The Decline & Fall Of The Romanov Dynasty

Students investigate:
● the historical context, including:
○ origins and nature of the Russian Empire
○ relationships with foreign powers
● the nature of the decline and fall of the Romanov dynasty, including:
○ the Romanov empire at the time of Nicholas II, including political, economic and social
grievances
○ the role of Nicholas II as autocrat
○ the development of opposition to the Romanovs
○ the role of World War I in the collapse of the Romanov dynasty
○ the transfer of power from the Romanov regime to the Provisional Government
● a relevant historical debate or issue, for example:
○ the execution of the Romanovs; the role of ethnic minorities in the Russian Empire under
Nicholas II

1. Historical Context
1.1. Origins and Nature of the Russian Empire
1.1.1. Tsarism
Tsarism is a system of government controlled by a supreme authority referred to as the ‘tsar’. This was
adopted in Russia from 1547 to 1917 as part of a series of reforms aimed at positioning Russian rulers as
leaders of the Orthodox Christian world.
● The first formally crowned Tsar was Ivan IV or Ivan the Terrible in 1547, however he was not a
Romanov, rather he was the penultimate ruler of the Rurik dynasty.
● In 1613, Michael I was elected as the first Romanov Tsar, rising to power during a turbulent period
in Russian history known as the Time of Troubles, characterised by chaotic internal conflicts,
foreign invasion, and a rapid succession of rulers
Through the appointment of the new Tsar, Russia became united under a powerful autocratic tradition,
asserting that ‘God himself commands his supreme power to be obeyed’.

1.1.2. Origins of the Russian Empire

The Russian Empire officially began in 1721 when Peter the Great declared himself emperor following
Russia’s victory in the Great Northern War, fought against the Polish and Swedish empires. Peter sought
to remodel Russia in the style of the Great European powers through a series of reforms aimed at
modernising the military, expanding territorially, and promoting cultural prestige, including:
● Gaining access to the Black Sea
● Acquiring territory in Estonia, Latvia, Finland
● Creating a strong navy
● Reorganising his army according to Western standards
● Promoting education about the development of science and technological advancements
● Modernising the Russian alphabet
● Conforming the Russian calendar to European usage
● Opening secular schools which included more than just the nobility
● Moving the capital from Moscow to Saint Petersburg
● Establishing the first Russian newspaper
● Requiring courtiers, officials, and the military to adopt modern clothing
This campaign of Westernisation and territorial expansion was continued by a series of undistinguished
rulers following the death of Peter the Great in 1725. Catherine the Great’s rule between 1762-1796 is
often referred to as a ‘golden age’ of the Russian Empire, due to her rapid expansion and successful
promotion of enlightenment ideals.

The desire to modernise Russian society and culture in the same fashion as other European powers
conflicted with stubborn adherence to autocracy - the inability of the rulers to reconcile these two
contradictory goals that ultimately led to the empire’s demise.

1.2. Geography and Climate

At the height of Russia’s expansion, it comprised nearly one-sixth of the Earth’s landmass, stretching over
Europe, Asia, and North America. It included Modern Russia, Ukraine, Belarus, Finland, The Caucasus
(Armenia, Azerbaijan, Georgia), Central Asia (Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Tajikistan, Turkmenistan,
Uzbekistan), The Baltic Republics (Lithuania, Latvia, Estonia), significant parts of Poland, parts of Turkey,
Alaska, and parts of California.

The geography and climate of Russia significantly impacted its economics, politics, and society
● As Russia was cold, 10% being tundra, this created challenges for the empire, which was
established on a predominantly agricultural, serf-based economy.
● There were no large mountains or seas capable of acting as a natural border defence - therefore
vulnerable to attacks and necessitated a large military to protect and police the territory
● While they had numerous rivers and lakes, its only coastline was the ice-bound Arctic Ocean,
meaning the empire was practically landlocked

1.3. Population
Upon its creation in 1721, the Russian Empire had a population of around 17.5 million people. By 1897,
when the first and only census was conducted, the number had risen to 126 million.
● Half of these were recorded as ‘Great Russians’ (68 million), whilst the remaining inhabitants had
been conquered by the Romanovs
● Comprised over 100 nationalities, each with their own languages, customs, and identities
● Various religious groups - Orthodox Christians were given preeminent status, followed in
descending order by Christians, Muslims, and Jews

Traditionally, this diversity was accepted, as all groups acknowledged their allegiance to the Russian state
and its tsar. However, this changed towards the end of the empire, with Nicholas I’s doctrine of
‘Orthodoxy, Autocracy, and Nationality’. His father, Alexander III, also indoctrinated Russification.

