = ?
1/RT= 1/R1+1/R2+….+1/Rn
From: V1 = IR1
Where: Rn = the last resistor
V1 = 0.6 x 4
V1 = 2. 4V
4
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Potential drop across R2, V2 = ? I1 = 9/4
From: V2 = IR2 I1 = 2. 25V
V2 = 0.6 x 6
V2 = 3. 6V Electric current across R2, I2 = ?
From:I2=V/R2
Potential drop across R3, V3 = ? I2 = 9/6
From: V3 = IR3 I2 = 1. 5V
V3 = 0.6 x 5
V3 = 3.0V Electric current across R3, I3 = ?
From:I3=V/R3
{d} Electric potential at point A, Va = ? I3 = 9/5
Va = Vt – V1 I3 = 1.8V
Va = 9 – 2.4
Va = 6.6V {d} Total Electric current, It = ?
It = I1 + I1 + I3
Example, It = 2.25 + 1.5 + 1.8
Consider the diagram below It = 5.59 A

Example,
Determine the current reading on the
ammeter in the circuit shown in the
{a} What is the total resistance of the diagram below
circuit?
{b} What total current flows in the circuit?
{c} What is current across each resistor?
{d} Withal total current through the circuit?
Data given
Electromotive force, E = 9V
First resistor, R1 =4 Ω
Second resistor, R2 =6 Ω
Third resistor, R3 =5 Ω
Total resistance, Rt = ? Internal Resistance of a Cell
Total Electric current, It = ? Cell has internal resistance that opposes
Electric current across R1, I1 = ? flow of electriccurrent result potential drop
Electric current across R2, I2 = ? across thisresistance.
Electric current across R3, I3 = ? Diagram:
Solution:
{a} Total resistance, Rt = ?
Since arrangement is series
1/Rt = 1/R1 + 1/R2 + 1/R3
1/Rt = 1/4 + 1/6 +1/5
1/Rt = 0.25 + 0.17 + 0.2
1/Rt = 0.62
Where:
Rt = 1.61 Ω
E = Vt = e.m.f
K = switch
{b} Total Electric current, It = ?
R = external resistance
From:It=E/Rt
r = internal resistance
It =9/1.61
From: ohm’s law when close the switch, k
It = 5.59A
V = IR
But: R and r are in parallel, the effective
{c} Electric current across R1, I1 = ?
resistance is R + r
From: I1 =V/R1
Then: E = I(R+r)
5
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
E = IR+Ir Where:
Vt = V + V 1 The thick-edged areas are busbars of
Where: almost zeroresistance
Ir = V1= voltage drop of the cell
IR = V= voltage across resistor How to Use Meter Bridge
i. Connect known resistor A, B, C and
Graphically: unknown resistorD.
Assume E is constant, therefore r will be ii. Move voltage (p.d) gauge until no
constant and R is variable. deflection(nop.dacrossxy)
From: E = I(R+r) – make I-1 subject iii. Measure the length a, b, c and d
I-1 = R/E + r/E iv.Ifnop.dacrossxymeans
AB = CD = ab = cd
Graph of I-1 against R The expression can be used to determine
the value of unknown resistor

Heating Effect of an Electric Current

We already study about relation between
temperature and resistance. The
resistance result heat energy.

Factors Affect Heat Quantity

It depends on the following factors
i. Resistance ofconductor
Where: ii. Magnitude of electriccurrent
Slope = ΔI-1/ΔR= E-1 iii. Time taken the currentpass
Slope = electromotive force (e.m.f)
I-1(when, R/E = 0) intercept = r/E Resistance of Conductor
R (when, I-1 = 0) intercept = r The higher the heat, the higher the
resistance and vice versa
Wheatstone bridge
Defn: Wheatstone bridge is an electric Magnitude of Electric Current
bridge circuit used tomeasure the unknown The higher the heat, the higher the
resistance of a conduct. Also is called electric current and viceversa
MeterBridge
First diagram: TimeTakentheCurrentPass
The time taken the heat, the higher the
temperature and viceversa

Joule’s Law
It tells us the relation between resistance,
current and heat generated. State that
“The rate at which heat is produced in a resistor
is proportional to the square of the current
flowing through it, if theresistance
Second diagram: is constant.”
Mathematically:
H/t ∝ RI2
H ∝ tRI2 - remove proportionality constant
H =ktRI2 – constant, K =1
H =tRI2

