6 SHORT CIRCUIT ANALYSIS Electrical networks and machines are subject to various types of faults while in operation. During the fault period, the current flowing is determined by the internal e.m.fs of the machines in the network, and by the impedances of the network and machines. However, the impedances of machines may change their values from those that exist immediately after the fault occurrence to different values during the fault tll the fault is cleared. The network impedance may also change, if the fault is cleared by switching operations. It is, therefore, necessary to calculate the short-circuit current at different instants when faults occur. For such fault analysis studies and in general for power system analysis it is very convenient to use per unit system and percentage values. In the following this system is explained. 6.1 Per Unit Quantities ‘The per unit value of any quantity isthe ratio of the actual value in any units to the chosen base ‘quantify of the same dimensions expressed as a decimal. —_ ‘Actual value in any units Per unit quantity ~ ‘55 or reference value in the same units In power systems the basic quantities of importance are voltage, current, impedance and power. For all per unit calculations a base KVA or MVA and a base KV are to be chosen. ‘Once the base values or reference values are chosen. the other quantities can be obtained as follows Selecting the total or 3-phase KVA as base KVA, for a 3-phase systemShort Cireuit Analysis 77 base KVA, Base current in amperes = Toy qinesorine] base KV (line-to-line)* x 100 Base impedance in ohms = “Bl (base KAY] (base KV (line-to-line)? Base impedance in ohms ‘base MVA_ (base KV (line-to-line)* «1000 Hence, Base impedance in ohm eve where base KVA and base MVA are the total or three phase values. If phase values are used __ base KVA Base current in amperes = Foy __ base voltage Base impedance in ohm = joo (base KV)? «1000 base KVA per phase A = _ __ (base Kv? se impedance in oh = 5a per phase Inall the above relations the power factor is assumed unity, so that base power KW = base KVA actual impedance in ohm) x KVA Now, Per unit impedance ~ @etuslimpedance jn ohm) x KVA (base KV)? = 1000 Some times, it may be required to use the relation (Per unit impedance in ohms) (base KV)? ~ 1000 tual impedance in ohm) = Per unit impedance in ohms) (as a (Getal impedance in ohm) se KVA Very often the values are in different base values. In order to convert the per unit impedance from given base to another base, the following relation can be derived easily. Per unit impedance on new base A : { new KVA base ( son PU= Zeven PM Biven KVA base178 Power System Analys 62 Advantages of Per Unit System 1 While performing calculations, referring quantities from one side of the transformer to the other side serious errors may be committed. This can be avoided by using per unit system Voltages, currents and impedances expressed in per unit do not change when they are referred from one side of transformer to the other side. This is a great advantage. 3. Perunitimpedances of electrical equipment of similar type usually lie within a narrow range, when the equipment ratings are used as base values. Transformer connections do not affect the per unit values, Manufacturers usually specify the impedances of machines and transformers in per unit or percent of name plate ratings. 6.3 Three Phase Short Circuits In the analysis of symmetrical three-phase short circuits the following assumptions are generally made. 1. Transformers are represented by their leakage reactances. The magnetizing current, and core losses are neglected. Resistances, shunt admittances are not considered Star-delta phase shifts are also neglected, ‘Transmission lines are represented by series reactances. Resistances and shunt admittances are neglected. 3. Synchronous machines are represented by constant voltage sources behind subtransient reactances. Armature resistances, saliency and saturation are neglected. 4, All non-rotating impedance loads are neglected. 5. Induction motors are represented just as synchronous machines with constant voltage source behind a reactance, Smaller motor loads are generally neglected Per unit impedances of transformers : Consider a single-phase transformer with primary and secondary voltages and currents denoted by V,, V, and [,, 1, respectively. we have, vr M Base impedance for primary = <> M2 iy Base impedance for secondary ~ Per unit impedance referred to primary =Short Circuit Analysis 179 er unit impedance referred to secondary = vale Again, actual impedance referred to secondary = Z, (% \ Ww) Per unit impedance referred to secondary ¥) “WN Vib Aah) 7 MW Zh “2” ye ey (¥2/h) VOW. We ed = Per unit impedance referred to primary ‘Thus, the per unit impedance referred remains the same for a transformer on either side 64 Reactance Diagrams In power system analysis it is necessary to draw an equivalent circuit for the system, This is an impedance diagrams. However, in several studies, including short-circuit analysis it is sufficient to consider only reactances neglecting resistances. Hence, we draw reactance diagrams. For 3-phase balanced systems, itis simpler to represent the system by a single line diagram without losing the identify of the 3-phase system. Thus, single line reactance diagrams can be drawn for calculation. This is illustrated by the system shown in Fig. 6.1 (a) & (b) and by its single line reactance diagram, Xu x “TI Y es &4 Loni IOI L, Gene tantomer! Une we (a) Apower system (b) Equivalent single-line reactance diagram Fig. 6.1 6.5 Percentage Values ‘The reactances of generators. transformers and reactors are generally expressed in percentage values to permit quick short circuit calculation, Percentage reactance is defined as, %x= x10180 Power System Analysis where, 1 = full load current ‘V = phase voltage X = reactance in ohms per phase Short circuit current Isc in a circuit then can be expressed as, = MeL x00 'S¢ XV. (%X) 100 %X Percentage reactance can expressed in terms of KVA and KV as following sux) X_. ¥. (6x).V_ XV? _ F006 + F995 * 100° From equation x= SAL. TE - 1000 1900 __ 1100” 100. V1 100. 4 1000 = COX) (KVP 10 KVA ; kVA Altemnaively 6X) =X. Fo eRyse As has been stated already in short circuit analysis since the reactance X is generally seater than three times the resistance, resistances are neglected. Buu, in case percentage resistance and therefore, percentage impedance values are required then, in a similar manner we can define R r= ® 100 o v w and %Z= EX100 with usual notation The percentage values of R and Z also do not change with the side of the transformer or either side of the transformer they remain constant. The ohmic values of R, X and Z change from one side to the other side of the transformer. when a fault occurs the potential falls to a value determined by the fault impedance. Short circuit current is expressed in term of short circuit KVA based on the normal system voltage at the point of fault. 