Russification is a form of cultural assimilation whereby traditional Russian values, culture, and language
were enforced
● Poles, Ukrainians, Baltic Germans, and others were forced to undertake educational programs of
the Russian language
● The persecution of minorities (especially Jewish people) was not officially objected to and was
sometimes even encouraged, tolerating pogroms and no offenders were punished

With literacy rising, the upper and middle classes made valuable contributions to the intellectual and
philosophical debates of the time, although this literate culture was closely monitored by the state, and
any anti-government publications were censored.
1.4. The Class System
The system of social class was one of the most important features of the Russian empire and its downfall.
Access to wealth, status, and resources was highly dependent on an individual’s class position.
I. The Tsar: At the top of the hierarchy was the Tsar, who lived luxuriously with immense wealth,
owning up to 10% of arable land in Russia, several palaces, and thousands of servants, virtually
isolated from the suffering of the lower classes. The Tsar had unlimited power, and although a
large bureaucracy helped govern Russia, the Tsar appointed and dismissed ministers at will.
There was no constitution or parliament to limit his power, and criticism was suppressed. It was
believed that the Tsar was divinely appointed to rule the Russian people.
II. The Nobility: Encompassed relatives of the Tsar, avaricious landowners, top government
officials, and other ‘elites’. Although this group represented less than 1% of the population, they
owned 25% of land, enjoying excessive wealth and luxury. They were largely European educated
due to the Westernisation of the Russian Empire. The nobility dominated politics, thus if reforms
were proposed, they were generally refused by those whom the system benefited.
III. The Clergy: The clergy were the body of all people ordained for religious duties. Composed of
1% of the population, and despite declining in importance due to the continued policy of
secularisation, they maintained relatively high status. Most of the empire attended church
regularly. The Russian Orthodox Church and its higher clergy owned large areas of land, however
individual status often depended on location - many in the country were as poor as the peasants
and relied on fees and donations from rural church goers.
IV. Middle Classes: Categorised as merchants, bureaucrats, and professionals. Though expanding
slightly in the 1890s, this class was miniscule compared to other European powers. Members of
the middle class were typically receptive to liberal, democratic, and reformist ideas.
V. The Working Class: Includes factory workers, soldiers, sailors. Revolutionaries would call this
group the proletariat. They were burdened with overcrowded housing, dangerous working
conditions, long hours, and inadequate wages, thus being crucial to the revolution.
VI. The Peasants: Comprised 80% of the Russian population, with short and miserable lives. Prior to
1861, they were labelled ‘serfs’ and had no legal status or human rights, either privately or state
owned. Alexander II emancipated the serfs as they had proved economically inefficient.
Emancipation gave former serfs freedom of movement and land, however this land was
mandated to be reimbursed to the government through redemption payments for 49 years. These
payments were collected to compensate the nobility for their loss of serfs. Peasants frequently fell
behind on their payments, which were especially difficult as their main method of earning was
through farming. However, the best areas of farmland had been allocated to the nobility, leading
to growing discontent amongst peasants who believed the land should belong to them regardless.

1.5. Economy
As the economy was predominantly agricultural, the Russian Empire faced two significant issues:
1. Most land was unsuitable for farming due to climate, and all remaining land became overcrowded
2. Russia had not industrialised according to the standards of other European countries, hence most
peasants did not have access to machinery or chemical fertilisers

The industrial growth which did occur was largely uneven and government directed. State debt
quadrupled and the Russian Empire had difficulty financing its trade with Europe. To address this
program, Sergei Witte (minister of finance), undertook an ambitious economic program which included
foreign loans, accelerated development of heavy industries, and high taxation of lower classes. The
communications and railway systems were also antiquated.
1.6. Relationships With Foreign Powers
The rise of the Russian empire was the result of domination over many of its neighbours in Europe and
Asia. By the end of the 19th century, only the British Empire rivalled them in terms of size. This rapid
expansion occurred through numerous wars over 200 years:

Russo-Turkish Wars
● Series of war in the 17th to 19th centuries between the Russian and Ottoman Empires, fought as
part of the Great Northern War and the Crimean War
● Led to the southward extension of Russia’s frontier, as well as their influence in Ottoman territory

Napoleonic Invasion
● Began on June 1812 when Napoleon’s army of 500,000 European troops (one of the largest
Europe’s ever seen) crossed the Neman River in a bid to engage and defeat the Russian army
● Russian army refused to engage and instead retreated into the Russian interior
● Napoleon’s army were not acclimatised to Russia and lacked supplies for the long commute
● Lasted six months before Napoleon’s army (Grand Armee) retreated, losing 300,000 men in
comparison to the Russian loss of 200,000
● Marked a turning point in the Napoleonic wars, thus great prestige to the Russian Empire and its
Tsar Alexander I

