UNIT 1 - INTRODUCTION

1.1 HISTORY

 Julius Caesar-Caesar Cipher c50 B.C., which was created in order to prevent his secret
messages from being, read should a message fall into the wrong hands.

 The end of the 20th century and early years of the 21st century saw rapid advancements in
telecommunications, computing hardware and software, and data encryption.

Introduction

Information technology is the vehicle that stores and transports information—a

company’s most valuable resource—from one business unit to another. But what happens if the
vehicle breaks down, even for a little while? As businesses have become more fluid, the concept
of computer security has been replaced by the concept of information security.

Because this new concept covers a broader range of issues, from the protection of data to
the protection of human resources, information security is no longer the sole responsibility of a
discrete group of people in the company; rather, it is the responsibility of every employee, and
especially managers.

Organizations must realize that information security funding and planning decisions
involve more than just technical managers: Rather, the process should involve three distinct
groups of decision makers, or communities of interest:

 Information security managers and professionals

 Information technology managers and professionals

 Nontechnical business managers and professionals

These communities of interest fulfill the following roles:

 The information security community protects the organization’s information assets from
the many threats they face.

 The information technology community supports the business objectives of the

organization by supplying and supporting information technology appropriate to the
business’ needs.

 The nontechnical general business community articulates and communicates

organizational policy and objectives and allocates resources to the other groups.
1.2 WHAT IS SECURITY?

Understanding the technical aspects of information security requires that you know the
definitions of certain information technology terms and concepts. In general, security is defined
as “the quality or state of being secure—to be free from danger.”

Security is often achieved by means of several strategies usually undertaken

simultaneously or used in combination with one another.

Specialized areas of security

 Physical security, which encompasses strategies to protect people, physical assets, and
the workplace from various threats including fire, unauthorized access, or natural
disasters

 Personal security, which overlaps with physical security in the protection of the people
within the organization

 Operations security, which focuses on securing the organization’s ability to carry out its
operational activities without interruption or compromise

 Communications security, which encompasses the protection of an organization’s

communications media, technology, and content, and its ability to use these tools to
achieve the organization’s objectives

 Network security, which addresses the protection of an organization’s data networking

devices, connections, and contents, and the ability to use that network to accomplish the
organization’s data communication functions

 Information security includes the broad areas of information security management,

computer and data security, and network security.

Where it has been used?

 Governments, military, financial institutions, hospitals, and private businesses.

 Protecting confidential information is a business requirement.

1.2.1 Information Security components:

 Confidentiality

 Integrity

 Availability(CIA)
CIA Triangle

The C.I.A. triangle - confidentiality, integrity, and availability - has expanded into a more
comprehensive list of critical characteristics of information. At the heart of the study of
information security is the concept of policy. Policy, awareness, training, education, and
technology are vital concepts for the protection of information and for keeping information
systems from danger.

1.3 CRITICAL CHARACTERISTICS OF INFORMATION

 Confidentiality

 Integrity

 Availability

 Privacy

 Identification

 Authentication

 Authorization

 Accountability
  Accuracy

Utility

Possession

1.3.1 Confidentiality

Confidentiality of information ensures that only those with sufficient privileges may
access certain information. When unauthorized individuals or systems can access information,
confidentiality is breached. To protect the confidentiality of information, a number of measures
are used:

 Information classification

 Secure document storage

 Application of general security policies

 Education of information custodians and end users

Example, a credit card transaction on the Internet.

 The system attempts to enforce confidentiality by encrypting the card number

during transmission, by limiting the places where it might appear (in data bases,
log files, backups, printed receipts, and so on), and by restricting access to the
places where it is stored.

 Giving out confidential information over the telephone is a breach of

confidentiality if the caller is not authorized to have the information, it could
result in a breach of confidentiality.

Integrity

Integrity is the quality or state of being whole, complete, and uncorrupted. The integrity
of information is threatened when it is exposed to corruption, damage, destruction, or other
disruption of its authentic state. Corruption can occur while information is being compiled,
stored, or transmitted.

 Integrity means that data cannot be modified without authorization.

 Eg: Integrity is violated when an employee deletes important data files, when a computer
virus infects a computer, when an employee is able to modify his own salary in a payroll
database, when an unauthorized user vandalizes a website, when someone is able to cast a
very large number of votes in an online poll, and so on.
1.3.2 Availability

Availability is the characteristic of information that enables user access to information

without interference or obstruction and in a required format. A user in this definition may be
either a person or another computer system. Availability does not imply that the information is
accessible to any user; rather, it means availability to authorized users.

 For any information system to serve its purpose, the information must be available when
it is needed.