6.6 Short Circuit KVA. Itis defined as the product of normal system voltage and short circuit current at the point of fault expressed in KVAShort Circuit Analysis 181 Let V=normal phase voltage in volts 1 = fall load current in amperes at base KVA % X = percentage reactance of the system expressed on base KVA. The short circuit current. 100 ke x ‘The three phase or total short circuit KVA 3M Ise __3.V1100 _3V1 100 1000 ~ (%X) 1000 1000 ° %x 100 ‘Therefore short circuit KVA = Base KVA * 7x5 In a power system or even in a single power station different equipment may have different ratings. Calculation are required to be performed where different components oF Units are rated differently. The percentage values specified on the name plates will be with respect to their name plate ratings, Hence. it it necessary to select a common base KVA or MVA and also a base KY. The following are some of the guide lines for selection of base values. 1. Rating of the largest plant or unit for base MVA or KVA. 2. The total capacity of a plant or system for base MVA or KVA. 3. Any arbitrary value. (Base KVA) ~ (BEY) 6 x at uit KVA onsen tae” Ginkeva ) 76 unit KVAD (OX), Ifa transformer has 8% reactance on 50 KVA base, its value at 100 KVA base will be 100 (2X00 eva = (Gy) * 8 = 16% Similarly the reactance values change with voltage base as per the relation reactance at voltage V, reactance at voltage V, For short circuit analysis, it is often convenient to draw the reactance diagrams indicating the values in per unit.182 Power System Analysis 6.7 Importance of Short Circuit Currents Knowledge of short circuit current values is necessary for the following reasons. 1. Fault currents which are several times larger than the normal operating currents produce large electro magnetic forces and torques which may adversely affect the stator end windings. The forces on the end windings depend on both the dc. and ac, components of stator currents 2. The electro dynamic forces on the stator end windings may result in displacement of, the coils against one another. This may result in loosening of the support or damage to the insulation of the windings. 3. Following a short circuit, it is always recommended that the mechanical bracing of the end windings to checked for any possible loosening, 4, The electrical and mechanical forces that develop due to a sudden three phase short cireuit are generally severe when the machine is operating under loaded condition, 5. Aste fault iscleared with in3 cycles generally the heating efforts are not considerable. Short circuits may occur in power systems due to system over voltages caused by lightning or switching surges or due to equipment insulation failure or even due to insulator contamination, Some times even mechanical causes may create short circuits. Other well known reasons include line-to-line, line-to-ground, or line-to-line faults on over head lines. The resultant short circuit has to the interrupted within few cycles by the circuit breaker. It is absolutely necessary to select a circuit breaker that is capable of operating successfully when maximum fault current flows at the circuit voltage that prevails at that instant. An insight can be gained when we consider an R-L circuit connected to an alternating voltage source, the circuit being switched on through a switch, 68 Analysis of R-L Circuit Consider the circuit in the Fig. 6.2. Fig. 6.2 Sin (t + a) when the switch $ is closed at t = 0° Lete i ee = Eggs Sin (ott a)=R+L TeShort Circuit Analysis 183 «is determined by the magnitude of voltage when the circuit is closed. The general solution is “n j= Ems sin (or+a-0)e € Sin (a8) iZl where w= VRPeo'l? , ol and 0 = Tan! Se The current contains two components : .c. component = Sin (ot + a-@) and dhe. component = <9 & + Sin (0) Ifthe switch is closed when a ~ @ = or when a ~@= 0 the dic. component vanishes. the d.c. component is a maximum when a ~ 6 2 6.9 Three Phase Short Circuit on Unloaded Synchronous Generator Ifa three phase short circuit occurs at the terminals of a salient pole synchronous we obtain typical oscillograms as shown in Fig. 6.3 for the short circuit currents the three phases. Fig, 64 shows the alternating component of the short circuit current when the d.c. component is eliminated. The fast changing sub-transient component and the slowly changing transient ‘components are shown at A and C. Figure 6.5 shows the electrical torque. The changing field current is shown in Fig. 6.6. From the oscillogram of a.c. component the quantities x3, xj. xj and x4 can be determined. IF V is the line to neutral prefault voltage then the a.c. component. 1T .the rm.s subtransient short circuit. ts duration is determined by Tj. the v suibiransient direct axis time constant, The value of i, , decreases to Sy when t > Tj with Ty as the direct axis transient time constant when t > Tj v Xg184 Power System Analysis ‘The maximum dc. off-set component that occurs in any phase at a = 0 is Fig. 6.4 Alterating component of the short circuit armature currentShort Circuit Analysis 185 Electrical torque ——> Oe Orgs 0 200 30 00 e030) Fig. 6.5 Electrical torque on three-phase terminal shor circuit Field current after short eeu, Normal field current Fig. 6.6 Oscilogram of the field current after a short circuit. 6.10. Effect of Load Current or Prefault Current Consider a 3-phase synchronous generator supplying a balanced 3-phase load. Let a three phase fault occur at the load terminals. Before the fault occurs, a load current I, is flowing into the load from the generator. Let the voltage at the fault be v, and the terminai voltage of the generator be v,, Under fault conditions, the generator reactance is xj The circuit in Fig. 6.7 indicates the simulation of fault atthe load terminals by a parallel switch S. E Vet UXT = Vet (Xen +5 xa), where Ef is the subtransient internal voltage.186 Power System Analysis — TOO 2a g » $ Fak Fig. 6.7 For the transient state B= Veixy I = Me + (Zee +i Xa) le or Ey are used only when there is prefault current I, Otherwise E,, the steady state voltage in series with the direct axis synchronous reactance isto be used forall calculations. E, remains the same for all 1, values, and depends only on the field current. Every time, of course, a new Ey is required to be computed 6.11 Reactors Whenever faults occur in power system large currents flow. Especially, ifthe fault is a dead short circuit at the terminals or bus bars enormous currents flow damaging the equipment and its components. To limit the flow of large currents under there circumstances current limiting reactors are used. These reactors are large coils covered for high self-induetance. They are also so located that the effect of the fault does not affect other parts of the system and is thus localized. From time to time new generating units are added to an existing system to augment the capacity. When this happens, the fault current level increases and it may become necessary to change the switch gear. With proper use of reactors addition of generating units does not necessitate changes in existing switch gear. 6.12 Construction of Reactors ‘These reactors are built with non magnetic core so that saturation of core with consequent reduction in inductance and increased short circuit currents is avoided. Alternatively, itis possible to use iron core with air-gaps included in the magnetic core so that saturation is avoided. 