Crimean War
● Occurred from 1853-1856, primarily fought on the Crimean Peninsula
● Fought against an alliance of the Ottoman Empire, the United Kingdom, Sardinia, and France
● Provoked from conflict between the great powers in the Middle East, but more directly instigated
by Russia’s demands to exercise protections for the Orthodox subjects of the Ottoman Empire
● Russians suffered a humiliating defeat which revealed the inability of the serf-based economy to
support the military, signalling to Alexander II that modernisation was required
● Despite prompting some reforms, the Romanov family firmly remained in power

Russo-Japanese War
● Occurred between 1904-1905, fighting against the Empire of Japan
● Provoked by rival imperial ambitions in Manchuria and Korea
● War covered extensively in the media, exposing the weaknesses of the Russian Empire

Despite these numerous wars, the Russian empire simultaneously had close cultural and familial ties with
the rest of Europe.

2. Nature of the Decline and Fall of the Romanov Dynasty

Nicholas II became Tsar in 1894, and despite Russia being one of the great powers of Europe, they were
universally regarded as backwards in comparison to Britain, Germany, and France. The new tsar inherited
serious political, economic, and social problems which caused unsolvable discontent amongst the
Russian people.

2.1. Political Grievances

By the inception of Nicholas II’s regime, dissatisfaction with the Tsarist bureaucratised autocracy had
been growing for some time. Nicholas's grandfather Alexander II had attempted to satisfy public opinion
through a series of liberal reforms:
 ● Emancipation of serfs in 1861, largely due to the economic inefficiency and to prevent potential
revolution. ‘Redemption payments’ kept the former-serfs economically bound to their landlord and
created mass dissatisfaction among the new peasant class
● Reform of local government, including the introduction of district and provincial ‘zemstvos’ or
county councils. They had jurisdiction over roads, hospitals, food, education, and general public
welfare
● Changes to courts of law, including attempts to stop secrecy, bribery, and government
dependence. This created independent courts and enabled trials by jury, ensuring judges were
irremovable
● Military service became obligatory for all classes, and attempts were made to humanise military
schools and courts

While these reforms were somewhat positive, Alexander II himself was not convinced of the benefits,
hence increasingly turning to more conservative advisors. He ultimately left many reforms incomplete,
returning to censorship of the press, tighter government control of education, and reduction of powers of
the zemstvos.

The combination of initial enthusiasm for these liberal reforms and the dissatisfaction bred by their results
formed new revolutionary groups:
● The Black Partition who wanted peaceful political change
● The People’s Will who were a terrorist organisation

Upon his assassination in 1881, following eighteen attempts, his son Alexander III took the throne.
● No intention of limiting autocratic power
● Opposed representative government
● Promoted Russian nationalism through doctrine of ‘Orthodoxy, Autocracy, Nationality’
● Advocated for Russification of minorities and persecution of non-Christian religious groups
through the Okhrana or secret police

When Nicholas II took the throne, he inherited this political landscape of strict autocracy which
disregarded the political grievances of the people. When he was made Tsar in 1894 there was no
centrally elected government, discontent from every social group, desire for democratic revolutionary
changes from socialist intellectuals, political groups were illegal, and The Okhrana suppressed
dissidence.

2.2. Economic Grievances

Russia had been late to emerge from feudalism and their economy had not industrialised. The economic
and strategic weakness that this underdevelopment created was exposed by the defeat in the Crimean
War, demonstrating that they were unable to produce munitions at an efficient rate. Hence, the urgent
need to industrialise became a top priority.

Essentially, industrialisation happened too quickly, as the burden of this accelerated development was
placed on the Russian people.

The emancipation of the serfs were intended to stimulate the economy, hopefully leading to more effective
farming methods and higher agricultural productivity. However, due to the breakneck urban growth, living
and working conditions became atrocious; cramming lots of impoverished, exploited, and frustrated
workers together helped spread revolutionary fervour.
2.3. Social Grievances
Perhaps the most significant problem in the time of Nicholas II was the tremendous class disparity. The
horrendous conditions faced by the working class and peasants sharply contrasted the wealthy living
standards of the tsar and nobility.
● Rising discontent among the peasants regarding redemption payments, as they were heavily
taxed and the land was difficult for farming
● Workers suffered long hours, were at constant risk of injury, and housing was overcrowded

3. Role of Nicholas II as an Auto crat

Nicholas II reigned from 1894-1917, continually resisting demands for a more participatory government.
His regime was therefore marked by periodic crises, eventually leading to a revolution which ended his
family's 300 year dynasty.