6
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
But: R = v/I – substitute in the formula Δθ = H/(mc)
above Δθ = 960000/(2 x 4200) = 960000/8400
H =(tvI2)/I =tVI Δθ = 82.14K
H =tIV
Electrical Appliance
But: I = v/R – substitute in the formula Defn: Electrical appliance is the device
above uses heating element to produce heat
H = tV(v/R) = t(V2/R) energy. Nichrome wire isamong of heating
H = t(V2/R) elements due to its high melting point. The
Therefore: H = t(V2/R) = tIV= tRI2 common Electrical appliance include
i. Heaters
Electrical Power ii. Electriciron
Defn: electrical power is the rate of iii. Bulbs,kettles
potential differentor electrical power is the iv.Cookers
rate at which electrical energy is dissipated v. fridges
P = p.d/time = w/t vi.Televisions
P=QV/t=ItV/t=IV P vii. Aircondition
=IV
Rating Of the Electrical Appliance
Example, Defn: rating of the appliance is the rate at
An electric kettle draws a current of 10A which the appliances dissipate energy.
when connected to the 230V mains Each electricalappliance has rating which
supply. If all the energy produced in 5 enables us to know energydissipated
minutes is used to heat 2kg of water. For Example, an appliance marked
Calculate 3000W,240Vdissipatesenergyattherate of
i. the power of thekettle 3000Joules per second when connected
ii. theenergyproducedin5minutes to240V
iii. the rise intemperature
(Specific heat capacity of water = 4200 Power Ratings of Electrical Appliance
Jkg-1K-1) electrical power ratings at
Data given: appliance 240V
Electric current, I = 10A Immersion heater 2000W (2KW)
Electromotive force, V = 230V Electric heater 2000W (2KW)
Mass of water, m =2kg Electric iron 1000W (1KW)
Tametakenfoecurrent,t=5min=300sec Electric cattle 2500W (2.5KW)
Specific heat capacity of water, c = 4200 Hair dryer 400W
Jkg-1K-1 Colour TV 300W
Solution Refrigerator 120W
i. Powerofthekettle,p? Light bulb 25W - 150W
P = Energy/time = H/t = ItV/t = IV
P = IV= 10 x 230 = 2300W = 2.3kW Nb:
P = 2300W = 2.3kW i. When voltage lowed results decrease
in rating. For Example, when mains
ii. Energy produced, H =? supply fall to 230V instead of 204V the
H = power x time = pt = 2300 x 300 rating will decrease to 1836.8Winstead
H = 2300 x 3000 = 690000J = 690kJ of2000W.
H = 690000J = 690kJ ii. If voltage increased result increase in
rating which damage the appliance
iii. Rise in temperature, Δθ = ? due to overheating
Heat = energy gained by water
H = mcΔθ – make Δθsubject

7
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Measurement of Electrical Power
Power companies like TANESCO usually Neutral Cable (N)
measure the electrical energy in kilowatt The Neutral cable is earthed at the power
hours (KWh) station. This to ensure current at neutral
1KWh = (1KW x 1hour)J = (1000W x 60 x cable remains zero potentialso it cannot
60)J give an electric shock on touching. It
1KWh = 3600000J = 3600KJ representbybluecolourorblackcolour

Example, Earth Cable (E)

A television set rated 200W is switched on The earth cableintroduces to provide extra
for 5Hours every day. How much energy safety especially in electrical appliances. It
does it consumer in 30 days represent by yellow colour or
Data given greencolour
Power released, P = 200W
Time taken, t = 5Hrs = 3600x5x30 = 540000 s Three Pin Plug
Energy released, E = ? It consist of all three cables include Live
Solution cable, Neutral cable and Earth cable with
From: P = E/t – make E subject a fuse connected to live cable,
E = Pt sometimes fuse can connected to neutral
E = 540000 x 200 cable which is notsafe
E = 108000000J = 1.08 x 108J= 1.08 x 105kJ Diagram:

Example,
A house has five rooms, each with a 60W,
240V bulb. If the bulbs are switched on
7:00p.m to 10:300p.m determined the
power consumer by bulbs per day.
Data given
Time taken, t = 3.5Hrs
Energyreleasedbyeachbulb,E=60W NB:
Energyreleasedby5bulb,Eb=? i. The earth pin usually longer than the
Power released, P = ? other two which used to opensocket
Solution ii. Switch must be off when you push the
Energy released by 5 bulb, Et = 60 x 5 = plug into thesocket
300W
Power released, P = Eb x t = 300x3.5 Two Pin Plug
P = 300x3.5 = 1.05 It consist only two cables include live
P = 1.05kWh cable and Neutral cable an appliance
use two pin plug its body not connected
Electrical Installation of a House to earth
Domestic electricity is supplied by two Diagram:
cables, live (L), Neutral (N), the thirdcable
is Earth to provide extrasafety
i. Live cable(L)
ii. Neutral cable(N)
iii. Earth cable(E)
NB:
Live Cable (L) i. All connection should be tight, with no
The live cable is 240V relative to the loose strands ofwire
neutral. The current in the live cable ii. The live cable should be short others
alternates 60 times a second (60 Hz). It two cable, due the fact that well
representbybrowncolourorredcolour pulled out be thefirst
8
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
iii. Cable should firmly clamped without
damageinsulation
iv. Fuse for collectrating

Fuses
Defn: fuse is a safety device used to
protect an electriccircuit against excess of
current. It may be piece of copper or tin
lead wire (inside casing) which melts when
current throughit exceeds a specific
predeterminedvalue Mechanism of Circuit Breakers
When current exceed tend to increase
Types of Fuse thetemperatureandbimetallicstripbend to
There are several types of fuses in use, push latch mechanism, enable the
includes spring to cut offcurrent
i. Rewireablefuse
ii. Cartridgefuses Diagram:

Rewireable Fuse
This kind of fuse, fuse element is carried in
a removal fuse link made of porcelain or
other insulatingmaterial
Diagram:

Domestic Wiring Circuit

The current from power plant connected
Cartridge Fuses to consumer unit where house wiring
It consists of a porcelain tube with metal starts.
end caps to which the fuse element is Defn: Consumer unit is the single box/unit
attached where main switch, main fuse and
Diagram: distribution board

Types of Domestic Wiring Circuit

There two types include
i. Ring maincircuit
ii. Lightingcircuit
Circuit Breakers
Defn: Circuit breaker is a type of switch Ring Main Circuit
that cuts off the flow of electric currentwhen This is a cable which begins and ends at
the current exceedsa specific value. the consumer unit. It three cables are
Diagram:
forming ring around part of house. It
compose 30Afuse
Diagram:

9
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

Lighting Circuit
In this circuit the first lamp connected
from the customer unit, in turn is Repairing Electrical Appliances Faults
connected to the second lamp and so MultimeterandLivemainsleadindicator
on. are device important when checking
electrical appliancesfaults.
Types of LightingCircuit
There are two types Multimeter
i. Loop in lightingcircuit Multimeter is the single meter for measure
ii. Junction box lightingcircuit current (both a.c and d.c) voltage and
resistance. It has a range switch precise
readings can be taken. It divided into
Loop In LightingCircuit
moving coil Multimeter and digital
All three cables from consumer unit run to
each ceiling roses, one after the other. Multimeter
From Each rose another set of cables runs Diagram:
to the switch which operates the light
Diagram:

Live Mains LeadIndicator

Junction Box Lighting Circuit It made up of for, of a screwdriver with a
All three cables from consumer unit run to hollow insulting handle containing a tiny
one junction box to another, where one neon discharge tube. One electrode
cable runs to the light and another run to connected to metal probe of the
the switch for that light. screwdriver and another electrode
Diagram: connected to metal cap of the handle
through a high carbon resistor
Diagram:

10
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Defn: cell is a set up used to cause a flow
of electric current in a conductor.Cells store
chemical energy so current caused by
reaction to release and acceptelectrons.
Also is calledelectrochemical cell

Types of ElectrochemicalCell
i. Primarycell
ii. Secondarycell

Primary Cell
Primary cell is the kind of cell in which
current generated through electrolysis.
Electrolytes replaced after some time. It
Mechanism called voltaic cell. Example, of primary
When metal probe inserted into live cell
socket and touch the metal cap with i. A Simplecell
finger, the current leaks to the earth ii. Leclanchécell
through the body and the neon tube iii. Drycell
glows.
Simple Cell
Repair Faults Procedure Made from copper as anode, zinc as
If electrical appliance fails to work the cathode and Dilute sulphuric acid
following procedure should be done electrolyte
i. Check by using live mains lead Diagram:
indicator if there is power ornot
ii. Check the cable from the socket
totheappliance
iii. If no fault open the plug and check
thefuse,ifnoisdetected
iv. Check each cable for continuity by
using aMultimeter
v. If cable are working good, check the
fault is in the element by using a
Multimeter
vi. If element is in fault, replace element
as repair may not bepossible
vii. If element is no fault , look forloose Dissociation:
connection, these should be made
firm and/or cleaned of rust and other H SO ������
2 4 (aq) →2H (aq) +SO
+
4
2-
(aq)
dirt ������
HO2 (l) → H +
(aq) +
OH (aq)
-

Cation present: only H+

Source of Faults
Anion present: OH- (aq) and SO42- (aq)
Faultsindomesticsystemcanarisedueto
At anode:
i. When fuse blows ormelt
Zinc metal dissolved into solution to form
ii. Wirecutting
zinc Cation which reacts with sulphate
iii. Wire joining
anion to form zinc sulphate until sulphate
iv.Socket gettingdirty
anion fished from electrolyte
v.Switches breaking ������
Zn+ + SO42- →ZnSO4
Cells
At cathode:

11
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Hydrogen cation discharge to liberate Nb:
hydrogen gas (bubbles) i. Polarization is reduced by manganese
������
→ H2 dioxide (slow depolarizer) but when
large current is drawn Polarization
Defects of a Simple Cell takesplace
Current drop is the main reason why ii. leclanché cell exist today as drycell
simplecellisnolongerusedasasourceof
electric current due to the following Dry Cell
reason Dry cell use paste instead of electrolytes.
i. Formation of hydrogen bubbles on Made from carbon as anode, zinc as
zincplate cathode and paste (ammonium chloride
ii. Polarization (NH4CL), manganese dioxide (MnO2) and
zinc chloride)
Formation of Hydrogen Bubbles Diagram:
Formation of hydrogen bubbles on zinc
plate due to impurities from zinc reacts
with acid. It referred as local action.

HOW to Minimize Local Action

Local action is reduced by using pure zinc
or by rubbing mercury on zinc plate to
form an amalgam

Polarization
In the copper plate the hydrogen bubble
to forms another cell with the zinc which
NB:
oppose the zinc-copper cell. Also
i. Ammonium chloride (NH4CL) and zinc
hydrogen bubbles insulate copperplate
chloride act aselectrolyte
ii. manganese dioxide depolarizer mixed
How to Minimize Polarization with zincanode
Polarization minimized by adding a
depolarizer. Example, potassium
Uses of Dry Cell
dichromate which oxidizes the hydrogen
It used to operating radios, electronic
towater calculators and other small electrical
device
LeclanchéCell
Made from carbon as anode, zinc as
Secondary Cell
cathode, ammonium chloride (NH 4CL)
Secondary cell is the cell which can be
solution and depolarizer manganese recharged. It means the chemical
dioxide(MnO2) reaction inside the cell is reversible. For
Diagram: Example, lead acid cell and nickel
ferrouscell.Alsocalledaccumulators

Lead Acid Battery

It consist more than one lead ferrous cell,
made up of lead peroxide as anode,
porous lead metal as cathode and
sulphuric acid as electrolytes. An
electrode is separated by insulator called
separator. Cathode joining together to

12
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
form negative terminal while anode i. Cell should be charged regularly and
joining together to form positive terminal should never leftdischarges
Diagram: ii. The acid level is should be maintained
by adding distilled water when
necessary
iii. Terminal should be clean andgreased
iv.Rough handling should beavoided
v. The cells should be not be short
circuited, Example, if you connect two
terminal
vi. The rate specified by manufacture
shouldnotexceededduringcharging