 Eg: High availability systems aim to remain available at all times, preventing service
disruptions due to power outages, hardware failures, and system upgrades.

Privacy

The information that is collected, used, and stored by an organization is to be used only
for the purposes stated to the data owner at the time it was collected. This definition of privacy
does focus on freedom from observation (the meaning usually associated with the word), but
rather means that information will be used only in ways known to the person providing it.

Identification

An information system possesses the characteristic of identification when it is able to

recognize individual users. Identification and authentication are essential to establishing the level
of access or authorization that an individual is granted.

Authentication

Authentication occurs when a control provides proof that a user possesses the identity
that he or she claims.

 In computing, e-Business and information security it is necessary to ensure that the data,
transactions, communications or documents(electronic or physical) are genuine(i.e. they
have not been forged or fabricated)

Authorization

After the identity of a user is authenticated, a process called authorization provides

assurance that the user (whether a person or a computer) has been specifically and explicitly
authorized by the proper authority to access, update, or delete the contents of an information
asset.

Accountability

The characteristic of accountability exists when a control provides assurance that every
activity undertaken can be attributed to a named person or automated process. For example, audit
logs that track user activity on an information system provide accountability.
1.3.3 Accuracy

Information should have accuracy. Information has accuracy when it is free from
mistakes or errors and it has the value that the end users expects. If information contains a value
different from the user’s expectations, due to the intentional or unintentional modification of its
content, it is no longer accurate.

Utility

Information has value when it serves a particular purpose. This means that if information
is available, but not in a format meaningful to the end user, it is not useful. Thus, the value of
information depends on its utility.

Possession

The possession of Information security is the quality or state of having ownership or

control of some object or item.

1.4 NSTISSC SECURITY MODEL

‘National Security Telecommunications & Information systems security committee’

document.

It is now called the National Training Standard for Information security professionals.

The NSTISSC Security Model provides a more detailed perspective on security.

While the NSTISSC model covers the three dimensions of information security, it omits
discussion of detailed guidelines and policies that direct the implementation of controls.

Another weakness of using this model with too limited an approach is to view it from a single
perspective.

 The 3 dimensions of each axis become a 3x3x3 cube with 27 cells representing areas
that must be addressed to secure today’s Information systems.

 To ensure system security, each of the 27 cells must be properly addressed during the
security process.

 For example, the intersection between technology, Integrity & storage areas requires
a control or safeguard that addresses the need to use technology to protect the
Integrity of information while in storage.
1.5 COMPONENTS OF AN INFORMATION SYSTEM

 Software

 Hardware

 Data

 People

 Procedures

 Networks

1.5.1 Software

 The software components of IS comprises applications, operating systems, and assorted

command utilities.

 Software programs are the vessels that carry the lifeblood of information through an
organization. These are often created under the demanding constraints of project
management, which limit time, cost, and manpower.

1.5.2 Hardware

 Hardware is the physical technology that houses and executes the software, stores and
carries the data, and provides interfaces for the entry and removal of information from the
system.

 Physical security policies deal with hardware as a physical asset and with the protection
of these physical assets from harm or theft. Applying the traditional tools of physical
 security, such as locks and keys, restricts access to and interaction with the hardware
components of an information system.

 Securing the physical location of computers and the computers themselves is important
because a breach of physical security can result in a loss of information. Unfortunately,
most information systems are built on hardware platforms that cannot guarantee any level
of information security if unrestricted access to the hardware is possible.

1.5.3 Data

 Data stored, processed, and transmitted through a computer system must be protected.

 Data is often the most valuable asset possessed by an organization and is the main target
of intentional attacks.

 The raw, unorganized, discrete(separate, isolated) potentially-useful facts and figures that
are later processed(manipulated) to produce information.

1.5.4 People

There are many roles for people in information systems. Common ones include

 Systems Analyst

 Programmer

 Technician

 Engineer

 Network Manager

 MIS ( Manager of Information Systems )

 Data entry operator

1.5.5 Procedures

A procedure is a series of documented actions taken to achieve something. A procedure is

more than a single simple task. A procedure can be quite complex and involved, such as
performing a backup, shutting down a system, patching software.

1.5.6 Networks

 When information systems are connected to each other to form Local Area Network
(LANs), and these LANs are connected to other networks such as the Internet, new
security challenges rapidly emerge.
  Steps to provide network security are essential, as is the implementation of alarm and
intrusion systems to make system owners aware of ongoing compromises.

1.6 SECURING COMPONENTS

Protecting the components from potential misuse and abuse by unauthorized users.