6.13 Classification of Reactors (i) Generator reactors, (ii) Feeder reactors, (iii) Bus-bar reactorsShort Circuit Analysis 187 ‘The above classification is based on the location of the reactors. Reactors may be connected in series with the generator in series with each feeder or to the bus bars. @ Generator reactors ‘The reactors are located in series with each of the generators as shown in Fig. 6.8 so that current flowing into a fault F from the generator is limited, Generators Fig. 6.8 Disadvantages (a) In the event of a fault occuring on a feeder, the voltage at the remaining healthy feeders also may loose synchronism requiring resynchronization later. (b) There is a constant voltage drop in the reactors and also power loss, even during normal operation. Since modern generators are designed to with stand dead short circuit at their terminals, generator reactors are now-a-days not used except for old units in operation. (ii) Feeder reactors : in this method of protection each feeder is equipped with a series reactor as shown in Fig. 6.9. In the event of a fault on any feeder the fault current drawn is restricted by the reactor. Genesstars BvS Reactors CS “-- s8—198 Power System Analysis Disadvantages : |. Voltage drop and power loss still occurs in the reactor for a feeder fault. However, the voltage drop occurs only in that particular feeder reactor. 2. Feeder reactors do not offer any protection for bus bar faults. Neverthless, bus-bar faults occur very rarely ‘As series reactors inhererbly create voltage drop, system voltage regulation will bbe impaired. Hence they are to be used only in special case such as for short feeders of large cross-section. Bus bar reactors : In both the above methods, the reactors carry full load current under normal operation. The consequent disadvantage of constant voltage drops and power loss can be avoided by dividing the bus bars into sections and inter connect the sections through protective reactors. There are two ways of doing this. (a) Ring system : In this method each feeder is fed by one generator. Very little power flows across the reactors during normal operation. Hence, the voltage drop and power loss are negligible. Ifa fault occurs on any feeder, only the generator to which the feeder is connected will feed the fault and other generators are required to feed the fault through the reactor. (b)_ Tie-bar system : This isan improvement over the ring system. This is shown in Fig. 6.11. Current fed into a fault has to pass through two reactors in series between sections. Generators Bys, Reactors vs Bars bY wie ; ce bar F 5 in Feeders - 6.10 Fig. 6.11 ‘Another advantage is that additional generation may be connected to the system without requiring changes in the existing reactors. ‘The only disadvantage is that this systems requires an additional bus-bar system, the tie-bar,Short Circuit Analysis 189 Worked Examples 6.1 Two generators rated at 10 MVA, 11 KV and 15 MVA, 11 KV respectively are connected in parallel to a bus. The bus bars feed two motors rated 7.5 MVA and 10 MVA respectively. The rated voltage of the motors is 9 KV. The reactance of each generator is 12% and that of each motor is 15% on their own ratings. ‘Assume 50 MVA, 10 KV base and draw the reactance Solution ‘The reactances of the generators and motors are calculated on SO MVA, 10 KV base values. Reactance of generator | Reactance of generator 2 = Xgy 9) (30) Reactance of motor 1 = Xyq = 15. (a) Us, = 81% 73) R f motor 2 = Xx s(2)(2) 60.15% eactance of motor 2= Kye = 15 (76 (ig) a The reactance diagram is drawn and shown in Fig. E.6.1 72.0% ©) 48.4% (G3) TOS Fig. E.6.41 E.6.2 A 100 MVA, 13.8 KV, 3-phase generator has a reactance of 20%. The generator is connected to a 3-phase transformer T, rated 100 MVA 12.5 KV/IL0 KV with 10% reactance. The hu. side of the transformer is connected to a transmission line of reactance 100 ohm. The far end of the line is connected to a step down transformer T,, made of three single-phase transformers each rated 30 MVA, 60 KV / 10 KV with 10% reactance the generator supplies two motors connected on the Lv. side T, as shown in Fig, E.6.2. The motors are rated at 25 MVA and 50 MVA both at 10 KV with 15% reactance. Draw the reactance diagram showing all the values in per unit. Take generator rating as base.190 Power System Analysi Solution Base MVA~= 100 Base KV = 13.8 110 Base KV for the line = 13.8 « 735 = 121.44 ; i V3x66KV _114.31 Line-to-line voltage ratio of T= ~SABSRY = NESE Base voltage for motors = 24410 _ 19'69 xy 11431 % X for generators = 20 % = 0.2 pu 96 % for trasformer 7, = 10 « (123) x20. gaye y (3.8) “100 % X for transformer T, on 3 * 66 : 10 KV and 3 * 30 MVA base = 10% % X for T, on 100 MVA, and 121.44 KV : 10.62 KV is to_Y* (100) (1214s? Base reactance for line = leroop 147.47 ohms 0.678 pu. 10/90 resem ot macy = 10» (2) (2) «us ioe) =03192 pu Reatane of mater ~10« 5} (29) ~ rer actance of motor M,~ 10 (714s) (20) ~ 15 96% ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. E.6.2. 0678 50.0985 0.1596 Fig. 6.6.2Short Circuit Analysis 191 E.6.3 Obtain the per unit representation for the three-phase power system shown in © ¥ tt 44H Ly Fig. £.6.3, Generator 1: 50 MVA, 10.5 KV; Generator 2 : 25 MVA, 6.6 KV; Generator 3 : 35 MVA, 6.6 KV; Transformer T, :30MVA, 11/66 KV, _X = 15 ohm/phase ‘Transformer T; :25MVA, —_66/6.2 KV, as hw. side X = 12 ohms ‘Transmission line : X, = 20 ohm/phase Solution Let base MVA = 50 base KV = 66 (L—L) Base voltage on transmission as line | p.u. (66 KV) Base voltage for generator 1: 11 KV Base voltage for generators 2 and 3:6. KV 20x50 .U, reactance of transmission line = “ "25 = 0.229 pw 15x50 Pa reactance of transformer T, = “5s = 0.172 pu 12x50 Pu, reactance of transformer T, = ~G¢3 = 0.1377 pu P.u. reactance of generator 1 P.u, reactance of generator 2 = 1.56 pau, iu. reactance of generator 3 = —@59° = 0.78 pu192 Power System Anal: E6.4 A single phase two winding transformer is rated 20 KVA, 480/120 V at 50 HZ. The equivalent leakage impedance of the transformer referred to Lv. side is 0.0525, 78.13° ohm using transformer ratings as base values, determine the per unit leakage impedance referred to the h.v. side and Ly. side. Solution Let base KVA=20 Base voltage on hv. side = 480 V Base voltage on .. side = 120 V ‘The leakage impedance on the I.. side of the transformer Vease 2 _ (120 ~ VA base 20,000 ~ 72 ohm p.u. leakage impedance referred to the Lv. of the transformer _ 0.0525 78.13° a on Equivalent impedance referred to h.v. side is = 0.0729 78.13° 400" 129) {0.0525 70.139] =0.84 78.13° 2 The base impedance on the h.v. side of the transformer is = 11,52 ohm. 20,000 p.u, leakage impedance