neok eR ERIAL SpoRE, TTS. AGENTS i genisms that have its DNA in a karyote (monera) acteria, Eubacteria can be th eople each year, but also walls cont in t nis but are resistant to most ’ nclude — (1) Mycoplasmas @) r bacteria, Cyanobacteria are lu otosynthesis. 1 they oftenBasic Shapes of bacteria: smely small cells. The cell shapes and Gram t in different shapes, The jon. Bacterial cells exis jul im identification of a bactesial cel prokaryotes typically have shapes and aF® useful in’ bacterial identifica ans coll shape and this 1s use acteria may have one of tl jaining are teem morphology mi tight microscopes bi jhe following morphological forms: Under the ‘They con exist as individual spe): re roughly spherical cells reracteristic arrangements 1h ters. (1) Cocei (spherical im #h at are Frequently useful ells, but also are associated in chat teria identification. Ik-ean appear in ait; in rO™y lu pair (diplocori) ~ arise when eocei divide and Female together to form pairs e.g. ed in row of cosei = muuult when oells adhere affcr repe n in the genera streptococcus, Entero 1 one plane; this pattern is See Which divide im the planes to form square groups of four alled (tetrads). E.g. Micrococcus. in random planes to e.g. staphylacoceus which divides cocei divide in three lar cluster (grape - 1 generate irregular grape_- like clumps. In the genus, sarcins, planes, producing cubical packets of eight cells. lary: rod (cylinder) shaped cells, approximately 0.4 to 1.5 um wide and 1.5 to & m long, occurring sing! cl i pm tong ig singly or in chains, Many rods do oceur singly; they may remain together afler division 10 10g fler di to form pairs or chains e.g. Bacillus megaterium is found in long chain), Some of the rod are curved to form commas (curved reds) example vibrio cholerae. (G@Coccobscillary: These appear to be as much toccal-shaped as rod-shaped, These are usually short, stubby rods (between 0.5 and 1m in length with a diameter only slightly less than the length) with rounded comers and hence, an overall elliptical shape. ] Bacteria can assume a great variety of shap:s, although they often are simple spherelrods._ ~~ hetinomycetcs characteristically form long multinucleate filaments or hyphae that may ‘branch to feanch to produce anetwork called a mycelium.seochons eles eee, Sune Lode \ het - M2 gegorve T i a T —lleaira persbcan LFuvetions of prokaryotic structurey Plasma membrane: selectively permeable batier, mechanical bound, bai of environmental cues for chemotaxis, . te | a r Cues : (Gas vacuole: Buoyancy for Hosting and other substance Ribosomes protein synthesis Inclusion bodies: Storage of carbon, phosphate and other substances Nucleoid: Localization of genetic material (DNA) Periplasmic space: contains hydrolytic enzymes and Binding proteins for nutrient processing and uptake. Celi wall: Gives bacteria Shape and protection from lysis in dilute Solutions. x Capsules and slime layers: Resistance to Phagocytosis, adherence to surfaces, fers Fievbriae and pili — Atachment to surfaces, bacterial mating, fubee 2 pl Flagella — movement Endospore — survival under harsh environmental conditions. (2) Bacterial cell wall: The cell wall is one of the most important parts of a prokaryotic cell, that give theni shape and rigidity and protect them from osmotic lysis. The cell walls of many Pathogens have components that contribute to theit pathogenicity. The wall ean protect a cell from toxic substances aid is the site of action of several antibiotics. The cell wall of bacteria 's made up of peptidoglycan or murein or mucopeptide layer, The peptidoglycan layer is the structure that group bacteria into gram: positive and Gram — negative. The gram positive cell wall consists of a single 20 to 80 nm thick homoge: lying outside the plasma membrane while the gram negative cell wall is quite complex. It has a2 to 7nm peptidoglycan layer surrounded by a 7 to 8 nm thick outer membrane. All the structure outside the plasma membrane is the envelope e.g. capsule. ; A space is seen between the plasma membrane and the outer membranes of gram negative bacteria is called periplasmic space. The substance that occupies the periplasmic space is the Leriplasm. Size estimates of the periplasmic