Autocracy refers to a system of government by one person with absolute power, no consultation
necessary.

Nicholas II was appointed Tsar at only 26 years old following the death of his father, being historically
noted as inexperienced and immature.
● Despite this, he took his inheritance seriously, believing it was a god given duty to rule Russia
● Taught that autocracy was the only way to maintain order in multinational empire
● Educated against democracy, constitutional government, and parliament
● Believed in divine appointment, supported anti-Semetism and Russification
● Suppressed dissidence through secret police and was pro-military
● Isolated from Russian population, thus unable to address grievance
Despite his determination to rule as an autocrat, he lacked the assertive personality, firm conviction, or
prompt decision making. Frequently described as politically naive and indecisive, often disregarding
guidance of established advisors.

Nicholas had support of several powerful groups to enforce authority, including the army, the Okhrana, the
Russian Orthodox Church, and the Cossacks (group of Eastern Slavic People).

He had haemophilia, a genetic condition that means blood cannot clot properly and excessive bleeding
will occur after injury. Historians often point out he was a good husband and father of four daughters.

4. Development of Opposition to the Romanovs

Nicholas II's stubborn adherence to autocracy and mismanagement of several crises quickly turned public
opinion against him.

4.1. Russo-Japanese War

The brief conflict of the Russo-Japanese War from 1904-1905 led to an embarrassing defeat for Russia,
discrediting the Tsar and creating growing opposition to the Romanovs. The war between Russia and
Japan was provoked by competing interests in Asia.

Tsar Nicholas II played a key role in starting this conflict, believing strong leadership was demonstrated
through imperial expansion and was especially interested in increasing Russian influence and territory in
Asia. Russia had already occupied Manchuria (a large area of northwest China) since 1860, and gained
control of Port Arthur (a coastal town in northeast China) in 1898.
Port Arthur was especially important to Russians because it served as a secure, warm-water port for the
empire’s Pacific fleet. In the lead up to the war, the Russian government began signalling that they
planned to extend this influence in Asia. They started constructing a branch of the Trans-Siberian railway,
increasing their general presence in Northern China.

Japan also had imperial interests in Asia, particularly in Northern China and Korea, which they had
controlled since the mid-1890s. The Russian ambitions therefore threatened Japanese interests. The
Japanese initially sought to prevent a war through negotiations, agreeing to recognise Russian control of
Manchuria if the Russians did so for Japan in Korea. However, they were met with intransigence from the
Russians. The tsar’s government was convinced Japan would not go to war and thus stalled negotiations
and continually insisted the Japanese minimise their military presence in Korea, severing diplomatic ties
in early 1904.

On 8 February 1904, the Japanese ambushed Russian ships at Port Arthur, declaring formal war three
hours later. While the surprise attack startled the Russian government, Nicholas II remained arrogant that
Japan was an underdeveloped nation who could not withstand the Russian military. This was a great
miscalculation as Japanese industrial and military growth had outperformed Russia’s for several decades.
Japan had deep militaristic culture, and its generals were trained in ancient, modern, and Western war
strategy. Unlike Russia in which army hierarchy was based on social class, Japan’s was based on merit.

By August 1904, 100 000 Japanese soldiers had surrounded and laid siege to Port Arthur, digging
trenches and attacking city walls with artillery and gunfire. Russian attempts to relieve Port Arthur was
mishandled and embarrassing; 28 Russian ships were sent to free the city, however at one point the ships
fired British fishing boats they believed to be Japanese warships in disguise, almost embroiling Britain into
the conflict. The siege lasted five months before it was officially taken by the Japanese, killing 6 000
Russians and taking 20 000 hostage.

One of Russia’s most devastating defeats came in the Battle of Tsushima, with almost the entirety of the
Russian fleet ambushed, captured, or killed. Defeat played out in front of an audience of foreign admirals,
generals, and dignitaries who anticipated battle between “old Europe” and “new Asia”, thus were
astonished to see the former completely decimated.

Nicholas II was eventually forced to seek peace with the Japanese. Sergei Witte led negotiations on the
Russian side given their weak position, and was able to secure somewhat reasonable terms in the treaty.
Russia still experienced substantial territorial losses, destroying the military prestige Russia had long
cultivated and undermining the tsar and his advisors. Additionally, Russia was already facing economic
recession which was exacerbated by the war, as the government increased military spending by 50%
despite production levels decreasing.

The expensive and humiliating defeat left Russian people demoralised and frustrated by the failed
policies, contributing to the development of Romanov opposition.