Uses of Accumulators
i. Used to provide power in motor
vehicles
Discharge of Lead Acid Battery ii. Used to provide power to power
Defn: discharge is the process of cells to domestic appliances such asradio
provide electrical energy. Energy is iii. Used to store solarpower
producedby reaction between electrolyte
and active material of the electrode. This Cell Arrangement ofCells
low concentration of the electrolyte i. Seriesarrangement
(sulphuric acid), duringdischarge lead ii. Parallelarrangement
peroxide become lead sulphate and porous
lead become lead sulphate Series Arrangement of Cells
In this series arrangement the positive
Charging Of Lead Acid Battery terminal of one cell connected negative
The aim of charging is to drive all the acid terminal of another cell
out of the plate and return it to the Diagram:
electrolyte. When charging positive dc
terminal connected to negative terminal
of lead acid accumulator and negative
dc terminal connected to positive
terminal of lead acid accumulator, during
charging lead sulphate of anode
become lead peroxide and lead sulphate
Nb:
of cathode become porous lead
i. Electric current same at eachcell
ii. Total voltage across cells is equal to
NB:
the sum voltage of the individual cells,
i. When battery full charged battery are
thus why torch light uses this
said to besulphated
arrangement
ii. Main advantage of lad acid cell is its
ability torecharge
Parallel Arrangement of Cells
iii. Its major disadvantage are its size and
In this series arrangement, all positive
weight
terminals of cells connected together and
iv. Never allow lead acid cell fully
negative terminal of cells connected
discharged
together
Diagram:
Taking Care of Accumulators
The following are some care tips on how
to care for lead acid batteries

13
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

Nb:
i. voltage same at eachcell
ii. Total Electric current across cells is
equal to the sum Electric current of the
individual cells, thus why lead acid
accumulatorusesthisarrangement

14
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

15
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

16
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Electromagnetism
Defn: Electromagnetism is the effect
produced by the interaction of an electric
current with a magnetic field

We have already discuss in magnetism

that electricity in solenoid produce
magnetism, vice versa is the true in this
topic we will see how magnet produce
electricity
Maxwell’s Right Hand Screw Rule
Direction of Current And Magnetic
The law States that
Field
“Whenscrewrotateadvanceditmovesin
Direction is governing by
thedirectionofcurrentandrotateinthe
i. Right hand griprule
directionofmagneticfield”
ii. Maxwell’s right hand screwrule
Diagram:
Right Hand GripRule
It concerning the direction of currentand
magnetic field in conductor anddirection
of current and magnetic north pole in
solenoid

For solenoid
The law for solenoid States that
“Wrappingrighthandaroundasolenoid
yourfingerspointthedirectionofcurrent
and the thumb point direction of Fleming’s Left HandRule
magnetic north pole” It describe the direction of force
Diagram: produced by conductor carrying current,
which statethat
“The right hand is held with the thumb, first
finger and second finger of left hand
mutually perpendicular to each, The Thumb
represents the direction of force/Motion of
the conductor, The First finger represents the
direction of the magnetic Field and the
Second finger represents the direction of the
Current”

Diagram:
For conductor
The law for conduct States that
“Wrappingrighthandaroundaconductor
your fingers point the direction of magnetic
and the thumb point direction of current”
Diagram:

17
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Where:

NB:
i. Magnetic flux is theline
ii. Electromotive produced is called
Force in Parallel Conductor Induced electromotive force
When the current pass through a two iii. Current produced is called induced
conductors in the same direction the current
conductors are attracted to each other iv. The conductor should moves in
Diagram: perpendicular to magneticfield
v. No current when conductor moves
parallel to magneticfield

Laws Of Electromagnetic Induction

We have two laws associated with
electromagnetic inductioninclude
i. Lenz’slaw
ii. Faraday’slaw

Lenz’s Law
When the current pass through a two It describe the direction of induced e.m.f,
conductors in the opposite direction the which state that
conductors are repulsed to each other “The direction of induced e.m.f is such
Diagram: that the resulting induced current flows in such a
direction that oppose the change that cause it”
NB:
i. When North Pole approach and South
Pole withdrawing the current moves in
the samedirection
Diagram

Electromagnetic Induction
Defn: Electromagnetic induction is the
production of electromotive force ii. When North Pole withdrawing and
whenever there is change in the South Pole approach the current
magnetic flux (lines) linking a conductor moves in the samedirection
Or Diagram
Defn: Electromagnetic induction is the
production of an electromotive force
across a conductor when it is exposed to
a varying magneticfield
Diagram:

18
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Increaseinmotion(speed)resulthighthe
rate at which magnetic flux change in
which produce high magnitude of
inducede.m.f

Cross Section Area of the Conductor

Faraday’s Law Increase in Cross section Area of the
It divided into two laws of conductor results high magnitude of
electromagnetic inductioninclude inducede.m.f
i. Faraday’s firstlaw
ii. Faraday’s secondlaw Number of Turns(N)
Increase in Number of turns results high
Faraday’s First Law magnitude of induced e.m.f
It state that
“Wheneverthereischangeinmagnetic Self-Induction
fluxlinkedwithaclosedcircuite.m.f Defn:Self-inductionisthephenomenonin
induced” which a change in electric current in a
coil produces an induced e.m.f in the coil
Faraday’sSecondLaw itself
It describe the magnitude of induced Or
e.m.f, which statethat Defn: self-induction is the production of
“The induced e.m.f in a conductor in a e.m.f in a conductor/solenoid as a result
magnetic field is directly proportional to the of varies current inthe same
rate of change of the magnetic flux linking the conductor/solenoid
conductor”

Nb: NB:
Faraday’s law can be combined and i. If current increased results increase in
states as one as follows induced current (back e.m.f) which
“Whenever there is change in subtract the original current result the
magnetic flux linked with a closed resultant current be smaller than
circuite e.m.f inducedwhose originalcurrent
magnitude is directly Diagram:
proportional to the rate of change ofthe
magnetic flux linking theconductor”