referred to hv. side 0.84 78.13° 1152 E.G A single phase transformer is rated at 110/440 V, 3 KVA. Its leakage reactance ‘measured on 110 V side is 0.05 ohm. Determine the leakage impedance referred to 440 V side, Solution 0.0729 78.13° pw. (0.1? «1000 | Base impedance on 110 V sid 4.033 ohm. 0.05 Foay = 0.01239 puu. Per unit reactance on 110 V side = 7-755 Leakage reactance referred to 440 V side Base impedance referred to 440 V side = ===Short Circuit Analysis 193 £.6.6 Consider the system shown in Fig. E.6.4, Selecting 10,000 KVA and 110 KV as base values, find the p.u. impedance of the 200 ohm load referred to 110 KV side and 11 KY side. KV 0KY HO KV /55KV 10,000 kVA 200 ohm x, =% xX, 21% Fig. E.6.4 Solution Base voltage at p= 11 KV Ho Base voltage at R =SSKV Base imped - 5511000 500 5 oh jase impedance at R= 75 599 ohm 200 oh pau, impedance at R = 302.5 ohm — 110? «1000 Base impedance at §= [5 p99 — = 1210 ohm Toad impedance referred to § = 200 x 22 = 800 ohm 800 i210 p.u. impedance of load referred to 6 = 75,5 = 0.661 LP x1000 10,000 Impedance of load referred to P = 200 * 2? 0.12 Similarly base impedance at P= = 121.1 obm ohm: pau. impedance of load at P = 0.661 ohm Ri194 Power System Analysis E.6.7 Three transformers each rated 30 MVA at 38.1/3.81 KV are connected in star-delta with a balanced load of three 0.5 ohm, star connected resistors. Selecting a base of 900 MVA 66 KV for the h.v. side of the transformer find the base values for the Lv. side. os sexy Soin Solution Fig. £.6.5 (base KV, _ 6.81) tase impedance on lv. side = P&S RYLLY CSI" Base imps on by. side = ERA 9g 70-1613 ohm load Ly. side a = 3.099 pu. load resistance on Lv. side = 515 = 3.099 pa (66) Base impedance on hv. side = “2” = 48.4 ohm ipedance on hiv. side = “7 = 48.4 ohm (66 Load resistance referred to h.v, side = 0.5 * (sar) = 150 ohm load resistance refered to hy. side = 13% = 3.090 Pou load resistance referred to hy. side = 2 = 3.099 pu ‘The per unit load resistance remains the same. E.6.8 Two generators are connected in parallel to the Lv. side of a 3-phase delta-star transformer as shown in Fig. E.6.6. Generator 1 is rated 60,000 KVA, 11 KV. Generator 2 is rated 30,000 KVA, 11 KV. Each generator has a subtransient 25%. The transformer is rated 90,000 KVA at 11 KV A/ 66 KV y with a reactance of 10%. Before a fault occurred the voltage on the h.t. side of the transformer is 63 KY. The transformer in unloaded and there is no circulating current between the generators. Find the subtransient current in each generator when a 3-phase short circuit occurrs on the hut. side of the transformer. reactance of x;Short Circuit Analysis 195, 60,000 kVA. KV — HRY /66KV ine aly 30,000KVA WKY Fig. 6.6.6 Solution Let the Tine voltage on the h.v. side be the base KV = 66 KV. Let the base KVA = 90,000 KVA 90,000 Generator 1 x3 £0.25 x Zp‘59g = 0.375 pau «90,000 For generator 2: xj = 39‘q99 ~ 0-75 Pu. The internal voltage for generator | 0.63 Ey Ogg 70.955 pu The intemal voltage for generator 2 0.63 = 0.955 pau, 2 0.66 The reactance diagram is shiown in Fig, E.6.7 when switch Sis closed, the fault condition is simulated. As there is no circulating current between the generators, the equivalent reactance of the lel — 0.25 of the pre iret is S2TS*075 = 9.95 pu 0x75 Ex) TOO jaro 850 ; €)-—00 aut 5075 switch Fig. £.6.7196 Power System Analysis ‘The subtragsient current ("= ©9553 __ = j 2.7985 pw. (025+ )0.10) ‘The voltage as the delta side of the transformer is (-j 2.7283) G 0.10) = 0.27208 pau. 1; = the subtransient current flowing into fault from generator 0.955 ~ 0.2785 i= Soa7s 7 1819 pu. are y= 29552027285 aig similarly, B= S975 E819 pa ‘The actual fault currents supplied in amperes are 1.819 «90,000 : —— = 8592.78 A 3x11 0.909 x 90,000 Rep STA F.6.9 R station with ¢wo generators feeds through transformers a transmission system operating at 132 KY. The far end of the transmission system consisting of 200 km long double circuit line is connected to load from bus B. If a 3-phase fault occurs at bus B, determine the total fault current and fault current supplied by each generator. Select 75 MVA and 11 KV on LV side and 132 KV on h. ide as base values. N32 KV TSMVA A ISMVA 7 G, L B 200 Km m™m 33 10% 25MYA G, 25.MVA 10% ~ gy © insaKy 01189 obmlphase/Km Fig. E.6.8 Solution p.u. x of generator 1 = j 0.15 puuShort Circuit Analysis 197 15 Pau. x of generator 2=j = 0.10 35 j03 pu. uu. x of transformer T, = j 0.1 rans . 3 ojo pax of wansformer T= j 0.08 « 2 0.180200 75 "132x132 cee pu. x of each line = ‘The equivalent reactance diagram is shown in Fig. £.6.9 (a), (b) & (c). jos jo ©.) HT. — THO jo1sse | 9. jos jo24 TTT 6) HHT TH jo.tses a) 502s oo ee 5017+ j007745 =) 0.2489 2) OQ 000 (~) “COO™ jose (b) © Fig. E69 Fig. E.6.9 (a), (b) & (c) can be reduced further into Z qq = O17 + j 0.07745 = j 0.248336 a Total fault current —\<° 0.248336 4.0268 pau. Be for 132 KV — 328A ase curent for 132 KV creit= 7p =198 Power System Analysis Hence actual fault current = ~ j 4.0268 = 328 = 1321 A 2-90° 1000 Base current for 11 KV side of the transformer= “E> = 3936.6 A 9851.9 2-90" ‘Actual fault current supplied from 11 KV side = 3936.6 = 4.0248 1585139 Z2-90° x j 0.54 Fault current supplied by generator | = TE 3s {| 10835.476 A 7 y= 158519%j 0.28 ‘ult current supplied by generator 2 = > 5 = 5016.424 A £-90° E.6.10 A 33 KV line has a resistance of 4 ohm and reactance of 16 ohm respectively. ‘The line és connected to a generating station bus bars through a 6000 KVA step- up transformer which has a reactance of 6%. The station has two generators rated 10,000 KVA with 10% reactance and $000 KVA with 5% reactance. Calculate the fault current andl short cireuit KVA when a 3-phase fault occurs at the h.v. terminals of the transformers and at the load end of the line. Solution 10,000 KVA. @- 60,000 KVA. 6% 33KV. = ari l6 BR 5 me 5.000 KVA, Fig. E.6.10 (a) Let 10,000 KVA be the base KVA Reactance of generator 1 Xq, = 10% $10,000 Reactance of generator 2 Xqy= zig = 10% 6x10,000 Reactance of transformer Xz = —§ gg ~~ 10% The line impedance is converted into percentage impedance KVA.X 0,000 x16 +3 %X,, = 14.69% 10(KVy a1 (33)Short Circuit Analysis 199 190004 10(33) =3.672.% % Raine = (Fora 3-phase fault at the h.v. side terminals of the transformer fault impedance toxto e (Ree) +10=15% Fig. 6.10 (b) 000100 15 = 66666.67 KVA = 66.67 MVA For a fault at F, the load end of the line the total reactance to the fau! = 15+ 14.69 = 29.69 % Total resistance to fault = 3.672 % Short circuit KVA fed into the fault KVA Total impedance to fault = \/3.672? + 29,697 = 29.916 % BAe, « 10.0 29.916 * 10.000 33433.63 KVA = 33.433 MVA, E.6.11 Figure E.6.11 (a) shows a power system where load at bus 5 is fed by gendrators at bus 1 and bus 4. The generators are rated at 100 MVA; 11 KV with subtrahsient reactance of 25%, The transformers are rated each at 100 MVA, hhave a leakage reactance of 8%. The lines have an inductance of 1 mH / am, Line Ly is 100 kri long while lines L, and L, are each of $0 km in lenkth. Find the fault current and MVA for a 3-phase fault at bus 5. Short circuit KA into fault200 Power System Analysis 1 ot aig Fig. £.6.11 (a) Solution Let base MVA = 100 MVA Base voltage for Lv. side = 11 KV and Base voltage for h.v. side =~ 112 KV Base impedance for hy. side of transformer 112x112 ~ 100 Base impedance for Lv. side of transformer tat 100 Reactance of line L, = 2x p x $0 x 1 x 10 x 100 = 31.4 ohm 314 125.44 125.44 ohm = 1.21 ohm Per unit reactance of line L, = 0.25 pu. _ 2m x50%1x107 x50 125.44 p.u, impedance of line L; = 0.125 p.u. p.u. impedance of line = 0.125 pu. The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. 