4.2. Bloody Sunday

Early morning on 22 January 1905, workers and their families gathered in St Petersburg and marched
towards the Tsar's winter palace. The march was peaceful, with many carrying religious iconography and
images of the Tsar. They were living and working in horrible conditions, hoping the tsar would be
sympathetic and use his authority to improve their lives. Many saw Nicholas II as a ‘father figure’ who was
simply unaware of their struggles, but would alleviate them once he realised their plight.

The protest was organised by a young Orthodox priest, Father George Gapon, who had obtained
permission to establish a way to channel workers' economic and social grievances into legitimate action.
The petition called for better working conditions, measures to alleviate poverty, civil liberties, and the
election of a parliament.

Nicholas had left St Petersburg a day before the demonstration, leaving the responsibility of handling the
protest to his uncle, the generals, and the police who were afraid of public protests.
● The marchers were confronted by army soldiers and ordered to go home before they had
reached the Winter Palace, however there were too many people for effective communication and
the protesters pushed forwards
● Soldiers fired blank shots and then live ammunition, causing more confusion and resulted in
approximately 4000 deaths

Although it was not Nicholas II's fault, the news of the massacre quickly spread to Russians of all classes
across the country, causing widespread discontent and strikes against the tsar.

4.3. The 1905 Revolution

Following the events of Bloody Sunday, an estimated 800,000 industrial workers engaged in strikes over
the following months.

At its outset, the 1905 revolution had been spontaneous and generally uncoordinated. In essence, it was
a series of uprisings launched by relatively unconnected actors. However, throughout the year, trade
unions and soviets (workers councils) appeared, despite the fact that they were technically illegal.

In February, Nicholas II responded with mild concessions, proposing the creation of a consultative body.
However, this satisfied very few people, and millions of workers, students, and most significantly armed
forces joined the rebellion. On the advice of Sergei Witte, the first Prime Minister of Russia, Nicholas II
issued a document called the ‘October Manifesto’, which guaranteed a constitution and elected legislature
(called a 'Duma’). While this did not meet numerous demands that had been posed during the revolution,
moderates were satisfied and many workers subsequently returned to their jobs.

4.4. The October Manifesto and the Survival of Tsarism

The October Manifesto promised significant political reform, most notably in the form of the creation of a
legislative body known as the ‘Duma’. Members would be elected by people, and laws would be approved
by the Duma, hence the tsar would technically not be considered an autocrat. The Manifesto also
guaranteed civil liberties including freedom of speech and assembly.

4.4.1. The Fundamental Laws

Despite the serious attempt to move towards a more participatory form of government, the tsar was still
determined to hold onto his autocratic power and used the laws to reassert his status as supreme leader:
● Tsar had authority to dissolve the Duma at any point and call for new conservative elections
● Tsar controlled electoral system and skewed voting laws to advantage class groups he believed
were more loyal
● The Duma had two houses. The upper house, also known as state council, was appointed by the
Tsar himself or were prominent members of the nobility. The Duma could not pass laws without
 the approval of the upper house, and was therefore labelled the ‘grave digger’ of progressive
legislation.
● The tsar himself had power to veto any legislation not in his favour
● The Duma had limited control over finance, and almost no influence over foreign policy or the
military as that was commanded by the Tsar
● Stipulated that the tsar could declare a state of emergency at any time, during which he could
pass any law he wished

4.4.2. Reception of the October Manifesto and Fundamental Laws

Liberal groups were generally satisfied by the reforms, even emerging a political group called the
‘Octobrists’, who enthusiastically endorsed the document. However many in lower wanted more
substantial change, especially once realising The limitations of the Fundamental Laws. Workers,
students, soldiers, and sailors continued to protest, and the peasants continued to seize land. The Tsar
was not supportive of the Duma.

4.5. Political Ideas & Groups in 1905

In the years following 1905, there was growing interest in Marxist political ideas amongst the Russian
lower classes. It was formed by Karl Marx and Frederich Engels.

Traditional Marxist theory uses economics and the class system to explain changes in history, politics,
culture, and more. The base of this model comprises means of production and relations of production. In
any given society, these ‘means’ are owned by those who hold the most power. According to Marx's
conflict theory, society is in a state of constant conflict over means of production. Marx writes extensively
about the exploitation faced by those who do not own means of production, such as if they do not have
money, education or status.

Above the base there is superstructure, which refers to all other aspects of society not directly related to
production, including art, family, culture, norms, religion, identities, philosophy, law, media, politics,
science, and education. Marx contends that the base and superstructure are in a symbiotic or mutually
beneficial relationship.

