Reproduction:

Reproduction is essential for the survival and continuation of a

species.
Some organisms reproduce asexually, but most organisms
reproduce sexually.

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction

- only 1 parent is involved - 2 parents are involved
male ♂ + female ♀
- no gametes(sex cells) are - gametes(sex cells) are formed
formed
- new organism is the same as - new organism is a
the parent and has the same combination of genes from
genes both parents.
CLONES UNIQUE

Advantages and Disadvantages

Asexual reproduction Sexual reproduction
Slower Faster
- 2 parents needed - no mate required
- requires gametes - requires less energy
Introduces genetic variation - no genetic variation
Populations are more likely to Populations cannot readily
survive in changing survive if environment chnges
environments
Asexual reproduction:
A: Binary Fission
- A simple cell division ‘splitting into two’
- Many simple, unicellular organisms reproduce by binary
fission,
→ bacteria
→ Amoeba
- This can occur every 20mins under good/favourable
conditions
- Essentially it is DNA replication
The process
1. Cell nucleus with genetic material doubles
2. Two identical nuclei move to opposite ends of the cell
3. The cell divides in half resulting in two new cells with identical
genetic formation

B: Spore Formation
- Fungi, moss and ferns reproduce by means of spores
- A spore is a tiny cell surrounded by a protective coat
The process
1. Spores are produced and spread
2. These are spread through mean of animals, wind or water
3. When the spores land on a suitable place, they break open
4. The cells grow(germination) to form a new plant
C: Vegetable reproduction
- This happens when part of a plant ‘breaks’ off and grows into
a new plants
Cuttings:
- using plant cuttings to
reproduce plants from existing
plants

Tubers:
- swollen underground stem (eg.
potato) or a root (eg. carrot)
which stores the nutrients
made by the plant
- it has buds which form the
new plants
Runners:
- stems that grow along the
ground
- at the nodes roots are formed
and leaves grow to form a new
plant

Bulbs:
- have a disc like underground
stem
- the leaves that grow from the
stem store nutrients (eg. fleshy
leaves of an onion)

Rhizomes:
- horizontal, underground
stems that form roots and
leaves at the nodes (eg. ginger)
Sexual Reproduction:
- There are 2 parents
- The parents have sex organs which have cells called gametes
- The scientific name for the female gametes is an ovum or egg
cell
- The scientific name for the male gamete is a sperm cell
- Each sex cell contains a copy of the genetic information
needed to make a new individual
- This genetic information is contained in special structures
called chromosomes in the nucleus of the cell.
- During sexual reproduction the male and female gametes
fuse together during a process called fertilisation
- The single cell formed from fertilisation is called a zygote
- At fertilisation, half the genetic material comes from the male
gamete and half from the female gamete, so the zygote
contains a nucleus with a combination of genetic material
from the male and the female.
- This single cell undergoes repeated cell division called
mitosis
- This cluster of cells formed is called an embryo and the cells
will undergo differentiation and specialisation to form a new
organism.

Unlike asexual reproduction, the offspring produced are not

genetically identical to the parents. Each zygote receives half its
genes from its male parent and half from its female parent. This
means that sexual reproduction brings about variation in the
offspring.
Variation is very important because it creates a higher survival
rate for the offspring in changing environments.
Sexual reproduction in Plants:
- Flowering plants carry out sexual reproduction by producing
flowers which have male and female parts.
- Flowering plants are called ANGIOSPERMS.
- The male parts make pollen grains to carry the male gametes
to the female parts.
- The transfer of pollen grains is by pollination.
- The female gametes are at the base of the flower in a swelling
called the ovary.
- The pollen grains need to grow a tube for the male gamete to
reach and fuse with the female gamete and form a zygote.
- The fusion of the gametes is called fertilisation

The Carpel is also known as the

Pistil.
The pollen(male gamete) is
produced in pollen sacs on the
Anther.
The Ova(female gamete) are housed
by the Ovules which are located in
the Ovary.

Part of the flower: Function of the part:

Anther Contains pollen sacs in which
the pollen is produced
Filamet Holds the anthers in a suitable
position to release pollen
Stigma The landing place for pollen, it
is sticky for pollen to attach
Style Holds the stigma in a suitable
position, it is hollow to allow the
pollen tubes to grow down the
style
Ovary Houses the ovules
Ovule Contains the female gamete
Pollen Contains the male gamete
Pollination:
- The transfer of pollen grains from the anther to the stigma of
the flower.
- It is carried out in various ways: by the wind, insects, birds,
bats and small animals like mice.
- When an anther is ripe, it splits open and releases its pollen
so that pollination can occur.
- Pollination is needed in order for the male gamete (inside the
pollen grain) to meet the female gamete (inside the ovary) so
that fertilisation can occur.

Flowers show a wide variety of adaptations to ensure that

pollination is successful.

Pollination can occur in 2 different ways:

Self pollination: pollen is

transferred from the
anther to the stigma of
the same flower or to
another flower on the
same plant.

Cross pollination: pollen is

transferred from the
anther to the stigma of
another flower on a
different plant.

Possible Question: Explain why cross-pollination contributes more

to variation in a species than self-pollination.

Cross pollination ensures the combination of genetic material

between different plants. This results in greater variation which
allows more opportunities for surviving the changing environment.
In Self-pollination there are no new genes introduced resulting in
no variation and a decrease chance of survival, should the
environment change
Wind pollinated Grass flower:

The plant doesn't need colourful

petals because it isn't attracting
pollinators such as birds/insects. The
anthers hang outside(low) so that
they can drop and catch the wind
with large amounts of light, fluffy
pollen.

Insect pollinated flower:

The petals are flat, open for

insects to land on, they are
brightly coloured to attract
pollinators. Some plants have
colourful lines on the petals
called honey guides, which
guide the pollinator to the
pollen/honey.

Fertilisation, seed and fruit formation:

Pollination is complete when the pollen grain has landed on the
stigma.
- If the stigma is ripe and receptive the pollen grain will
germinate(grow) and form a tube which will grow down the
style to the ovary. It will take the male gamete to the female
gamete in the ovule.
- The nucleus of the male gamete will fuse with the nucleus of
the female gamete and fertilisation occurs.
- After fertilisation, the zygote divides and forms an embryo.
- The ovule now forms a protective coat around the embryo
and becomes a seed.
- The ovules are protected in the ovary.
- All the other floral parts, which have done their job wither
and die off (petals, sepals, stamens, style and stigma) leaving
only the ovary filled with seeds (fertilised ovules)

If the ovary hardens around the seeds, a nut forms.

Monocots and Dicots
Monocots Seed structure Dicots
A typical seed has 3
major parts:

Seeds with 1 Cotyledon: contains Seeds with 2

cotyledon food reserves cotyledons
needed during
germination
Flowers have parts Embryo: part that Flowers have parts
of 3 develop new plant of 4 and 5
Parallel veins Seed coat: outer Net veins
protective layer

Fibrous roots Tap roots

Pollen grains:
Insect pollinated Wind pollinated
- larger - smaller
- sticky/spiky - lightweight
- smaller numbers - larger numbers