space in gram — negative bacteria range from 1" fin ies great as 71 nm. The periplasmic space of gram negative bacteria contains many ; . Z A ea i Proteins that participate in nutrient acquisition, for example, hydrolytic enzys attacking Inueleie acid and phosphorylated molecules, and binding proteins involved in transport of ‘Pialerials into the cell.bs 2 Fe rene : Ruane Set on eS AES cage 9m cheemegiis Me Seb cemet SAE tcche mae dues Aeetchonseurt h Je side chain or a peptide chain i © carboxyl group of N acid, wsually L= ' o-diaminopimelic acid. Long chains of peptidoglycan are \e another to form a sheet surrounding the cell. The glycosidic in the glycan strands are covalent bonds, but these prov jure in only one direction. In gram — negative bacteria, peptidoglycan peptide bond f mation from the amino group of DAP 1 i ic acid of one glycan chain to the carboxy! group of the terminal D ~ slanine on 1 gram — positive bacteria, cross — linkage occurs by way of «peptide inter bridge, the Kinds nd the num amino acids in the inter bridge varying form organism to organism. For uy aureus, the interbridge peptide is composed of ample, in the gram-positive Staphyloce common interbridge amino acid. stroyed by certain agents. One such agent is the enzyme lysozymes & an can be protein that cleaves the B-1,4-glycosidic bonds between acetylglucosamine and lycan, thereby weakening the wall; water can then enter the etylmuramic acid in peptide cell and cause lysis. Lysozyme is found in animal secretions including tears, saliva, and other body fluids, and functions as a major line of defense against bacterial infection.Peptidegtycar: is preset only in species of Bacteria—the sugar N-acetyl amino acid anslog DAP have never been found in the cell wal Eukaryotic organisms. Another exception is mycoplasmas G) A set of identical peptide cross bridges: Of linked peptidoglycan subunits are joined by cross-links between the peptides, Of: carboxy! group of the terminal D-alanine is connected directly Ww the ‘ iaminopimelic acid, but a peptide imerbridge may be used instead. Mos: grarn. wall peptidoglycan lacks the peptide interbridge. This cross-linking results in an peptidoglycan sac that is actually one dense, inter-connected netwo isolated from gram-positive bacteria and are strong enough to retain thei shape and ‘Whether gram positive or negative, the back bone is the same but the tetrapeptide side chain ‘and the crossbridge will vary from species to species. fs called pentag!ycine peptide ‘The tetrapeptide side chain: the tetrapeptide side chain of all the species however, save ‘cenain important feature in common. At position 1, 1 - alanine attached to N — scetylmuramic acid. The position three je the L- Lyine is the most variable position. Most "of the Gram negative bacteria wil cary diaminopimelis acid (DAP) at position thes, Bet the positive bacteria usually carry either L-Lysine, DAP or any other L- amino acid at "position three. Tt = a Bod @) b byrne o- diaranopimnelie cud Cone) J-olanines Crossbridge: They also vary in composition from species to specs. ‘Among the Gram positive, they are usually found s connective sheets cross- linked in 3 — dimensions, but in ‘case of Gram negative becteria they will form only 2 - dimensio ‘The backbone of ‘Gram positive and Gram negative bacteria are the same. mal layers betrapeptide aide. cht, mrelude: @ L- Ataee @)D-9 HOHE: “ @@ Aa JaluNH, D-Ale ¥ 1 gly on bys | ay- Sv Ala — D-GluNH, LAla ss5 -links (a) & coli peptidoglycan with direct cross — linking, typical tive bacteria, (b) Staphyococens aureus peptidoglycan. NAM is N - acetyl glucosamine. GLY is glycine. Special component of the Gram positive cell wall in positive bacteria, as much as 90% of the cell wall consists of peptidoglycat rmally the thick, homogeneous cell wall of gram positive bac teria is composed primarily sf peptidoglycan, which often contains a peptide interbridge, Gram positive cell walls also tain large amount of teichoic acids, polymers of glycerol or ribitol joined by phosphate groups, This teichoic acid is not present in gram negative bacteria. Certain teichoie acids” he cell with its ng to t Joglyean, teichoie a i like glucoranie acid post defenses. In staphylococci, these