 Subject of an attack

Computer is used as an active tool to conduct the attack.

 Object of an attack

Computer itself is the entity being attacked

Two types of attacks:

1. Direct attack

2. Indirect attack

Internet
Stolen Information
REMOTE
Hacker request SYSTEM
SYSTEM

Hacker using a computer Remote system that

as the subject of attack is the object of an attack

Figure 1.6.1 Attack

 1. Direct attack

When a Hacker uses his personal computer to break into a system.[Originate

from the threat itself]

2. Indirect attack

When a system is compromised and used to attack other system.

[Originate from a system or resource that itself has been attacked, and is malfunctioning or
working under the control of a threat].

A computer can, therefore, be both the subject and object of an attack when ,for
example, it is first the object of an attack and then compromised and used to attack other
systems, at which point it becomes the subject of an attack.

1.7 BALANCING INFORMATION SECURITY AND ACCESS

 Has to provide the security and is also feasible to access the information for its
application.

 Information Security cannot be an absolute: it is a process, not a goal.

 Should balance protection and availability.

Approaches to Information Security Implementation

 Bottom- up- approach.

 Top-down-approach

 Has higher probability of success.

 Project is initiated by upper level managers who issue policy & procedures &
processes.

 Dictate the goals & expected outcomes of the project.

 Determine who is suitable for each of the required action.

1.8 THE SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SDLC)

SDLC Waterfall Methodology

SDLC-is a methodology for the design and implementation of an information system in an

organization.

 A methodology is a formal approach to solving a problem based on a structured sequence

of procedures.

 SDLC consists of 6 phases.

Investigation

Analysis

Logical design

Physical design

Implementation

Repeat Maintenance and

change

Figure 1.8.1 Systems Development Life Cycle

1.8.1 Investigation

 It is the most important phase and it begins with an examination of the event or plan
that initiates the process.

 During this phase, the objectives, constraints, and scope of the project are specified.

 At the conclusion of this phase, a feasibility analysis is performed, which assesses the
economic, technical and behavioral feasibilities of the process and ensures that
implementation is worth the organization’s time and effort.

1.8.2 Analysis

 It begins with the information gained during the investigation phase.

 It consists of assessments (quality) of the organization, the status of current systems,

and the capability to support the proposed systems.

 Analysts begin by determining what the new system is expected to do, and how it will
interact with existing systems.

 This phase ends with the documentation of the findings and an update of the feasibility
analysis.

1.8.3 Logical Design

 In this phase, the information gained from the analysis phase is used to begin creating a
systems solution for a business problem.

 Based on the business need, applications are selected that are capable of providing
needed services.

 Based on the applications needed, data support and structures capable of providing the
needed inputs are then chosen.

 In this phase, analysts generate a number of alternative solutions, each with

corresponding strengths and weaknesses, and costs and benefits.

 At the end of this phase, another feasibility analysis is performed.

1.8.4 Physical design

 In this phase, specific technologies are selected to support the solutions developed in
the logical design.

 The selected components are evaluated based on a make-or-buy decision.

 Final designs integrate various components and technologies.

1.8.5 Implementation

 In this phase, any needed software is created.

 Components are ordered, received and tested.

 Afterwards, users are trained and supporting documentation created.

 Once all the components are tested individually, they are installed and tested as a
system.

 Again a feasibility analysis is prepared, and the sponsors are then presented with the
system for a performance review and acceptance test.

1.8.6 Maintenance and change

 It is the longest and most expensive phase of the process.

 It consists of the tasks necessary to support and modify the system for the remainder of
its useful life cycle.

 Periodically, the system is tested for compliance, with business needs.

 Upgrades, updates, and patches are managed.

 As the needs of the organization change, the systems that support the organization must
also change.

 When a current system can no longer support the organization, the project is terminated
and a new project is implemented.

1.9 THE SECURITY SYSTEMS DEVELOPMENT LIFE CYCLE (SEC SDLC )

The same phases used in the traditional SDLC can be adapted to support the
implementation of an information security project.

1.9.1 Sec SDLC phases

Investigation

 This phase begins with a directive from upper management, dictating the process,
outcomes, and goals of the project, as well as its budget and other constraints.

 Frequently, this phase begins with an enterprise information security policy, which
outlines the implementation of a security program within the organization.

 Teams of responsible managers, employees, and contractors are organized.

  Problems are analyzed.

 Scope of the project, as well as specific goals and objectives, and any additional
constraints not covered in the program policy, are defined.

 Finally, an organizational feasibility analysis is performed to determine whether the

organization has the resources and commitment necessary to conduct a successful
security analysis and design.