Factor Affects Induced E.M.F Magnitude

Magnitude of Induced e.m.f depend on
the followsfactor
i. The strength of magneticfield
ii. The rate of change of magnetic flux
(speed ofmotion)
iii. Cross section Area of the conductor
iv.Number of turns(N) From Ohm’s law of complete circuit
E = I(R + r)
The Strength of Magnetic Field I = E/(R + r)
In electromagnetic induction, when But: Et = E –Eb
strong magnetic it resulting highstrength Then: I = (E – Eb)/(R +r)
of magnetic field which induced high Where:
magnitude of induced e.m.f I =current of power supply
E = E.m.f of power supply
The Rate of Change of Magnetic Flux Eb = back E.m.f produced by coil
R = externalresistance

19
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
r = internal resistance

ii. If current decreased results decrease

in induced current (back e.m.f) which
add to the original current result the
resultant current be larger than original
current
Diagram:

How Minimized Self Induction

If the electric current flowing through the
first coil wire, the second coil wire cancels
out by induce in the opposite direction
the electric current which deflected by
ammeter or galvanometer thus self-
inductionminimized
From Ohm’s law of complete circuit
E = I(R + r) Mutual Induction
I = E/(R + r) Defn: mutual induction is the production
But: Et = E +Eb of e.m.f in one conductor or solenoid as a
Then: I = (E + Eb)/(R +r) result of changing current in another
Where: conductor orsolenoid
I =current of power supply Diagram:
E = E.m.f of power supply
Eb = back E.m.f produced by coil
R = externalresistance
r = internal resistance

iii. Inconstantcurrentnoinducedcurrent
Diagram:

NB:
i. The coil or solenoid with vary current is
called primarycoil
ii. The coil or solenoid with induced
current is called secondarycoil

Mechanism
iv. Back e.m.f is the voltage induced in Primary coil produces magnetic flux which
the coil due to variation of electric change magnetic flux in secondary coil to
current flowing in the samecoil produce electromotive force
v. Self-induction can be minimizedby using
non-inductivecoil Eddy Current
Defn: Eddy current Are induced current
Non-Inductive Coil loops circulating within a conductor
Defn: non-inductive coil is a doubly Diagram:
wounded turns ofwires
Diagram

20
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

Damping of EddyCurrent
Eddy current can beminimized by insulator
materials in which have high resistance in
which eddy current cannot make loops Mechanism
circulation within a conductor Diagram: Induced magnetism onsoft iron attract iron
the armature vibrates and hammer attached
toit strikes the gong which open the
circuit whichincomplete the circuit by
contacts cause soft iron to lost magnetism
where spring pullback to platinumcontacts
to complete circuit. This cycle of events is
repeated automatically

Methods Used To Minimize Eddy Current InductionCoil

Therefore Eddy current can be minimized Defn: induction coil is an electrical device
by the followingmethods consisting of two coils (primary and
i. Laminatedcore:thisisreasonswhyall secondary coil) where secondary coil
instrument uses principle of wound over primary coil on an iron core.
electromagnetic limited like motor Also called sparkcoil
armature, dynamos armature, Diagram:
transformer coil wrapped by insulator
sheet
ii. Magneticmaterialwithhighresistivity
e.g. ferrite

Advantage Of Eddy Current

i. Useful in heatingmetals
ii. Useful in electricaldamping
iii. Crackdetection
iv. Measurement of materialthickness
v. Measurement of coatingthickness
vi. Measurement ofconductivity
NB:
Electric Bell i. It used to produce high voltage
Consider the diagram below alternating current (a.c) from low
voltage direct current(d.c)
ii. Primary coil is made by tensor hundreds
of turns of coarsewire
iii. secondary coil is made by thousands
of turns of finewire
iv. secondary coil is wound top of primary
coil

21
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
v. due to large number of secondary coil
very large induced e.m.f about
hundreds of kilovolts (KV) isproduced
vi. due to change of current caused by
platinum contacts in primary coil very
large induced e.m.f about hundreds of
kilovolts (KV)isproduced
vii. Capacitor is in parallel with the
make-and-breakcontacts
viii. If capacitor not introduced, the
secondary voltage is much less and
sparking occurs between the platinum
contacts Mechanism
i. When the current pass through a coil
Mechanism the soft iron magnetized which may
When switch closed tocomplete the circuit, repel or attracted by permanent
the primary coil produce magnetic field magnet results turning effect on the
(magnetism on soft iron) which cause coil
secondary to induce high voltage due to ii. The turning effect is linear scale over
large number ofturns, Induced magnetism which the pointermoves
on soft ironattract iron hammer which open
the circuit which incomplete the circuit by Nb:
open the gap in platinum contacts cause i. The galvanometer whose scale
soft iron to lost magnetism where spring graduated to measure current in mill
pullback to platinumcontacts to complete amperes is calledmillimeter
circuit. This cycle of events is repeated ii. Galvanometer can measure small
automatically current i.e. in the order of mill amperes.
This is caused by the low resistance of
Application of Induction Coil acoil
i. it used in ignition system of internal iii. It measure only directlycurrent
combustionengines
ii. a smaller version of it is used to trigger Characteristics of Highly Sensitive
the flash tubes used in cameras and Galvanometer
strobelights i. Magnetic flux density (B) mustbe large
iii. italsousedinwirelesstelegraphy ii. Number of turn (N) must belarge
iii. Area of coil (A) must belarge
Moving CoilGalvanometer iv. Tensionalconstant(C)mustbesmall
It consists of a rectangular coil over soft
iron cylindrical core such that are free to Factors Affect Galvanometer Sensitivity
rotates about a vertical axis which i. Magnetic flux density (B) must be large
suspended by spring which provide a or magneticstrength
restoring couple/force, the point which ii. Number of turn (N) must belarge
connected to soft iron cylindrical core iii. Area of coil (A) must belarge
and powerful permanent magnet which iv. Tensional constant (C) must be small or
calved spherical poles N and S power of hairspring
Diagram:
Magnetic strength
The stronger magnetic used, the higher
sensitivity and vice versa