6.11 (b). jo2 Joos jo2s joos jor ig. E.6.11 (b)Short Circuit Analysis 201 By performing conversion of delta into star at A, B and C, the star impedances are 5.0.25 j 0.125 JO2S+ j 0125+ j 0.125 J 0.0625 _ 10.25x j 0.125 - S05 0.0625 0.125% j 0.125 and Zz, jos 75 0.03125 ‘The following reactance diagram is obtained. j02 5008 1p 1008502 Fig. E.6.11 (c) ‘This can be further reduced into Fig. £.6.11 (4). Fig. E.6.11 (d) Finally this can be put first into Fig. £.6.11 (e) and later into Fig. E.6.11 (f). jo34s ug 0.03125 (4 0, 20375, (e) Fig. E.6.14202 Power System Analysis 1 Fault MVA = 739375 = 4.90797 pw 100 MVA * 4.90797 = 490.797 MVA. 1 Fault current = F5.39375 ~ 4.90797 p.u. re e100x lO jase current = Fo age = mp Fault current = 4.90797 $15.5 2530 Amp E.6.12 Two motors having transient reactances 0.3 p.u. and subtransient reactances 0.2 p.u. based on their own ratings of 6 MVA, 6.8 KV are supplied by a transformer rated 15 MVA, [12 KY / 6.6 KV and its reactance is 0.18 p.u. A 3-phase short circuit occurs at the terminals of one of the motors. Calculate (a) the subtransient fault current (b) subtransient current in circuit breaker A (c) the momentary circuit rating of the breaker and (d) if the circuit breaker has a breaking time of 4 eycles calculate the current to be interrupted by the cirewit breaker A. $3 Swa trite akg ECB ©) a Xsot pe Fig. £.6.12 (a) Solution Let base MVA = 15 Base KV for Lv side = 6.6 KV Base KV for hv side = 112 KV For each motor x4 = 0.2 « = 5 pu. For each motor xj = 0.3 x = 0.75 pa ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. E.6.12 (b)..Short Circuit Analysis 203 jos © @ i018 jos 8 ()~ z ig. E.6.12 (b) Under fault condition the reactance diagram can be further simplified ito Fig. £.6.12 (c). jos aa 055 A500 @ 405 jos “50 S50 7 jos 4 55S OO atees (Ieee Fig. E.6.12(c) Impedance to fault = alae jo.18 * jos 15x10% Base current = Foe igh = ISIZI9A Subtransient fault current = 1312.19 « (-j 9.55) = 12531.99 Amps (lagging) (b) Total fault current from the infinite bus. Zoe204 Power System Analysi © @ 120° Fault current from each motor = p= = —j 2p.u Fault current into breaken A is sum of the two currents from the in infinite bus and from motor 1 =] 5.55 +) 2)=-j 7.55 pu. Total fault current into breaken = -j 7.55 1312.19 = 9907 Amps Manentary fault current taking into the dc. off-set component is approximately 1.6 » 9907 = 15851.25 4 For the transient condition, that is, after 4 cycles the motor reactance changes to 03 pu. The reactance diagram for the transient state is shown in Fig. E.6.12 (d). jos ee ogy es @ jos “O00 joe 980. — {1} Fig. £.6.12 (d) The fault impedance is 0.15 * 50.6 * jo 120° ‘The fault current = 2 u fault curent= sp'iy5g J 8.89 p ‘Transient fault current = —j 8.89 « 1312.19 = 11665374 If the dc. offset current is to be considered it may be increased by a factor of say 1.1 So that the transient fault current = 1665.37 * 1.1 2831.9 Amp.Short Circuit Analysis 208 E.6.13 Consider the power system shown in Fig. E.6.13 (a). As c dD B 100 MVA Xi, 20 ohm lo KVL KV 1OOMVA | 100 MVA 100 MVA x" =02 kv iom0KV 110 KV/NI KV Deltwsiar Staidlia Fig. £.6.13 (a) The synchronous generator is operating at its rated MVA at 0.95 lagging power factor and at rated voltage. A 3-phase short circuit occurs at bus A calculate the per unit value of (i) subtransient fault current (ii) subtransient generator and motor currents. Neglect prefault current. ‘Also compute (ii) the subtransient generator and motor currents including the effect of prefault currents. 2 119 oy = 121 ohm Base line impedance = Line reactance in per unit = — = 0.1652 pu. The reactance diagram including the effect of the fault by switch $ is shown in Fig. E.6.13 (6). JO j01682 j01 Fig. £.6.13 (b) Looking into the network from the fault using Thevenin’s theorem Zi = j X=206 Power System Analysis (The subtransient fault current 0.565 0.565 x j8.4388 fs Q56s+018~ o71as 46668 Gi) ‘The motor subtransient current OS 5, _ O15 orig pars «84388 = 5 1.770 pu. Generator be OMVA = 5248 KA Gi) Generator base current = Fay 100 Geneiator prefault current = "7 {cos 0.95) = 5.248 2189.19 KA 5.248 2-18.19 _ . News = SS TE ee te9 = (0.95 ~j 0.311) pu The subtransient generator and motor currents including the prefault currents are 1 = j 6.668 + 0.95 -j 0.311 = -j 6.981 + 0.95 = (0.95 -j 6.981) p.u. = 7.045 -82.250 pu Is, =-j 1.77095 + j0.311 = -0.95 = 1.459 = 1.74 2-56.93" 14 (a). The percentage reactance of each expressed on its own capacity determine the short circuit current that will flow into a dead three phase short circui E.6.14 Consider the system shown in Fi alternator at 10,000 kVA. 15,000 KVA 40% 60% G G, 11,000 Bars F Fig. £.6.14 (a)Short Circuit Analysis 207 Solution Let base KVA = 25,000 and base KV = 11 25,000 : % X of generator 1 = Toe 40= 100% 25,000 % X of generator 2= +95 x 60= 100% 00. 10° Bart yoh 7 31219 amperes. Line current at 25,000 KVA and 11 KV ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. £.6.14 (b). X= 100% F Fig. £.6.14 (b) 100100 ‘The net percentage reactance upto the fault = 155 jg) = 50% sh current = 22100 1312.19%100 3.4 39 4 ort circuit current = ot E.6.15 A-3-phase, 25 MVA, 11 KV alternator has internal reactance of 6%. Find the external reactance per phase to be connected in series with the alternator so that steady state short circuit current does not exceed six times the full load current, Solution 25x10° Vaxtixios ~ 31294 6351,039 volts. hase Total % X= —rulload current gg | 199 oral Short circuit current 6 = 16.67 %208 Powe System Analysis External reactance needed = 16.67 ~ 6 = 10.67% Let X be the per phase external reactance required in ohms. ees %X= > «100 10.67 = 1312:19%100 ~~ 6351.0393, 6351.0393 10.67 X= “is toxigg 7 0516428 ohm E.6.16 A 3-phase line operating at 11 KV and having a resistance of 1.5 ohm and reactance of 6 ohm is connected to a generating station bus bars through a 5 MVA step-up transformer having reactance of 5%. The bus bars are supplied by a 12 MVA generator having 25% reactance. Calculate the short circuit KVA fed into a symmetric fault (i) at the load end of the transformer and (ii) at the hv. terminals of the transformer. Solution A B A R kV Load W519) val Saya me 25% ms Fig. £.6.15 Let the base KVA = £2,000 KVA %X of alternator as base KVA = 25% 2,000 I °6X of transformer as 12,000 KVA base = “=o * 12,000 %X of line = “> x 6 = $9.5% 1001)? 