CHAPTER 1 : SOLUTIONS —_—_—_rererere—— > Solution is a homogeneous mixture of two or more pure substances, > Constituents of a solution: (Solute = Dissolved in smaller quantity. e.g,, sugar, salt, ete (ii) Solvent = Dissolved in larger quantity. e.g,, water, milk, etc. > Types of solutions: S.No. | Types of: Solution | Solute | Solvent Examples 1, | Solid -Solid Solid | Solid _| Alloys like brass, bronze, etc. 2 _| Solid Liquid Solid | Liquid | Solution of sugar, salt, urea, etc. in water. 3 | Solid-Gas Solid [Gas | Sublimation of substance like iodine, camphor, etc, into air, dust or smoke particles in air. 4. | Liquid -Solid Liquid |Sotid | Hydrated salts, mercury in amalgamated zinc, etc. 3. |Liquid—Liquid | Liquid | Liquid | Alcohol in water, benzene in toluene. 6 | Liquid -Gas Liquid [Gas | Aerosol, water vapour in air. 7. | Gas—Solid Gas | Solid _ | Hydrogen adsorbed in palladium. 8. | Gas—Liquid Gas | Liquid | Aerated drinks. 9. |Gas—Gas Gas [Gas __| Mixture of gases, etc. > Solubility is the maximum amount of solute that can be dissolved in 100 g solvent to form a saturated solution at a given temperature. ‘Causes: Interionic attraction in the solute molecules, intermolecular attraction between solvent molecules, solvation and temperature. Factors affecting solubility: Nature of solute and solvent, temperature, hydration energy and pressure. _ Mass of solute present in the solution Total mass of the solution v Mass percentage (i) x 100 Volume of solute — OO I otal volume ofthe solution * 1 > Volume percentage (5) v 2) Massof solute 199 Mass by volume percentage of solute GF Volume of solution Number of parts of component (A) ‘Total number of parts of all components of the solution > Parts per million (ppm) = x 10° Scanned with CamScanneraan Mole fraction: * = ta atl ot 1B nats ratie tt Motarity (M: Number of moles of solute per lit Number of molesof solute, WaXt000 . Fn = Volume of solution (in Litre) MyXV Vv where Wis weight of solute, Vis volume of solution, Mp is molar mass of solute solute. Unit: mol “tor M (molar) Pee Number of moles of solute ip X n sey (mye Number of moles of solute —8—— = Molality (™)= “Yass of solvent in kg wxm W Wis molar mass of solute. ire of solution. and ngis number of moles of where Wa is weight of solvent, Wp is quantity of solute, Unit: mol kg or m (molal) ‘Number of gram equivalent of solute _ ‘We x 1000 Normality (N)= = Aad ‘Volume of solution in Litre Ex V where Wis mass of solute, Epis equivalent weight of solute and Vis volume of s Unit egLorN. Relationship between Molarity (M) and Molality (rm): m= olution. 100M. 100d -M x Mg Relationship between mole fraction of solute (zg) and molality (1): tp * 1000 tax My Relationship between molarity and density: Molarity (My = 2 Sttength x Density 10 Mg Relationship between normality and density: : Normality (N) = Strength x Density 10 Equivalent mass of solute Henry's law: “The mass of a gas dissol eee ved in given volume of the liquid at a constant temperature depends upon where Kyy = Henry's constant. - ss vom Pm the pressure exerted by vapours of aliquid at equilibrium state at constant temperature. Raoult 2 solution of volatile liquids states that fora soluti i partial v ; ber hat fora solution of volatile liquids, the part ‘component of the solution is directly proportional to its mole fraction owes es PA=PAXA Po = aay Raoult's law for non-volatile solute mole fraction of solute. states that relative lowering of vapour pressure fora solution is equal to the p= Ky te PA-PA PAX My ‘Ideal solutions obey Raoult’s law. © PA=PR3x: Po = PBaB (i) bpgH=0 * (iii) Ami = 0 Scanned with CamScanneron Tips Notes 13 v vy (iv) The force of attraction between A-A and B-B is nearly equal to A-B. Non-ideal solutions do not obey Raoult’s law. ( PA# PRA Pa # Pay