Number of turn

22
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Increase the Number of turn the higher Shunt current, Is = I – Ic = 1.5 – 0.015 =
sensitivity and vice versa 1.485A
Shunt, Rs= ?
Area of coil (A) must be large Solution
The large the area of coil the higher From: Vc = Vs
sensitivity and vice versa Ic x Rc = Is x Rs – make Rs subject
Rs=(IcxRc)/Is
Power of hairspring Rs = (0.015 x10)/1.485
The less powerfully of a hair spring, the Rs =0.15/1.485
higher sensitivity and vice versa Rs = 0.10Ω

Moving Coil Ammeter Moving Coil Voltmeter

Ammeter is device which measure current It constructed by modification of moving
inamperes. It constructed by modification coil galvanometer by connecting a high
of moving coil galvanometer by connecting resistance called multiplier series to the
a lowresistance called shunt parallel to galvanometer coil in order to measure
the coil of galvanometer in order to measure potential difference in volts. Note: Rc<Rm
current in amperes. Note:Rc>Rs Diagram:
Diagram:

Mechanism
When the voltage (V) is passed, a small
Mechanism
When the large current is passed a small voltage is flows through the multipliers
current is flows through the galvanometer (Vm) where the rest current flows through
coil (Rc) where the rest current flows galvanometer coil (Vc)
through shunt (RS)
Mathematically
i. current across galvanometer coil and
Mathematically
i. Potential difference across multiplierareequal(Ic=Im=I)
galvanometer coil and shunt are equal But: I = V/R
(Vc=Vs=V) Vm/Rm = Vc/Rc
But: V = IR Vm x Rc = Vc x Rm
Vc = Vs ii. Since they series to each other, V =Vm
+ Vc
Ic x Rc = Is x Rs
ii. Since they parallel to each other, I =Is
+ Ic Example,
Suppose the galvanometer coil resistance
is 10Ω, the full scale deflection current is
Example,
Suppose the galvanometer coil, Rc = 10Ω 15mA and the instrument is to be
and the full scale deflection current, Ic = converted to measure a full scale
15mA. If it is to be converted so that it deflection potential difference of 3V.
gives a full scale deflection current, I = Calculate the resistance of multiplier
Data given
1.5A. Find the value of shunt
Data given Galvanometer coil, Rc = 10Ω
Galvanometer coil, Rc = 10Ω Coilcurrent,Ic=15mA=0.015A
Coil voltage, Vc = Ic x Rc = 10 x 0.015 =
Coil current, Ic = 15mA = 0.015A
Total current, I =1.5A 0.15V
Total voltage, V = 3V

23
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Multiplier voltage, Vm = V–Vc = 3 – 0.15 = Rs = 0.303Ω
2.85V
Multiplier resistance, Rm= ? Generator
Solution Defn: generator is device consist a coil
From:Ic=Is rotating in an external magnetic field to
Vm x Rc = Vc x Rm– make Rm subject produce electricity
Rm = (Rc x Vm)/Vc
Rm = (10 x 2.85)/0.15 Types ofGenerator
Rm = 28.5/0.15 It divided into two according to kind of
Rm = 190Ω current produce
i. Alternating currentgenerator
Example, : NECTA 2001 QN: 6 ii. Direct currentgenerator
(a)State any characteristics of a highly
sensitive galvanometer Alternating Current Generator
(b)(i)what is eddy current? Defn: a.c generator is device consist a coil
(ii) Explain two advantage of eddy rotating in an external magnetic field to
current produce alternating current. Also is called
(c) Explainhow a moving coil alternator
galvanometer can be converted into Diagram:
an ammeter and into a voltmeter

Example, : NECTA 2004 QN: 10

(a)List down two (2) factors that affect
the magnitude of induced e.m.f in a
moving coil galvanometer
(b)(i) State the laws of electromagnetic
induction
(ii) Explain how eddy current are
produced
(iii) Howcaneddycurrentminimized
(c) A moving coil galvanometer of 30Ω
NB:
resistance which carries a maximum
i. It uses principle of faraday’s law of
current of 15mA can beconvertedinto
induction
anammeter
ii. Coil spinning at constant rate in
i. How can the galvanometer be
magnetic field to induce oscillating
madetogiveamperereadings?
e.m.f
ii. If the device is to give a 1.5A full
iii. Armature (part of spinning coil) made
scale deflection what value
by soft iron core with wound turns of
resistance will berequired?
insulatedwire
Data given
iv. Armature revolve freely around a
Galvanometer coil, Rc = 30Ω
strong magnetic field on anaxis
Coil current, Ic = 15mA = 0.015A
v. Two slip rings are connected to the
Total current, I =1.5A
ends of the armature where two
Shunt current, Is = I – Ic = 1.5 – 0.015 =
carbon brushes rest onit
1.485A
Shunt, Rs= ? vi. The magnetic field should cut thecoil
Solution
Mechanism of Alternator
From: Vc = Vs
i. When the coil vertical at 3600 or00 no
Ic x Rc = Is x Rs – make Rs subject
e.m.f produced due to no cutting of
Rs=(IcxRc)/Is
the magnetic field on the coil
Rs = (0.015 x30)/1.485
Diagram:
Rs =0.45/1.485

24
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
vi. This cycle of events is repeated
automatically hence electricity is
produced
Diagram:

ii. When the armature is rotate at

900(parallel to magnetic field) the
motion/force of coil is perpendicular to
the magnetic field hencemaximum
e.m.f is induced (maximum positive) NB:
Diagram: i. The number of cycle produce per
secondiscalledfrequencyofa.c
ii. The induced current is called a.c
current
iii. The induced e.m.f is called a.ce.m.f