12,000 1001) 15 = 14,876Short Circuit Analysis 209 hi he far end or Toad end F, = 17-2010 — 12959 Short circuit KVA at the far end or load end F, = “ERM. = If the fault occurs on the hv. side of the transformer at F % X upto fault F, =% Xp +%Xp= 25 +12 =37% Shor cireuit KVA fed into the fault 120002100 3452.43 a, eae F.6.17 A 3-phase generating station has two 15,000 KVA generators connected in parallel cach with 15% reactance and a third generator of 10,000 KVA with 20% reactance is also added later in parallel with them. Load is taken as shown from the station s-burs through 6000 KVA, 6% reactance transformers. Determine the maximum fault MVA which the cireuit breakers have to interrupt on (i) Lv. side and (id) ash. side of the system for a symmetrical fault 15.000 KYA 15.000KVA 10,000 KVA Gy 15%, 18% G&D) 2% 00 VA “ 000 KYA om Me ae ee o% 5 Fig. €.6.17 (a) Solution 15315,000 %X of generator G, = Fe pay 15% % X of generator G, = 15% 2015000 % X of generator Gs = “Tagg = 30% 615,000 % X of transformer T= MT = 15% (i) If fault occurs at F), the reactance is shown in Fig. E.6.17 (b).20 stem Analysis The total % C upto fault = 100100 Fault MVA = 250,000 KVA 250 MVA, Giy if the fault occurs at F,. the reactance diagram will be as in Fig. E.6.17 (c). Fig. E.6.17 (c) The total %X upto fault 6% + 15.6 = 21% 000% 100 _ 21x10 F.6.18 There are two generators at bus bar A each rated at 12,000 KVA, 12% reactance or another bus B, two more generators rated at 10,000 KVA with 10% reactance are connected. The two bus bars are connected through a reactor rated at 5000 KVA with 10% reactance. If a dead short circuit occurs between all the phases on bus bar B, what is the short circuit MVA fed into the fault ? Fault MVA = 43Short Circuit Analysis au 12,000KVA 12.000 KVA 10.000 KVA 10,000 KVA 5000 MVA, 10% Fig, E.6.18 (a) Solution Let 12,000 KVA be the base KVA % X of generator G, = 12% % X of generator G, = 12% 1012000 0.00 7 12% 4% X of generator G, = 12% E 1012000 % X of bus bar reactor = —F G9 = 24% % X of generator G, = ‘The reactance diagram is shown in Fig. £.6.18 (b). 30% 6% (bo) © Fig. 6.6.18 30%6 3046 12,000%100 Fault KVA= 5 = 600,000 KVA % X up to fault = 50% = 600 MVA212 Power System Analysis £.6.19 A power plant has two generating units rated 3500 KVA and 5000 KVA with percentage reactances 8% and 9% respectively. The circuit breakers have breaking capacity of 175 MVA. Itis planned to extend the system by connecting it to the grid through a transformer rated at 7500 KVA and 7% reactance. Calculate the reactance needed for a reactor to be connected in the bus-bar section to prevent the circuit breaker from being over loaded if a short circuit occurs on any outgoing feeder connected to it. The bus bar voltage is 3.3 KV. 3500 KVA 5000 KVA Reactor Fig, £.6.19 (a) Solution Let 7.500 KVA be the base KVA 8% 7500 3500 97500 3000 % X of generator A = 17.1428% ’» X of generator B = = 13.5% %» X of transformer = 7% (as its own base) the reactance diagram is shown in Fig. E.6.19 (b). & 135% B™ 755240: x+™% 7.14289 (b) (e) Fig. £.6.19Short Circuit Analysis 213 L Note 7.8524 1 17.1428 33) ‘The short circuit KVA should not exceed 175 MVA js Del \ + Total reactance to fault = V5 3554* 7 | (X47) (75524), _ (X+7) (7.5524) 9, X4T4 75524 X+14.5524 ‘She lit KVA = 7500 * 100 XOX 4 S574) ee (x4 THT. S524) This should not exceed 175 MVA _ 7500 100(X + 14.5524) HEE (KF TNT S524) Solving X= 7.02% KVA 0X) _ 750000 Again % x= SYA-09 _ Box09 1o(KVY 10%(3.3)° 7.02 «10x33? — ES = 0.102 oft 7500 0.4102 ohm In each share of the bus bar a reactance of 0.102 ohm is required to be inserted. E.6.20 The short circuit MVA at the bus bars for a power plant A is 1200 MVA and for another plant B is 1000 MVA at 33 KY. If these two are to be interconnected by 4 tie-line with reactance 1.2 ohm. Determine the possible short circuit MVA at both the plants. Solution Let base MVA = 100 base MVA short circuit % X of plant x 100 is = 1 199 = 8.339 1399 * 100 = 8.33%214 Power S; % X of pl 2- 1 6X of plan 2= % X of interconnecting tie line on base MVA. 100 = 10% Toa? *12=11.019% For fault at bus bars for generator A | IL =) + oo hess x0] 5.9657 % base MVA * 100 6X Short circuit MVA, 100 » 100 5.96576 = 1676.23, For a fault at the bus bars for plant B Fig. £.6.20 1 x= Vf) 650% XT ig3i0 w| a 100%100 Shor circuit MVA = 5 1517.45 E.621 A power plant has three generating units each rated at 7500 KVA with 15% reactance. The plant is protected by a tie-bar system. With reactances rated at 7500 MVA aid 6%, determine the fault KVA when a short circuit occurs on one of the sections of bus bars. If the reactors were not present what would be the fault KVA,Short Circuit Analysis 215 Solution ‘The equivalent reactance diagram is shown in Fig. E.6.21 (a) which reduces to Fig. (b) & (c). 7500 7500 7500 13% 13% 15% a 10.5% 63% (b) (c) (d)216 Power System Anal 1516.5 The total % X up to fault F = ees = 7.857 % 7500x100 ‘The short circuit KVA = —~s5=—— = 95456.28 KVA = 95.46 MVA, Without reactors the reactance diagram “The wtal® foun p= 1228 e total % X up to fault F= Fee be as shown, =5% _ 7500%100 “S = 150,000 KVA = 150 MVA, Short circuit MVA Problems P6.1 ‘There are two generating stations each which an estimated short circuit KVA of 500,000 KVA and 600,000 KVA. Power is generated at 11 KV. If these two stations are interconnected through a reactor with a reactance of 0.4 ohm, what will be the short circuit KVA at each station ? P.6.2 ‘Two generators Pand Q each of 6000 KVA capacity and reactance 8.5% are connected toa bus bar at A. A third generator R of capacity 12,000 KVA with 11% reactance is connected to another bus bar B. A reactor X of capacity 5000 KVA and 5% reactance is connected between A and B. Calculate the short circuit KA supplied by each generator when a fault occurs (a) at A and (b) at B. P63 The bus bars in a generating station are divided into three section. Each section is 6.1 62 63 64 connected t0 a tie-bar by a similar reactor. Each section is supplied by a25,000 KVA, 11 KV, 50 Hz, three phase gencrator. Each gencrator has a short circuit reactance of 18%. When a short circuit occurs between the phases of one of the section bbus-bars, the voltage on the remaining section falls to 65% of the normal value. Determine the reactance of each reactor in ohms. Questions Explain the importance of per-unit system. What do you understand by short-circuit KVA ? Explain, Explain the construction and operation of protective reactors. How are reactors classified ? Explain the merits and demerits of different types of system protection using reactors,7 UNBALANCED FAULT ANALYSIS Three phase systems are accepted as the standard system for generation, transmission and utilization of the bulk of electric power generated world over. The above holds good even when some of the transmission lines are replaced by d-c links. When the three phase system becomes unbalanced while in operation, analysis becomes difficult. Dr. C.L. Fortesque proposed in 1918 at a meeting of the American Institute of