Gi) Anat #0 AnnV #0 (iv) The force of attraction between A-A and B-B is not equal to A-B. Positive deviation from Raoult's law: A-B interactions are weaker than the interactions between A-A or B-B leading to an increase in vapour pressure, Negative deviation from Raoult's law: A-B interactions are stronger than the interactions between A-A or BB leading to decrease in vapour pressure. . Azeotropes are liquid mixtures which distil over without change in composition. Maximum boiling azeotropes : Large negative deviation from Raoult’s law. = Minimum boiling azeotropes : Large positive deviation from Raoult's law. Colligative properties « Number of particles in the the solute (molecule or ions) in definite volume of the solvent. Relative lowering of vapour pressure: Elevation of boiling point: : ATy = K,X m Wz , 1000 or, At = Kya K,xWg 1000 —— oe Ma = “NT xWa Depression of freezing point: or, or, x ‘Osmotic pressure: x =CRT Number of moles ofsolute 5 o * © Volume of solution Wy RT = By o a a7 WgxRT , Man . (Osmosisis the processin which, there is net flow of solvent from the solution of lower concentration tothe higher concentration by a semipermeable membrane. Osmotic pressure is the extra pressure that is applied to just stop the flow of solvent to solution across a semiper- meable membrane. ‘Abnormal molecular mass: Molecular mass calculated with the help of colligative property which is different from theoretical molecular mass. Observed (experimental) value of a colligative proy van't Hoff factor () = Normal (calculated) value of the same colligative property Scanned with CamScanner> Degree of association, js van’t Hoff factor and 1 is number of ions produced per formula of the compound. where i -1 > Degree of dissociation, cere i var't Hoff factor and 1 is number of ons produced per formula of the compound. CHAPTER 2 : ELECTROCHEMISTRY ich deals with the study of the production of electricity from energy reactions and the use of electrical energy to result in non-spontaneous > Electrochemistry is the branch of chemi released during spontaneous chemical chemical transformations. > Electrolyte is a substance that dissociates in solution to produce ions and hence conducts electricity in dissolved state or molten state. ‘Weak electrolyte - H;CO3, CH;COOH, ete. ‘Strong electrolyte - NaCl, HCL etc. > Resistance is the property of given substance to obstruct the flow of charge. Vv Rey Where, V = Potential difference ‘1 = Blectric current ‘Unit Ohm ‘Specific resistivity: If a sclaton is placed between two parallel electrodes having cross sectional area ‘A’ and distance T apartthen,R= P (where p= Specific resistivity) Unit Ohm metre > Conductance is the ease with which current flows through a conductor. ee ees R pl “7 Unit: Siemens (5) or ohm”, At depends upon the nature of the material, temperature and pressure. Ngai conductance isthe electrical conductance through metal that occurs due to the movement of electrons. Gepends upon the nature and structure of the metal, number of valence electrons per atom and temperature, [egettlytic or ionic conductance is the conductance of electricity that occurs due to ions present in the solution: It depends upon the nature of electrol} a 7 i wisely end co lyte or interionic attractions, solvation of ions, nature of solvent and its ‘Specific conductivity (x) s reciprocal ofthe specific resistivity of an electrolytic solution, eck v v. v Unit: $m”‘on Tips Notes vvvoyv v v v Ag =x 1000 o Unit: Som? mol" Debye Huckel Onsager equation: A = \°— ACY where A = molar conductivity, A° = limiting molar conductivity, A = constantand C = concentration of solution. Kohlrausch's law of independent migration of ions states that the limiting molar conductivity of an electrolyte at infinite dilution can be expressed as the