Direct Current Generator

Defn: d.c generator is device consist a coil
rotating in an external magnetic field to
iii. When the coil vertical(at 1800) no produce direct current.
e.m.f produced due to no cutting of Diagram:
the magnetic field on the coil
Diagram:

iv. Whenthearmatureisrotateafter180 0,
starting from vertical position and the
side of loop interchange which cause
the loop of current tochange
v. When the armature is rotate at
2700(parallel to magnetic field) the In d.c generator the slip rings in a.c
motion/force of coil is perpendicular to generator by replacing thehalf commutator
the magnetic field henceminimum to prevent reverse of current. It half
e.m.f is induced (maximum negative) commutator is called commutator
Diagram: segment which insulated from other half
commutator

Mechanism of D.C Generator

i. When the coil vertical no e.m.f
produced due to no cutting of the
magnetic field on thecoil
ii. When the armature is rotate at
900(parallel to magnetic field) the
motion/force of coil is perpendicularto

25
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
the magnetic field hencemaximum ii. Commutator splitring
e.m.f is induced (maximum positive) iii. Magneticfield
iii. When the coil vertical(at 1800) no iv. Rectangular coil ofwire
e.m.f produced due to no cutting of
the magnetic field on thecoil Rectangular coil ofwire
iv. When the armature is rotate after180 0 , Rectangular coil of wire formed by
starting from vertical position and the winding several turns of wire on a softiron
side of commutator segment core
interchange the loop which cause the
loop of current remain in the same Magnetic field
direction Magnetic field is the magnetic formed by
v. This cycle of events is repeated two unlike poles of permanent magnet
automatically hence electricity is
produced Commutator split ring
Diagram It formed by divided copper ring into two
equal halves. It used to reversedirection
offlowingelectriccurrentthroughthecoil by
changing thecontact

Carbonbrushes
It forms connection by power supply and
rectangularcoil

Advantage of alternator Mechanism of ElectricMotor

i. Commutator are complex and costly i. when the switch is closed electric
to construct d.c generator, therefore current flowing horizontal coil
many d.c generator are a.c generator magnetic fieldproduced
withrectifiers ii. interaction magnetic field bar magnet
Defn: Rectifiers is the device used to will creates magnetic couple i.e.north
flow current only in one direction. We pole of the coil face north pole of the
will study further in electronics bar magnet while south pole of
ii. Transformer works on a.ccurrent thecoilfacesouthpoleofthebarmagnet
iii. the coupling of the magnetic field
Electric Motor cause the coil to rotate since Like
Defn: is an electric device used to convert poles repel each other and unlike
electrical energy to mechanical energy polesattract
Diagram iv. When coil reached in vertical position
(rotate at 900 ) the commutator loose
contact with carbon brush but the
momentum carried by the coil takes it
part to the verticalposition
vi. When the armature is rotate after180 0 ,
starting from vertical position the side
AD and BC change position and the
side of commutator segment
interchange the loop which cause the
loop of current remain in the same
direction
vii. This cycle of events is repeated
automatically hence motor rotatesin the
Main Parts of Electric Motor samedirection
i. Carbonbrushes
26
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Telephones Receiver(Ear-Peace) sound energy into a
Defn:isanelectricdeviceusedtoconvert varying/fluctuating electriccurrent
varyingelectricalenergytosoundenergy. iv. The electric current travels through
The purpose of ear piece is to the reverse leadwire
of microphone. Microphone is the electric v. At the receiving end similar equipment
device used to convert sound energy to reverses the process. The electric
varying electricalenergy current flows into a coil placed near a
Diagram: magnet, making the coil move back
and forth and pushing another
diaphragm
vi. The diaphragm stretched over a
second horn, recreates the original
sound

Nb:
The narrowing shape of the diaphragm
helps to amplify the sound

Magnetic Relay
Main Parts Of Telephones Ear-Peace Defn: Magnetic relay is an electric device
i. Permanentmagnet which is used to control one circuit when
ii. Insulated wire(solenoid) an electric current is flowing in the other
iii. Magnetic allowdiaphragm circuit
iv. Lead wire used forconnection Or
Magnetic relay is switch used to control
Permanent magnet large current in the secondary current
It is placed between two solenoids when small electric current flowing in the
primary circuit
Solenoid
It kept by insure that the same pole facing Main Parts of Magnetic Relay
in the same direction i. Solenoid
ii. Contact
Magnetic allowdiaphragm iii. Insulating block
It formed by impregnated iron fillings on a iv.Spring
piece of paper v. Soft iron armature
Diagram:
Lead wire
It used for connection from source of
varying electric current to each solenoid

Mechanism Of Telephones Ear-Peace

i. When one speak through the
microphone in one line of a telephone
the sound energy is converted into
electrical energy entering the ear Mechanism of Magnetic relay
piece of another line through leadwire i. When an electric current from battery
ii. The sound makes a diaphragm(a kind BisflowinginthesolenoidS,thecoreC
of small tight drum skin stretched becomes magnetized and attracts iron
across the narrow end of the hone ) armature lever D pivoted at O cause
vibrates part E to moveupward
iii. The vibration move a coil near a ii. This close a gap between two spring-
magnet, converting themechanical loaded Y and X which joinedto

27
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
battery L and allow electrical current
to flow to the other electrical
equipment