Electrical Engineers through a paper titled “Method of Symmetrical Coordinates applied to the solution of polyphase Networks", a very usefull method for analyzing unbalanced 3-phase networks, Faults of various types such as line-to-ground, line-to-line, three-phase short circuits with different fault impedances etc create unbalances. Breaking down of line conductors, is also another source for unbalances in Power Systems Operation. The symmetrical Coordinates proposed by Fortesque are known more commonly as symmetrical components or sequence components. ‘An unbalanced system of n phasors can be resolved into n systems of balanced phasors. ‘These subsystems of balanced phasors are called symmetrical components. With reference to 3-phase systems the following balanced set of three components are identified and defined, (a) Set of three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase and having the same phase sequence as the original phasors constitute positive sequence components. They are denoted by the suffix |218 Power System Analysis (b)_ Setof three phasors equal in magnitude, displaced from each other by 120° in phase, and having a phase sequence opposite to that of the original phasors constitute the negative sequence components. They are denoted by the suffix 2. (c) Set of three phasors equal in magnitude and all in phase (with no mutual phase displacement) constitute zero sequence components. They are denoted by the suffix 0, Denoting the phases as RY and B- V,, Vy and V,, are the unbalanced phase voltages. These voltages are expressed in terms of the sequence componeins Vy, Vyir Vets Vaas Vyas Ve nd Vio» Vio» Vo 88 follows :- Va = Vai + Vea + Veo (A) Vy=Vyit Vat Yo 1(T.2) Vai + Yen * Yao 3) Vy Ver Vai . 120° Vu Ym Positive Sequence Components Negative Sequence Components a Zero Sequence Components Fig. 7.4 7.1 The Operator “a In view of the phase displacement of 120, an operator “a” is used to indicate the phase displacement, just as j operator is used to denote 90° phase displacement.Unbalanced Fault Analysis 219 2 =12120 =-0.5+ j0.866 240° =-0.5 ~j0.866 a so that 1 +a+a?=0+j0 The operator is represented graphically as follows 23608 = 1+ j0 Fig. 7.2 Note that 2121200 <1 a? 2122409 «1e'™ a =12360° <12"7 = 10 7.2, Symmetrical Components of Unsymmetrical Phases With the introduction of the operator “a” itis possible to redefine the relationship between unbalanced phasors of voltages and currents in terms of the symmetrical components or sequence components as they are known otherwise. We can write the sequence phasors with the operator as follows. (7.4)220 The voltage and current phasors for a 3-phase unbalanced system are then represented by fn + Vea + Varo Vai +8Vea + Veo enlT.5) Vai +8°Va2 + Veo. Ta =tatter ttre) I, =07lqy +algs +Tn0 sooo T.6) Tp = alg #87 Ig2 + Iho. The above equations can be put in matrix form considering zero sequence relation as the first for convenience. Va] [E10] [Veo wl D and (7.8) Eqs. (7.7) and (7.8) relate the sequence components to the phase components through the transformation matrix (7.10) (7.11)Unbalanced Fault Analysis 221 tro] fh tL) a] and Tall ha ely (7.12) Tea} “Ut a? al [tej 7.3. Power in Sequence Components ‘The total complex power flowing into a three — phase circuit through the lines R, Y, B is S=P+jQ oon(7.13) = Vein +Vyi,+¥eie" Written in matrix notation S=[Va Vy Vo 7.14) [ve] fie] =lvy/ fay (0.13) lve] Le Ve] [Yo] Also Wy [=C] Var (7.16) Ve. Vaz. IT flo} ly| =C' lI ATT) tp | Tee Vay [Yeo ] Wy | =| Var | Ct (7.18) Va} [Vax From equation (7.14) S=[Vao Vet222 Power System Analysis Note that C'C"= 3 U [Get 8=3 [Veo Ver Vaal | ta (7.20) Tao Power in phase components is three times the power in sequence components. ‘The disadvantage with these symmetrical components is thatthe transformation matrix Cis not power invariant or is not orthogonal or unitary. jon for Power Invariance 74 Unitary Transform: It is more convenient to define “C” as a unitary matrix so that the transformation becomes. power invariant, That is power in phase components = Power in sequence components. Defining transformation matrix T which is unitary, such that, (7.21) (7.22) so that (1.24) (7.28)Unbalanced Fault Analysis 223 - BR S=P+iQ=vr seT27) Te " [Ve Wy vl] svoeT-28) Ny. NY PEE] Ea sE) Eleaf ss] vt walls Tle - FN) spy est [p.-Gte) + (7.90) _By[Zs25 +3224] +0°E, [2,25 +229 +22) ~ 232, ~ 25%) RL ,Z, + 9B ZZ IZ,Z, _ By Zot(l tare?) +3232, 18,22, © DiLy + Ely + Dshy ZL, +L, +22, If Z,=0; Vv, wood T.91)Unbalanced Fault Analysis 241 ‘The phasor diagram for this fault is shown in Fig, 7.20. Fig. 7.20 7.16 Single-Line to Ground Fault with Fault Impedance If in (7.13) the fault is not a dead short circuit but has an impedance Z, then the fault in represented in Fig. 7.21. Eqn. (7.63a) wil Ibe modified into Fig. 7.21 (7.92) w Wy 2-4 a242 Power System Analysis Substituting V, = 0 and solving for 1, 3 ¥Z5 +3(Z, + Zp) (7.93) Ze 7.17 Line-to-Line Fault with Fault Impedence Consider the circuit in Fig. (7.22) when the fault across the phases b and ¢ has an impedence Ze Fig. 7.22 (7.94) sn T.95) (Vg"a'V, + aV,)-(Vg*aV, + 22V,) = 2, (y+ all, + aly) (7.96) Substituting eqn. (7.95) and (7.96) in eqn. (a? ~a) V, ~ (@~a) V,"Z,(@?-a) 1, Fig. 7.23Unbalanced Fault Analysis 243 7.18 Double Line-to-Ground Fault with Fault Impedence This can is Illustrated in Fig. 7.24. Fig. 7.24 The representative equations are 1-0 = Vy= (ly + 1) (2, + 2,) (7.98) But, hthth=o0 and also, VytaV, +aV,=V, + So that (@~a)V,=(@? a) V, or Vi=V, (7.99) Further, (Vo" PV, +aV,) = (ly +a, + al? + 1+ ad, + aL) Zp + Z,) Since @eae-t (R-V) = Z, + Zp) [2p —f, ~ by But since b=-h-h Vo~V, = Zq + Zq) 2 lp + 1y) = 3Z_ + Zh (7.100) Hence. the fault conditions are given by hth tio vi-V, and Vo-V, = 3p +2) by y= —ES—— and s0 om as in ease (7.15) (7.101) | ZZ244 Power System Analysis where Zh =Z,+32,+ 32, ‘The sequence network connections are shown in Fig. 7.25. Yo } y g» | eles “< ib aUnbalanced Fault Analysis 245 Worked Examples E.7.1 Calculate the sequence components of the followinmg balanced line-to-network voltages. [Ym] [220 joe 220 L120" |ky 220 /+120° Solution Vo = 5 Van* Vin + Ve 1 3 (200p02 + 2006-1208 + 220 /+1208 =0 u V, 2 3 [Van * AV Vea) 1 = 5 (220l02 + 2204-120" + 120% + 220/120 + 2409) = 220/0¢KV 1 Va= Vg t M4 Ve) 1 = 5 (220 Jor + 220/-1208-+ 240° + 220 [1208 + 120° 1 = 5 (220 + 220 120° + 220 2409 =0 Note : Balanced three phase voltages do not contain negative sequence components. E72 Prone that neutral current can flow only if zero-sequence currents are present Solution Ba * ha * ho aly + aly + hy q 1, Kral + ha + hy If zero-sequence currents are not present then Ip246 Power System Analysis In that case Lthth Wy thy tah, tal, + aly + ah, (tal, +97,)+(,, + 2h, *al,) +0=0 . ‘The neutral cement I, = [y = ly += 0. Hence, neutral cements will flow only in case of zero sequence components of currents exist in the network E.7.3, Given the negative sequence cements 1] [100 Loe i=|1,|=|100 [120° 1,] [100 /-120° Obtain their sequence components Solution 1 shat 1 + (100 (o" + 100/ig0°+ 100 2120°= 0A i 7 zl tak +a 1 } (oolo= + 100[120° = 120° + 100 (120° + 2408) L 3 {onjoe + 100/240° + 100/1205) OA etre san = 5 [100 Jo" + 100,120" + 240° + 100/-120" + 2409 1 = 5 [0002+ ro0foe + 1000s 00 A Note : Balanced currents of any sequence, positive or negative do not contain currents of the other sequences.Unbalanced Fault Analysis 247 E.74 Find the symmetrical components for the given three phase currents, 1, = 10loe 1, = 10908 1, = 15382 Solution ne [real a a? }10 L908 th] 7h at a }to L3s° 1 y= 5 [100° + 10~90° + 15 1359] 1 = 7 [10.