sum of contributions from its individual ions. Ag? = Paha tPA aNd N= Thee Dh? where, , and v_are the number of cations and anions respectively. Applications of Kohlrausch’s Law: Calculation of molar conductivities of weak electrolyte at infinite dilution. (ii) Calculation of degree of dissociation (a) = S& Gi) Determination of dissociation constart (K) of weak electrolytes Keo C (An) =a Ag (Am An) Gx)_Determination of solubility of sparingly soluble salts: Solubility = S*1¢ a Electrochemical/Galvanic/Voltaic cellisa device in which the redox reaction iscarred outindiretly and chemical energy'is converted to electrical energy. Daniell cell: Zn(s) |Zn** (aq) (Cy) |] Cu?* (eqC3)|Culs) Electrode potential is the potential difference set up between the metal and solution of its own ions. Electrode potential at 25°C, 1 bar pressure and 1 M solution is known as standard electrode potential (E*). EMF of the cell (Eze) = Ecathode ~ Eanode In terms of standard reduction electrode potential Ercan = Evathode ~E'anode . OR Ean = Evaghy ~ cet Electrochemical series: The arrangement of elements in order of increasing reduction potential values is called electrochemical series. It is also called activity series of some typical electrodes. Nemst equation: For general electrode : M"* (ag) + ne" —> M(s) - a Nemst equation Eparian = Eran oe 8 ay 0.059 At equilibrium etl = —— logKe ‘ For cell reaction: ah + bB —“—> mM + nN 0.059 [My"(NI* ‘Nernst equation at 298 K Feat # Beat SS log IME action: Gibbs energy for spontaneous re lc nF AG* = ~2.303 RT log K Electrolysis isthe process of decomposition ofan electrolyte when electric current is passed through either its aqueous solution or molten (fused) state. Sr ncaa ie So porosstarig . The amount of chemical reaction which occurs at any electro% elec: Eafe of ec the quantity of electricity passed through the electrolyte. m=ZxIxXt (Here Z is electrochemical equivalent) Scanned with CamScanner> Faraday’s second law of electrolysis: Amount of passed through the electrolytic solution Is propo { various substances liberated by the same quantity of electricity tional to their chemical equivalent weights. Eig,, Leclanehe cell and Dry cell. Lead storage battery, Ni-Cd cell Ihe > Primary battery (non-chargeabl Secondary battery (chargeable): > Dryeell: Pitch seat Graphite (carbon) ‘Cathode (with metal cap) MoO, +6 Pasta of NH,CI + ZnCl Zine Anode = (Anode) Fig.1:A dry cell ‘At anode: Zn(s) -+ Zn**(aq) + 2c At cathode: MinOx(s) + NH {{aq)+ 2c” + MnO(OH) + NH; ‘The net reaction: Zn +NH (aq)+ MnO} > Zn?* 1 . ——— Yeq)+ 2ni* + MnO(OH) +NH Fig.2: Lead ba smetas Oy +502 (aq)—+ PESO) + 26° ‘Storage battery ‘Net reaction: Pos) nal be +50;(aq) + 22° —+ PbSO4(s) + 24,01) > Se ell ism dct ooh epicenter 2H,0() ‘monoxide or methane directly odenialecn” from the combustion of fuels such as hydrogen, carbon Scanned with CamScanner—— ‘At anode: [Hyg) + 20H™(aq) -> 21130 (1) + 267] x 2 At ceathode: O2(g) + 2H,0() + 4e” + 401 (ag) Net reaction: 2H(g) + Ox(g) -» 24,0) > Corrosion isthe process of slow conversion of metals into theit undesirable compounds (usually oxide) by reae- tion with moisture and other gaces present in the atmosphere. > Prevention of corrosion: Barrier protection, sacrificial protection and alloying > Rusting of iron: Rusting is a electrochemical phenomenon Fe(s) + 2H" (aq) + i O3(g) -» Fe?