Marxist theory asserts that society has an economic base, therefore historical change is inextricably
linked with economic change.
● Claimed that historical change would be brought about in distinct stages and that this was a
natural and inevitable process
● The limitations and contradictions of each different stage would lead to its eventual downfall, and
the acceptance of a new “higher” form
● Pyramid from bottom to top: primitive communism, slave-owning societies, feudalism, capitalism,
socialism, communism

As Marx was writing in Europe in the 19th century, he saw the introduction of industrialised cities and an
increasingly concentrated workforce (the proletariat), who were poorly paid and endured dire living and
working conditions
● These circumstances led Marx to predict capitalism would be overthrown and replaced by
socialism, as he thought the proletariat would rebel against the oppressive bourgeoisie
● Marx saw capitalism as an unjust system, critiquing the concentration of wealth in only a few
hands
Traditional Marxists believed that when capitalism collapses, the means of production would be seized by
workers and regulated by the community. Under communism, individuals would contribute and receive
according to their ability and needs, ending both the class system and conflict over the means of
production.

Marxist, socialism, and communism are typically graded as extreme left wing on the political spectrum
● Left-wing is generally characterised by emphasis on ideals such as freedom, equality, fraternity,
rights, progress, reform and internationalism. Economically supports collectivism and intervention.
(Bolsheviks)
● Right-wing focuses on notions such as authority, hierarchy, order, duty, tradition, reaction, and
nationalism. Economically supports the market and the individual. (Octoberists)

4.6. Political Groups post-1905

While some revolutionary groups in Russia were more radical than others, they all tended to be on the left
side of the political spectrum.

4.6.1. Liberals
● Believed in basic civil rights for all Russians, such as freedom of speech, assembly, religion
● The rule of law - the law should protect all Russian citizens and be stronger than the personal
power Of the tsar, army, or police
● The creation of constitution and a democratically elected government
● Stronger zemstvos with more power and resources to address local issues

The most important liberal political parties were:

● The Octoberists, who were largely satisfied by the reforms promised by the Manifesto as many of
their party members became members of the new legislative body
● The Cadets, the largest liberal party, comprised middle-class Russians, many of whom were
active in Zemstvos. They favoured gradual change, not wanting to overthrow the tsar but instead
advocating for a constitutional monarchy where an elected parliament would serve alongside the
tsar. The Cadets played a central role in establishing the Provisional Government

4.6.2. The Socialist Revolutionaries

Formed in 1901 from Marxist influence, believing socialism would be achieved through reform rather than
revolution. Advocated for getting rid of the tsar and establishing a democracy where capitalism existed but
was restricted by social reforms. Main goal was to redistribute land to the peasants. A number of SRs
used violence to achieve their ambitions, carrying out hundreds of political assassinations.

4.6.3. The Socialist Democratic Workers Party

The spread of Marxist theory in Russia around the turn of the century prompted George Piekhanov, the
father of Russian Marxism, to establish the Socialist Democratic Workers Party. At a congress in 1903, a
disagreement about who membership should be open to divided the party into two factions. Vladimir
Lenin and his supporters argued that the party should be restricted to a small group of disciplined and
dedicated revolutionaries, whilst Julius Martov maintained that the workers party should be open to all
supporters. The former took the name Bolsheviks (majority) and the latter Mensheviks (minority)

The Mensheviks
Strived to create a mass social democratic party, modelled off those in Western Europe.
 ● More patient action, encouraging socialist revolution by raising class awareness, encouraging
unionism, and acting as agitators in bourgeoisie politics
● Unlike the Bolsheviks, they were willing to cooperate with other political parties

The Bolsheviks
Led by Vladimir Lenin, the Bolsheviks believed that if the party comprised a small but professionally
vanguard, then Marx's historical changes could be skipped and change could occur rapidly
● In contrast to Mensheviks, they more radically promoted a socialist revolution
● Claimed that once the tsar was overthrown, they would establish a dictatorship of the proletariat
and would not cooperate with the bourgeoisie

4.7. Stolypin Reforms

Between the 1905 revolution and the outbreak of WW1, Pyotyr Stolypin was one of the most prominent
individuals in the Russian government. Nicholas II had dismissed Sergei Witte in April 1906 and
appointed Stolypin as prime minister.