Analysis

 In this phase, the documents from the investigation phase are studied.

 The developed team conducts a preliminary analysis of existing security policies or

programs, along with that of documented current threats and associated controls.

 The risk management task also begins in this phase.

Risk management is the process of identifying, assessing, and evaluating the levels of
risk facing the organization, specifically the threats to the organization’s security and to the
information stored and processed by the organization.

Logical design

 This phase creates and develops the blueprints for information security, and examines
and implements key policies.

 The team plans the incident response actions.

 Plans business response to disaster.

 Determines feasibility of continuing and outsourcing the project.

Physical design

 In this phase, the information security technology needed to support the blueprint
outlined in the logical design is evaluated.

 Alternative solutions are generated.

 Designs for physical security measures to support the proposed technological solutions
are created.

 At the end of this phase, a feasibility study should determine the readiness of the
organization for the proposed project.
  At this phase, all parties involved have a chance to approve the project before
implementation begins.

Implementation

 Similar to traditional SDLC

 The security solutions are acquired ( made or bought ), tested, implemented, and tested
again

 Personnel issues are evaluated and specific training and education programs are
conducted.

 Finally, the entire tested package is presented to upper management for final approval.

Maintenance and change

 Constant monitoring, testing, modification, updating, and repairing to meet changing

threats have been done in this phase.

1.9.2 Security Professionals and the organization

Senior management

Chief information Officer (CIO) is the responsible for

 Assessment

 Management

 And implementation of information security in the organization

Information Security Project Team

 Champion

- Promotes the project

- Ensures its support, both financially & administratively.

 Team Leader

- Understands project management

- Personnel management

- And information Security technical requirements.

  Security policy developers

- individuals who understand the organizational culture,

- existing policies

- Requirements for developing & implementing successful policies.

 Risk assessment specialists

- Individuals who understand financial risk assessment techniques.

- The value of organizational assets,

- and the security methods to be used.

 Security Professionals

- Dedicated

- Trained, and well educated specialists in all aspects of information security from both a
technical and non technical stand point.

 System Administrators

- Administrating the systems that house the information used by the organization.

 End users

Data owners

Three types Data custodians

Data users

Data Owners

- Responsible for the security and use of a particular set of information.

- Determine the level of data classification

- Work with subordinate managers to oversee the day-to-day administration of the data.

Data Custodians

- Responsible for the storage, maintenance, and protection of the information.

- Overseeing data storage and backups

- Implementing the specific procedures and policies.

Data Users (End users)

- Work with the information to perform their daily jobs supporting the mission of the
organization.

- Everyone in the organization is responsible for the security of data, so data users are
included here as individuals with an information security role.

1.9.3 Key Terms in Information Security Terminology

 Asset

-An asset is the organizational resource that is being protected.

-An Asset can be logical ,such as

 Website, information or data

- Asset can be physical, such as

 person , computer system

 Attack

- An attack is an intentional or unintentional attempt to cause damage to or otherwise

compromise the information and /or the systems that support it. If someone casually
reads sensitive information not intended for his use, this is considered a passive attack.
If a hacker attempts to break into an information system, the attack is considered active.

 Risk

- Risk is the probability that something can happen. In information security, it could be
the probability of a threat to a system.

 Security Blueprint

- It is the plan for the implementation of new security measures in the organization.
Sometimes called a frame work, the blueprint presents an organized approach to the
security planning process.

 Security Model

- A security model is a collection of specific security rules that represents the

implementation of a security policy.
IT2042 INFORMATION SECURITY

 Threats

- A threat is a category of objects, persons, or other entities that pose a potential danger
to an asset. Threats are always present. Some threats manifest themselves in accidental
occurrences, while others are purposeful. For example, all hackers represent potential
danger or threat to an unprotected information system. Severe storms are also a threat to
buildings and their contents.

 Threat agent

- A threat agent is the specific instance or component of a threat. For example, you can
think of all hackers in the world as a collective threat, and Kevin Mitnick, who was
convicted for hacking into phone systems, as a specific threat agent. Likewise, a
specific lightning strike, hailstorm, or tornado is a threat agent that is part of the threat
of severe storms.

 Vulnerability

- Weaknesses or faults in a system or protection mechanism that expose information to

attack or damage are known as vulnerabilities. Vulnerabilities that have been examined,
documented, and published are referred to as well-known vulnerabilities.

 Exposure

- The exposure of an information system is a single instance when the system is open to
damage. Vulnerabilities can cause an exposure to potential damage or attack from a
threat. Total exposure is the degree to which an organization’s assets are at risk of
attack from a threat..