“(aq) + H0M) Dre) + i 0, (8) + 24,01) -> e049) + 4H" Fe; 34 XH > Fe032H,0 Rust CHAPTER 3 : CHEMICAL KINETICS ee } Rate of reaction és the change of concentration of any reactant or product with time for a reaction. A+B—C Rate of reaction: For A= “4 For 8 = “88 Fore = SE at a at ‘Unit: mol L“7s7 and atm s or atm m” (in gaseous form). > Instantaneous rate of reaction (The rate of change in concentration of the any one of the reactant or product at a : ea aay =a8) | A) particulartime) = Gp a ar at v ‘average rate of reaction (The rate of reaction measured over along time interval.) = 2S, where ax = Change in ‘concentration in given time and At = Time taken Factors affecting the rate of a chemical reaction: Concentration of the reactants, temperature, pressure, presence of catalyst, nature of the reactants, surface area of the reactant, effect of radiations and effect of physical state Rate law: “The rate of reaction is directly proportional to the product of concentration of reactant and each con- ‘centration is raised to some power which may or may not be equal to stereochemistry experimentally.” Rate = i{A}"(B]" Rate constant (K) is equal to rate of reaction when the concentration of all the reactants is unity. ‘Molecularity is the total number of atoms, ions or molecules ofthe reactants taking part in elementary chemical reaction. v v v v Vv The sum of the powers to which the concentration terms are raised in the rate law expression is called the order of the seaction. Order of « reaction can be zero, whole number, fractional and even negative. Zero onder reaction -» rate = i [Rly =k Unit: mot L? s? v {Rly initial cone) First order reaction + k= —~ WE (uy (conc. of reactant at time t) for 1 order reaction, half-life is independent of [RJy Unit: 5 or min” > Second order reaction -+ = kIAP IB) Unit: mo Ls") or M's"? where M is molarity. > Pseudo first order reactions are not truly first order but become first onder unuler certain conditions. ¢g.. inversion of sugar and acidic hydrolysis of an ester Scanned with CamScannerv Unit: st Half-life of a reaction is the time taken for a reaction when half of the initial value has reacted. Bh For zero order reaction, a= = 0.693 For first order reaction, ta ty « [R] for zero order typ is independent of [R] for first order r tiy,*— for second order ver 1 ty *—> for third order wr Integrated rate laws for the reactions of zero and first order: ‘Order | Reaction | Differential rate Integrated rate Straight Half life Units of k type | law. law |. line plot 0 RoP q{RYdt = -k kt = [RJR] IR] vst. [Rlp/2k | cone time? OR mol L157 1 Rop | aIRVdt=-HR] | (R)=(Rpe* | im iRjest. | mae time” OR OR Kt= In((RIp/{R) st A(T +10) KT) AcSNation energy isan extra energy which must be possessed by reactant molecules so that collision between “Raciant molecules is effective and leads to the formation of product molecules, ‘Activation energy = Threshold energy - Kinetic energy Azthenius equation: k = Ackenr E logk = loga~ Fs _ ee OBA aos RT & __E [-7, hog rn zea TR Rate of reaction = fx z where, 2 = collision frequency § = fraction of collisions which are effective, According to collsion theory, R = Zaye-Ed/RT R= PZgge F/T P+ Steric factor Coat JS a substance that alters the rate of reaction without itself undergoing any chemical change at the end Intermediate complex theory : A+B 4 X—>,4 Bap 4 x Reactants Catalyst \ / Products Catalyst x Intermediate complex Scanned with CamScanner> Difference between: Order and Molecularity: S.No. | Order Molecularity 1, | Itis the sum of the power of the concentration | It is the number of reacting species undergoing terms in the rate law expression, simultaneous collision in the reaction. 2,_ | Itis determined experimentally. Ttisa theoretical concept. 3,__| Itcan have fractional values also and can be zero. | It can have integral value only and cannot be Zero. 4, _ | Itchanges with temperature and pressure. It does not change with change in temperature and pressure. mt Rate of reaction and Rate constant: S.No. Rate of reaction Rate constant 1, [It is the change in the concentration of Itis equal to the rate of the reaction when the mo- reactants/products per unit time. lar concentration of each reactant is unity. 