i nt ierbridge of the peptidoglycan. h ment of these surface proteins to theSEIS SE sigs -& cate > matches nye Gand SecChOnS NY com the bacterial st and varies in composition bs s, gram negative bacteria may ly recognized by host anti he nature of their 0 side chains to avoid detection. tect the cell wall from direct attack (je. help it to avoid host lef The lipop harice has the following function: ributes to the negative charge on the bacterial surface because of its negatively J sugars and phosphates of the core polysaccharide. The core region of the LPS is ne charged and functions as a selective permeability barrier for negatively harged antibiotics resulting in decreased susceptibility b) Ith tabilize outer membrane structure because lipid A is a major constituent of the rior leaflet of the outer membrane barrier, and meabilit on of LPS is that it helps create a zative bacteria from host defenses. a role in protecting pathogenic gram-negeveral lay idoglycan, the: pores in the walls to clase and preventing the xy ned with crystal sping. During the procedure the bacteria are first sa retention. When gram ositive bacteria fed with iodine 10 promote dy’ 1 is thought to shrink the pores of the decolourization thin, not rized with ethanol, the alcoho thick complex is retained during the short peptidogl Thus the d odin eria remain purple. In contrast, gram negative peptidoglye ough lipid also may extract ¢1 1 pores. Alcohol tre vy further, For these reasons, alcohol more nd has lan wall to increase its porosit negativ es the purple crystal violet —iodine complex from grom negative bacteria, 8 Bk The cell wall and osmotic protection: The cell wall usually is required to protect bacteria Solute are much more concentrated in bacterial n by osmotic pressure are hypotonic, During osmosis, water in most microbial habitats, veee OR 83 OF fiona sue. cheehotn ce ke a" ma membrane fo" uch as the plasma smbranes sue a ncentrate selectively permeable me Sess i cells and the of ed vc res ves tye, who the wa in hypertonic habitats thar ation) pressure may rea ater normally enters bacterial withsta wares and the cell will ; te els up and pulls away from th useful in food preservation utward, and the eytoplas™ plasmolysis and 4s and jellies as they cannot avoid annot grow in dried food positive Bacteria Activities of Gram-negative and Gra oe smnparative activities of both Gram-negative and Gram-positive Bacteria snstrated that the outer membrane of Gram-negative bacteria a to the smooth passage of certain critical substances, jotics, bile salts (Alkali salts of bile’ viz, sodium glycocholate, and cholate), and dyes into the cell. Hence, the Gram-negative organisms are p uch less sensitive to these substances than the Gram-positive ones. ! nent of Gram-negative bacteria with an appropriate chelating agent, such igminetetra acetic acid (EDTA), that eventually affords the release of a mount of lipopolysaccharides renders ultimately the cells more sensitive to the drugs w mi tities. Thus, the presence of lipopolysaccharide on the surface of the cll also helps the bacteria to become resistant to the phagocytes (A cell (¢.g., leukocyte or recrophage) having the ability to ingest and destroy particulate substances viz. bacteria protozoa, cells and cell debris, colloids, and dust particles) of the host. acquired in (2) above is almost lost only if the host enables to synthesize antibodies that are particularly directed against the O-side chain. There exists a vast stion in the specific structure of the O-side chain; and, therefore, gives rise to the: ficity very much within the natural bacterial population: antigenic diversity exhibits a distinct selective advantage pecifically for hogenic bacterial species, because the animal host is not in a positionbacterial cell wally by non Between Nase misranic acid and Naseer Once the peptidogiye aa is hydrolysed, the cell loses it The cell wall is ost due to the action of Protoplast is without cell wall, it is usually ised, A Gram, sily occurred in ‘am-positive bacteria Spheroplast is a bac a Pheroplast isa bacterium with « damaged coll wal: the damage is caused by the action | " O'S Toxic chemical or an antibiotic such as penielllin. Spheroplass show a ¥ R "*: They are able to change back to theit normal form when the toxic agent is example when grown on a culture medium, T-forms are mutant bacteria without cell walls, They are produced when the mes unfavourable. They are able to fep cient 4. Mycoplasmas - L-forms often Bi the two groups of bacteria are} wall. Instead of having #9 varying from small to be viruses bee that retained other:eons a see we rain both proteins and a widely. Mast men cin and tipi WA Tatar ends and are called nd 0 BG Hgaeophitie; the nonpolar ete anothe nranes, The outer surfaces are 10 nm thick and can only be seen wit eee «model for membrane structure is ted current most widely acceP! 2 jarth Nicholson. qT ¥ distinguish betw singer and O 1°, Jonathan sing ‘ al protein ar ah osaie model Joosely connected to the membran, : ed, They are soluble in aqueous solution p . About 70,0 80% of membrane proteins are integral proteins 1 membrane protein, About Jy extracted from membranes and are insoluble in aqueous solution when prone Iipids, are amphipathic; their hydrophobic Integral protein, like mem! : suriad in the lipid while the hydrophilic portions project from the membrane ) proteins ean diffuse laterally around the surface to new locations, but do not + rotate through the lipid Jayer. Functions of Plasma Membranes The plasma membrane retains the cytoplasm, particularly in cells without cell walls, and separates it from the surroundings. (2) The plasma membrane also serves as a’ selectively permeable barrier: it allows Particular ions and molecules to pass, either into or out of the cell, while preventing the movement of others. (3) The membrane prevents the loss of essent components through leakage while ng the movement of other molecules. Because many substances cannot cross the plasma memb (4) It is the rane without assistance, it must aid such movement when necessary. location of a variety of crucial metabolic processes: respiration, Photosynthesis, and the synthesis of lipids and cell wall constituentsfects E}Ce™ otal tm ‘nembrane and ial water) the plates Sy oplaseHe matey ifm 81 material, Sonne inlision ‘sm. For e@ potyphoeptate (Other inshusion bodies such as } sslosed. Some are protein in bosomes; they also are up of protein and milar values stand for Svedberg anit f the sedimentation velocity in a et Ws Svedberg value © ‘ent is a function of a particle's mol 0S nbosome equals the sum of the’s y sh n though the sum of 50 and 30 is 80, not 70, ‘some, almost always a single circle of ueleic acid (DNA), is located in an irregularly shaped region nucleoid appearance varies with the method of fixation and staining,’ ectron micrographs and are probably DNA. The nucleoid also is microscope after staining with the feulgen stain, which specifically ve cll can have more than one nucleoid when eell division o as been duplicated. In actively growing bacteria, the nucleoid Hf into the cytoplasmic matrix. Presumably these projections contain DWARjet. In general, a bacterial cay the cell itself, wh iffused arrangement is called a slime layer. Caps! the nd tightly attached to the cell wall; whereas, the slime coating (layer) ructure whi gets diffused right into corresponding available removed or washed off whereas capsule is not. c may be polysaccharide (as in Diplococcus p apsules ma} polysai iplococcus p fextranicum), polypeptide (Bacillus anthracis) o nore complex consisting of combinations f polysaccharide/polype tide (B. megaterium), polysaccharide/protein/phospholipid vella dysenteriae) formation is a genetic property of the species but depends also on the environment, 2, the presence of saccharides, C02 or serum, and on the age of the culture, Lactic acid dextran only when excess sucro s available. Capsular structure is highly use sostically, While slime layers help bacteria to colonize surfaces tribute to the virulence (invasiveness) of pathogenic bacteria since the psulated cells are protected from phagocytosis by white blood cells. Many bactena ihe tribute to dental caries produge slime that helps them adhere to the tooth surface: Cellsi lid surf dherenc bacteria depends on Ow reco Fimbriae do play ermitting the genit h cells to) aids bacterial attachments to surfaces of solid in plant and dhimal