His number one priority was to crush any remaining revolutionary activity, implementing repressive
policies and responding to those who did not comply with extreme brutality. Despite this brutality, he
understood support from the peasants was crucial to the regime’s survival, passing a series of reforms to
win their loyalty:
● Land reforms - cancelling redemption payments, offering cheap loans, and financially
incentivising to move to areas like Siberia (hoping to expand Russia's agricultural landscape)
● Social reforms - offering aid to protect peasants from sickness or injury, exempting most landless
peasants from new taxes, promoting religious tolerance
● Industrial reforms - stopping night and underground labour for women and children, shortening
the maximum day for workers

Many of Stolypin’s reforms were effective; the combination of these reforms and the brutal suppression of
revolutionary activity may indeed have brought an end to anti-tsarist movements.
However, in 1911, Stolypin was assassinated, revealing that discontent among the people was still
widespread. Tensions rose again.

5. The Role Of WW1 in the Collapse of the Romanov Dynasty

While anti-tsarist sentiment had been brewing in Russia for some time, the war thoroughly exposed the
incompetence of the Tsar. The Russian people blamed him for military failures, economic burdens, and
the political influence of nefarious individuals such as Rasputin. By 1917, all segments of society were
united in their condemnation of the tsar, prompting the end of the Romanov Dynasty.

5.1. Russia's Entry Into The War

Nicholas II assumed familial ties between Russia and Germany would prevent the two countries from
going to war, as Kaiser Wilhelm II was his cousin. However, the alliance system of the Central Powers
demanded that nations militarily support their allies; if one was attacked the other was obliged to defend
them.

This left Russia caught between their Balkan ally Serbia and the antagonistic empires of Austria-Hungary
and Germany. The assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand by a Serbian nationalist caused the
German Kaiser to declare war on Russia.
When the War started, it looked as though the conflict would save autocracy as it distracted the Russian
people from the enduring domestic political, economic, and social issues they had been battling. Tsar
Nicholas II almost completely evaporated urban discontent in the early stages of 1914. However, Marxist
revolutionaries such as the Bolsheviks, suggested that the war was another example of upper classes
manipulating the masses for their own gain. Later on, this dominated the national conversation.

5.2. Key Events

● 1 August 1914: Germany declares war on Russia
● 17 August 1914: Russia invades Germany, attacking East Prussia, marking the advent of conflict
on the Eastern Front where Russia would oppose Germany and Austria-Hungary
● 26 August 1914: The Battle of Tannenberg, which ended in German victory over Russia. One of
Russia's main mistakes was sending uncyphered wireless messages, again due to their
technological disadvantage
● 7-14 September 1914: The First Battle of the Mansurian Lakes, a German offensive on the
Eastern Front which began a three year stalemate
● 23 August-11 September 1914: The Battle of Galicia or Lemberg, where the Russians defeated
the Austro-Hungarian on the Eastern Front
● 1 November 1914: Russia declares war on the Ottoman Empire as they ally with Germany
● 31 January 1915: First use of poison gas, although cold temperatures prevented the gas from
vaporising, much to disappointment of Germans
● August 1915: Tsar leaves capital to take personal control of armies on the Western Front, his wife
Alexandra responsible for Russ
● June-September 1916: Russian offensive is withered after loss of nearly one million men. This
humiliating withdrawal is a blow to Russian morale and fuels political unrest in Russia
● March 1917: Russian army is demoralised and close to collapse, forcing Tsar Nicholas II to
abdicate

While Russia seemed to be succeeding early in the war, the empire suffered two significant defeats in
1914, name the Battles of Tannenberg and Mansurian Lakes. In these battles, the enthusiastic mood at
the start of the war transformed into one of disillusionment. Russian soldiers increasingly reported that
they were treated not as men but as expendable material, used by the powerful to advance their own
interests. All this worsened domestic tensions, which it seemed had only been temporarily assuaged by
the war.

5.3. Inadequate Preparation

Russia’s failure can be attributed to its lack of preparation for a war of such magnitude, as they had been
late to industrialise and in many ways underdeveloped. The First World War both exposed and increased
the vulnerability of Russia's old regime.
● Russian factories were unable to produce enough ammunition at an efficient rate
● Army commanders planned manoeuvres based on outdated maps
● Only one in three soldiers had a rifle
● Many soldiers were conscripted peasants, meaning they were unskilful and inexperienced
● Communication systems were still primitive, making it difficult to deploy soldiers, move
equipment, or pass messages efficiently
● Shortage of medical workers

5.4. Total War

Total war refers to when a country in wartime devotes all its financial, military, and civilian resources to
achieving victory. The heavy burdens of total war meant the situation of the Russian Home Front was
almost as severe as it was for soldiers.
● Economy was collapsing due to cut off on normal trade routes, plummeting exports,
disproportionate government spending, inflation, and rise of staple food price
● Many conscripted soldiers were rural residents, meaning their absence made it harder to work the
soil
● In cities, wages stayed low but prices increased. It was difficult to find food, and living and
working conditions were atrocious, leading to over 200 strikers
As the government's priority was the war, there was no indication that life might improve for the Russian
people, creating unparalleled disillusionment with the tsarist system.