Uses of Magnetic relay

i Itisusedintelephoneexchangesystem
during dialing ofnumbers
ii Switching on or off heavy current in
most electronicsdevices
Types of Transformer
Mechanism of Telephone exchange They are two types includes
system i. Step uptransformer
i. When an electric current from battery ii. Step downtransformer
B when dialing from telephone A in
solenoid S , the core C becomes Step Up Transformer
magnetized and attracts iron armature Step up transformer is the transformer
lever D pivoted at O cause part E to used to convert from low a.c voltage to
moveupward high a.c voltage
ii. This close a gap between two spring- Diagram
loaded Y and Xwhich joined to battery
L and allow electricalcurrent to flow to
the distance telephones exchangeM
iii. Thus a message sent by operating A is
passed toM

Transformer
Defn: transformer is the device uses
mutualinduction to convert a.c voltage to
large or low or Transformer is an electrical
device that transfers energy between two or NB:
more circuits through electromagnetic i. Primary coil is made by turns of coarse
induction. The coil connected to the source wire while secondary coil is made by
is called primary coil and the coil e.m.f turns of finewires
induced is called secondarycoil ii. Primary coil is made by less turns of
Diagram: coarse wire while secondary coilis made
by higher turns of finewires

Step Down Transformer

Step down transformer is the transformer
used to convert from high a.c voltage to
low a.c voltage
Diagram

Itssymbol

NB:

28
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
i. Secondary coil is made by turns of fine Then: Eff = (Ps/Pp) x 100%
wire while primary coil is made byturns Eff = ( ��� ) � ���%
�� � ��
of coarsewires
ii. secondary coil is made by less turns of
fine wire while primary coil is made by Eff = (Is ) (Vs ) � 100%
Ip Vp
higher turns of coarsewires But: Ns/Np = Vs/Vp
Then: Eff = (Is ) (Ns ) � 100%
Transformer Equation �� � �� Ip Np

From the factor affect induced e.m.f Eff = ( ) � ���%

�� � ��
(faraday’slaw)
For primarycoil Example,
Np α Vp– removes proportionality A transformer is used to step down 240V
constant mains supply to 12V for laboratory use. If
Np=KVp --------------- 1 the primary coil has 600 turns, determine
the number of turns in the secondary coil
For primary coil Datagiven
Ns α Vs– remove proportionality constant Number of turn in primary coil, Np = 600
Ns =KVs --------------- 2 turns
Potential difference in primary coil, Vp =
Divide equation 1 to equation 2 240V
Np/Ns = (K Vp)/(K Vs) Potential difference in secondary coil, Vs
Np/Ns = Vp/Vs = 12V
Number of turn in secondary coil, Ns = ?
Suppose no loss in power Solution
Pp = Ps From: Np/Ns = Vp/Vs – make Ns subject
But: p = IV Ns = (Vs x Np)/Vp
Then: Ip x Vp = Is x Vs – make Vp/Vs Ns = (12 x 600)/240
subject Ns = 7200/240 = 30
Vp/Vs=Is/Ip Ns = 30 turns
Therefore: Vp/Vs = Is/Ip = Np/Ns
Vp/Vs = Is/Ip = Np/Ns Example,
A current of 0.6A is passed through a step
Where: up transformer with a primary coil of 200
Np = number of turn in primary coil turns. A current of 0.1A is obtained in the
Ns=numberofturninsecondarycoil secondary coil. Determine the number of
Vp = potential difference in primary coil turns in thesecondary coil and the voltage
Vs =potential difference in secondary coil across if the primary coil is connected to
Ip = current in primarycoil 240Vmains.
Is =current in secondary coil Data given
Pp = power in primary coil Number of turn in primary coil, Np= 200
Ps =power in secondarycoil turns
Potential difference in primary coil, Vp =
Transformer Efficiency 240V
Defn: Transformer efficiency is the ratio of Current in primary coil, Ip = 0.6 A
secondary coil power to primary coil Current in secondary coil, Is = 0.1A
power express as a percentage Number of turn in secondary coil, Ns =?
Mathematically: Potential difference in secondary coil, Vs=
Eff =(��) � ���% ?
��
Solution
But:Ps=IsxVs Pp Number of turn in secondary coil, Ns = ?
= Ip xVp From: Np/Ns = Is/Ip – make Ns subject
Ns=(IpxNp)/Is
29
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes
Ns = (0.6 x 200)/0.1
Ns = 120/0.1 = 1200
Ns = 1200 turns

Potential difference in secondary coil, Vs=

?
From: Np/Ns = Vp/Vs – make Vs subject
Vs = (Vp x Ns)/Np
Vs = (240 x 1200)/200
Vs= 288000/200 = 1440
Vs =1440V

Example,
A step up transformer has 10000 turns in
the secondary coil and 100 turns through
the primary coil. An a.c of 5A flow in the
primary coil when connected to a12V
a.c supply, Calculate
a) the voltage across secondarycoil
b) current in secondary coil if transformer
efficiency is90%
Data given
Number of turn in primary coil, Np= 100
turns
Number of turn in secondary coil, Ns =
10000
Potential difference in primary coil, Vp =
12V
Current in primary coil, Ip = 5 A
Transformer efficiency, Eff = 90%
Potential difference in secondary coil, Vs=
?
Current in secondary coil, Is = ?
Solution
a) Potential difference in secondary coil,
Vs=?
From: Np/Ns = Vp/Vs – make Vs subject
Vs = (Vp x Ns)/Np
Vs = (12 x 10000)/100
Vs=120000/100=1200
Vs =1200V

b) Current in secondary coil, Is =?

From: Eff=(IsxVs)�100%- make Ps
Ip x Vp
subject
EffxIpxVp 90 x 5 x 12
Is= Vs x100% = 1200 x 100%
Is = 5400/120000 = 0.045
Is = 0.045A

30
Prepared by: Daudi k. Kapungu O’ level Physics Notes

31