(1 + j0.0) + 10 (0-5 1.0)+ 18 (0.707 + j 0.707) 1 = 3 [10 j10~ 10.605 + j 10.605} = Ff 0.605 + j 0.608) = $ fossssy/i3se = 0.285 (135° A 1 1 = 5 (lola + 10-90% + 120° + 15/135° + 240°) 1 = 7 [10.(1 + j0.0) + 1olaoe + 1slise = + [10 + 10 (0.866 + j 0.5) + 15 (0.9659 + j0.2588) » Hass + j 8.849} = ; {34.309298)[15° > 1143652 A 1 3 {102 + 1o/240° — 90° + 15/135°+ 1205) $ {10-( =o) + 10-0866 + j0.5) +15 (02588 —j 0.9659) 1 = 3 2.542 —j 9.4808) = 3.2744/105° A248 Power System Anal E.7.5 Ina fault study problem the following currents are measured I,=0 Lye 10A Ig=-10A Find the symmetrical components Solution RF thy rata fo aio) +22 10))= IR, = 5 Oy +82 Z, + adg] 10 G10 + a C10) = FE 1 IRy= 5 (ly +1, * Ip) B - = 3 (10-10)=0 7.6 Draw the zero seawence network for the ks shown in Fig. (E.7.6). .SHHE Ee rv" aK Solution ‘The zero sequence network is shown Fig. (E.7.6) Xs, x, Xn VOI HIT Zero sequence network forthe given systemUnbalanced Fault Analysis 249 7.7 Draw the sequence networks for the system shown in Fig. (E. 7.7). Xe | ot 4 1, vote Heo Reference Positive sequence network Xup Zero sequence network250 Power System Ai ysi E78 Consider the system shown in Fig. E. 7.8. Phase b is open due to conductor break. Caleulate the sequence currents and the neutral current, 100.024 100 [120° A Solution 1] foo toe I, |=] 0 A 1,} {100 L120° 1 5 [0002+ 0 + 109]1208 = J nooc sinysa +n eas #50369 100 =F (0S + j 0.866] ~33.3,60°A 1 1, = 5 [001g + 0+ ro0yiz0e + 240% 1 200 = 5 [10002 + 10092) = =~ = 66.66 A [100[0° + 0 + 10071209 + 120°) i = 5 100 [1 + jo 0.5 ~j 0.866) 100 y+ 0.5 ~j 0.866] = 33.33.60 AUnbalanced Fault Analysis 251 ‘Nuetral current 1, = Ij +1) + Js = 100[0° + 0 +100 120° 00 [1 + j0 -0.5 + 50.866) = 100160° A Also, 1, = 3 Jy = 3 (33.33 (60°) = 100)60° A 7.9 Calculate the subtransient fault current in each phase for a dead short circuit on one phase to ground at bus 'q' for the system shown in Fig. E.7.9. xy=i02 n= 022, n= 90.15 All the reactances are given in p.u on the generator base. Solution n 4 4 4 = + 80TH —— TH 01 son ol io WB goo yo yo! (a) Positive sequence network. » 4 m1 O11 104 3007 gio (b) Negative sequence network. TOO WH TO 301 j033 jor 40.06 50.15 LOL {c) zero sequence network232 Power System Analysis The three sequence networks are shown in Fig. (a,b and c). For a line-to-ground fault ‘an phase a, the sequence networks are connected as in Fig. E. 7.9 (d) at bus 'q, 0.14029 Negative sequence j015 OOO £7.9(4) The equivalent positive sequence network reactance X, is given form Fig. (a) 047" 02 X, = 0.14029 ‘The equivalent negative sequence reactance X, tliat 048 * 022 Xn given from Fig. (b) 0.01508 ‘The zero-sequence network impedence is j 0.15 the connection of the three sequence networks is shown in Fig. E. 7.9(d). 4014029 + j0.150857 + j0.15 w 0.44147 2.2668 pu E.7.10 In the system given in example (E.7.9) if a line to line fault occurs calculate the Sequence components of the fault current. Solution ‘The sequence network connection for a line-to-line fault is shown in Fig. (E.7.10)..Unbalanced Fault Analysis 253 COS 0.14029 From the figure 1° o° 1= l= ip ya0o+-jo.1s0857 * jo2sria7 ~j 3.43469 pu E.7.11 If the line-to-tine fault in example E.7.9 takes place involving ground with no fault impedance determine the sequence componenets of the fault current and the neutral fault current. Solution The sequence network connection is shown in Fig. TOT 4014029 jorsoss 8 jois 5 ? 800 TOO to, 7(0.150857)(50.13) 0.150857 + j0.15 ip soe 0.14029 + j0.0752134 ~ 0.215034 jo.14029 + =~} 4.64 pu = i464) ess) ren 31339 pu ( j.1508s7 (4.64) 14.69) | 9300857 ) =-i2s2608 pa I ls ‘The neutral fault current = 3 jg = 3(- j2.326608) = ~ j6.9798 p.u254 E212 E713 Power System Analysis A dead earth fault occurs on one conductor of a 3-phase cable supplied by a ‘5000 KVA, three-phase generator with earthed neutral. The sequence impedences of the altemator are given by Z,= 4 + j4)Q; Z,= (03 +j0.6) Qand Z,= (0 + j 0.45) 2 per phase The sequence impedance of the line up to the point of fault are (0.2 + j0.3) 2, (0.2 + J 0.3)W, (0.2 + j 0.3) @ and (3 + jl) Q. Find the fault current and the sequence components of the fault current. Asio find the line-to-earth voltages on the infaulted lines. The generator line voltage is 6.6 KV. Solution Total positive sequence impedance is Z, = (0.4 + j 4) + (0.2 + 50.3) =(0.6 + 54.3) Q. Total negative sequence impedence to fault is Z,= (0.3 + j 0.6) + (0.2 + j0.3) = (05 + j0.9) 2 Total zero-sequecne impedence to fault is Z0 = (0 + j 0.45) + (3 +j1.0)=@ J 14S) 2Z, +Z,+Z, = (0.6 + 43) + (0.5 +) 0.9) + (3.0+j 1.45) (4.1 + j 6.65) 2 “_ 6.61000 1 3810.62 Ws (iv )665) 7.81233 = 487.77 -58°.344.A = (255.98 -j 415.198) A 1, =3 « 487.774:58.344 1463.31 A 58.344 ‘A.20 MVA, 6.6 KV star connected generator has positive, negative and zero sequence reactances of 30%, 25% and 7% respectively. A reactor with 5% reactance based on the rating of the generator is placed in the neutral to groud connection. A line-to-line fault occurs at the terminals of the generator when it is operating at rated voltage. Find the initial symmetrical line-to-ground r.m.s fault current. Find also the line-to-line voltage. Solution 2, = 50.3; Z, = 50.25 Z,™j 0.07 +3 x j 0.05 =j 0.22 L, Kayla, * 503) 028) "50.55 "SIS paw 201000 = -J 1.818% SEES =~ 13180 AmperesUnbalanced Fault Analysis 255 = 0 as there is no ground path 2-2 1 = ~j 1.818 (j 0.0.3 ~j0.25) 0.9091 x 3180 = 2890.9 V PE-@l,, 2, +ah, Z) = (0.5 ~j 0.866).1 +) V3 (-j 1.818) G 0.3) = (j0.866 - 0.5 +} 0.94463) = €0.5 + j 0.078 6328) x 3180 = (© 1590 + j 250) = 1921.63, V, = Vy = 1921.63 V E.7.14 A balanced three phase load with an impedence of (6-j8) ohm per phase, connected. in star is having in parallel a delta connected capacitor bank with each phase reactance of 27 ohm. The star point is connected to ground through an impedence of 0 + jS ohm. Calculate the sequence impedence of the load. Solution ‘The load is shown in Fig. (E. 14).256 Power System Analysis Converting the delta connected capacitor tank into star Cxiphase - 27 ohnm I Cylphase = 5 27 =a ohm ‘The positive sequence network is shown in Fig. E. 7.14(a) 69. S +80 ‘The negative sequence network is also the same as the positive sequence network =Z, _ G+ i8\cis) _ 72 is4 __90/6°.87_ 6+j8-j9 6-jl — 6.082/9°.46 = 14.7977 27.41 ohm ‘The zero sequence network is shown in Fig. 6 80 e 34jsa Ly * Zag, + 3 Zy* 6 + j8 + 345) = (6 + j23) ohm = 23.77 80°.53 | elta 2. 590 ips