5.5. The Tsar's Political Errors

The most significant error was the decision to make himself commander of the army in 1915, confident
that taking the role would boost morale and lead the troops to victory:
● Tsar Nicholas II was not knowledgeable regarding military organisation, leading to worsened
shortages
● As he made himself Commander, this made him personally responsible for Russia's poor
performance in the war, leading to civil unrest
● There was resentment for Alexandra, the wife of Nicholas who was considered inexperienced;
there was also general prejudice as she was German

5.6. The Role of Rasputin

Grigori Rasputin grew up as a peasant and claimed to have a deep religious transformation once his age
of adulthood. After taking several pilgrimages, he ended up in St Petersburg, where he was brought to the
attention of the Romanov family under the pretence of being a holy man with healing powers.

After four girls, Tsar Nicholas II and his wife Alexandra finally gave birth to a boy, Alexei Nikolayevich in
1904. However, he was born with haemophilia, a condition passed through the female line of his mother.
Unfortunately, regular doctors were unable to treat this condition, but Rasputin was. As a result, he
became a friend and confidant of the Romanov family.

Russian people of all classes did not share the royal family's attachment to Rasputin. The aristocracy did
not approve of a peasant in such a high position. Rasputin's physical appearance emphasised his
difference from the nobles who frequented the Romanov court. He loved alcohol and sex, devouring both
in excess. Many subsequently viewed him as a deprayed peasant who was corrupting the Russian court,
and all though these concerns were repeatedly brought to attention, they were continuously overruled by
Alexandra. Many interpreted Alexandra's devotion to Rasputin as a sign that they were two lovers.

Rapsutin exercised considerable influence over political and military matters, especially once Tsar
Nicholas II appointed himself commander of the army. He promoted his friend to positions of power and
demoted those who criticised him, making Rasputin a symbol of corruption that had overtaken the Tsarist
regime.

To save the monarchy, a group of aristocrats murdered the holy man. On 16 December 1916, a prince
invited Rasputin to his palace under the pretence of gifting him sexual relations with his wife. He was
subsequently poisoned, shot, and drowned.
6. Transfer of Power from the Romanov Regime to the Provisional
Government
6.1. The February Revolution
Following numerous raging protests and the withdrawal of military support for the Tsar, the Romanov
Dynasty finally collapsed on February 1917.

Riots and demonstrations erupted in February in response to shortage of bread, linked to the burdens of
WW1. The capital became essentially shut down and the demands increased rapidly.

‘The situation is serious. The capital is in a state of anarchy. The government is paralysed: the
transportation system has broken down; the supply systems for food and fuel are completely
disorganised. General discontent is on the increase. It is necessary that some person enjoying the
confidence of the country beentriused immediately with the formation of a new government. There can be
no delay.”

Michael Rodzianko, the leader of the Duma, warned Nicholas with the above letter. The Tsar ignored
these warnings and ordered that the protests be crushed. Police fired on the demonstrators, but the
Cossack troops and soldiers refused to fire. Nicholas also demanded the Duma be suspended, yet its
members continued to hold meetings. Revolutionaries occupied government offices and the police
headquarters were set on fire.

6.2. The Tsar's Abdication and Transfer of Power to the Provisional Government
Finally recognising the gravity of the moment, Nicholas II tried to return to the capital by rail. During the
journey, his train received information that the rail lines into Petersburg were now being controlled by
revolutionaries, so instead he stopped in the Russian city Pskov. In Pskov he learned the army had
deserted him and was not implored by the newly formed Provisional government to abdicate, renouncing
his and his son's claim to the throne on 15 March 1917.

While the Provisional Government was the ostensible Russian authority, Soviets also exercised
considerable power. The term ‘dual power’ was used to describe the coexistence of these competing
centres of power, with the Provisional Government controlling the state and representing the middle and
upper classes, while the Soviets represented the people (workers, peasants, and soldiers).

In November 1917, the Provisional Government was replaced by the Bolsheviks. In the aftermath of the
1917 February revolution and the Tsar's abdication, the Romanov family were moved to many different
locations in Russia. By 1918, the Bolsheviks were fighting a civil war against the ‘White Army’, made up of
old Tsarist supporters and international forces from Europe and America. On 17 July 1918, the decision
was made to execute the Romanov family to prevent them from being rescued and Nicholas returning to
the thrown.