host tes have short, fine, hair-like appendages that are thinner than flagella alled fimbrine (singular- fimbria), Although many people use the terms rehangeubly, they are distinct from each other. A cell may be covered imbriae but they are only visible in an electron microscope due to their are about 3 ~ 10 nm in diameter. At least some types of fimbriae attach es such as rocks in streams and host tissues. Therefore, they play a role symbiotic bacteria to host cells. The virulence of certain pathogenic the production not only of toxins but also of “colonization antigens” nized to be fimbriae that provide the cells with adherent properties, major role in causing and spreading human infection to an appreciable strategically attached to various epithelial specifically, It is worthwhile to the pathogenic bacteria to g al, urinary, intestinal, or respiratory traWiiers o) cells 1c genetic materials which to another. Sex pili also ) can become attached. Such n one bacterial strain to another bya a tom Surtaoe & Ultrastracture of flagella Transmission electron microscope studies have shown that the bacterial flagellum is composed of three parts 1) The longest and most obvious portion is the filament which extends from the cell. 2) A basal body - is embedded in the cell 3) A short, curved segment, the hook, links the filament to its basal body and acts as a flexible coupling, The filament is a hollow, rigid cylinder constructed of a single protein called flagellin, which ranges in molecular weight from 30,000 to 60,000a ws neon e Sujlay- 2 ‘an form # special resistant, acteria © pa 4 adapt to changes in their 1 of gram positl : -¢ Microorganisms #2 gusted, some number 4 Bacteriat endospore: & dor nse ant nacteria may become motile to dormunt structure called an 60 environment, When fi , duc may prod jock out sutrients, or they may db; jow. GHC Gemcopomive ategy employe’ y. certain xample of an extreme survival vmplex developmental PrOSesS is often bite ie ei rhe acterium to produce a Gorman ANA iin in reponse mien evo ATE gual ines of AEE : te a i 4 by cert alee the Einmicute phylum, samy main of toe a Clostridium and Sparosarcina (Oss) They facts inp, (ebapeme POR at within vegetative cells) imental conditions. One eéll genetally produces one SPOS which may terminally or sub terminally ageording fo the species. Generally Siaie= onditions are unfavourable for growths; when conditions again become pore germinates to produce one vegetative cell again. Unlike in tion is ameans of reproduction; they ate resting cells highly resistant ultraviolet radiation, gamma radiation, enzymatic destruction and ints. _Endospores usually survive boiling for one hour or more. Bacterial nount importance to the microbiologist because of their ability to withstand iad chem treatments which makes them very difficult to control. Thus, ‘ores which determines the treatment required to sterilize materials. The and their modes of occurrence and germination may be diagnostic of the i. polymyxa and Cl. perfringens form central spores, B. subtilis and B. anthracis b terminal spore while Cl, tetani and B, circulans form terminal spores. entral endospore Sub terminal endospore Terminal endosporeoeally WEY nas methytene BY at endsPor nto the wih stem. “he aruerure oF eS ei ty from hat of he VERE ware absent sro” ect i as ony myers ve Within this we the SPOS coats. e-coat is the cortex he exosport fre proteins, Below the SPP wich ve, whieh conta aside tne cortex isthe €or cellular anand i 4, ribosomes and other ‘cell primarily in the plasm, rucleoi ratty from the vepetative tance called rhe endospores contain ane suPs ce has been found in the mnt in the vegetative cells, This svbstanc vera and is located bn the core, ENGOSPOTS? are also nie acid. The calcium — + of which is cormplexed with dipicoli ‘erepresents about 10% of the dry weight OF ME endospore: , water availability within the endospore jntercalates in DNA, 2 seat denaturation. Dipicolinie acid is @ SPOFe ~ specific in the ability for endospores to maintain dormancy: sporiten OME Coot) | gprre cont of i peptnda dyer) i 1 “Core Inside. len codtesc alah Gm tadesy Hie Core tall» CHP nuclesid w Oe « ofine Cella es iy Codex —(Cov cevholy ¢ f- Chet a = ndys pore