2 | The unit of rate of reaction is always mol Ls. | The unit of rate constant varies with the order of It depends upon the molar concentration of reac- | reaction. 3. | tants at that time. It is constant for a particular reaction at con- stant temperature and does not depend on con- centration of reactants. CHAPTER 4 : d-BLOCK AND f-BLOCK ELEMENTS > d-Block elements: Group 3 - 12 (Transition elements) > General electronic configuration of transition elements: (n-1)d"°, ns'? > Physical properties: = Allare metals. Malleable, ductile, lustrous and sonorous except mercury which is a liquid. ‘Atomic radii: In period, first decreases till the middle, becomes constant and then increases. Ionic radii: Decreases with increase in oxidation state. Ionization enthalpy: From left to right, it increases. Variable oxidation state. ‘Complex and interstitial compounds are formed. “The magnetic moment increases with the increasing number of unpaired electrons. Formation of coloured compounds and alloys. > Potassium dichromate (K,Cr07) Preparation: fi) Chromate ore is fused with sodium carbonate inthe presence of air to give sodium chromate. 2 FeCr,04 + 4NagCOs + 7/20; —> Feg03 + 4NagCrO4 + 4COz Sodium chromate (i) NagCrOj is filtered and acidified with conc, H,SOto give NagCr207- 2NazCrO, + 2H* —» NazCr,07 + 2Na* + H,0. (ii) Sodium dichromate solution is treated with KCIt0 give KxCr207. 'NagCr07 + 2KCI —» KyCr,07 + 2NaCl verties: Orange, crystalline solid. ae . ey Cr0F + 20H — 2CrOF + H,0 Chromate ion (Yellow) 5 CrOF + 2H* — Cr,0F + H,0 Dichromate ion (orange red) A Cr, 07> + 4H* + Ge” — 2Cr°* + 7HZ0 [Fe** —+Fe*t +e] x6 Scanned with CamScannerStructure: Cr; +6Fe? + HY —> 2Cr + 6Fe** + 7H, CRO + HY + 6e° —>2Cr°* + 7H,0 - sn?* —ySn'*_ + 2°] x3 CHO + 38n?* 14H —> 2C18* + 7H,0 + asn'* CrOF> + HHT + Ge” —> 2Cr" 4 7H,0 [SO + 2H;0 —> SOF" + 4H" + 2e"] x3 COZ + 3803 + 2H" —p 2Cr°* + 3807 + HO. CeO7 + H+ 6° — 2Cr** + 7H,0 [HS —> 2H? + + 2c] x3. Cr0;* + 3H3$ + 8H* —> 2Cr** 438 + 7H0 COP + Ht + Ge” — 2Cr** + 7H,0 [20 —> k + 2e] x3 €r,07° + 6 +14H* —+ 2Cr** + 3p + 7H20 Chromate ion Dichromate ion > Potassium permanganate (KMnO,): 2MnO, + 4KOH + 02 —+ 2K;MnO, + 24,0 3MnO,” + 4H* —> 2MnO,” + MnO + 2H;0 Fused with KOH : MnO2 + 2e” — oxidised withaidkNO, > MnO{ Manganate ion 2- __ Electrolytic oxidation ote: MnO} —SeSatenistos > Mnoj+ie ‘Permanganate ion In laboratory, 2Mn** + 55,0,” + 8H,0 —> 2MnOj + 10SO} + 16H* Peroxodisulphate Properties: Dark purple crystalline solid, sparingly soluble in water and powerful oxidising agent. 2KMnO, —> K;MnO, + MnO, + 02 [MnO,- + 8H* +5e” —> Mn** + 4H,0] x2 [27 —> I, + 2e] x 5 2MnO," + 101 + 16H* —>2Mn?* + 51, + 8H,0 MnO, + 8H*+ 5e” —> Mn?* + 41,0 Fe’? — Fe? +e] x5 MnO,” + 5Fe** + 8H* —+Mn?* +5 Fe? + 4,0 [MnO," + BH + 5e” —>Mn** + 41,0] x 2 C04 — 2C0) + 207] x 5 2MnOy" + 5C,04"+ 16H* —>2Mn2* + 10CO, + 8H, (MnO, + 8H* + 5e°” —+Mn** + 41,0] x 2 [S* —9S + 20] x5 2MnO,” + 58* + 16H* —»2Mn** +55 + 8H;O Scanned with CamScanner[MnO, + 8H* + 5e” —> Mn?* + 4H1,0] x 2 180, + HO —> $0, + 2H™ + 2e] x5 [MnO, + 8H* + 5e —> Mn" + 4H,0] x 2 INO + H,0 —> NOs + 2H" +201 x5 2MnO," + 5NO;" +6H* —> 2Mn?* + 5NO3” +3H20 . IMnO, + 2H,0 + 36° —» MnO, + 40H] x 2 T+ 60H” — 103" + 3H, 0 + 67 2MnOy +1 + HO —>103 + 2MnO + 20H . 3Mn** + 2H,0 + 2MnO, —>5MnOg + 4H* Structure: | MP Ps ‘Tetrahedral manganate _—_Tetrahedral permanganate lon (Green) on (Purple) > General electronic configuration of f- block elements is (n-2)f""* (n-1)a™! ns? > Lanthanoids: Ce (Z = 58) to Lu (Z = 71) Electronic Configuration : [Xe] 4f*" 5d" 65” Properties: ™ Highly dense metals, soft, malleable and ductile. = High melting point. ™ — Atomicand ionic size decreases with increasing atomic number. This steady decrease is known as. lanthanide contraction. Oxidation state: Mainly +3 but some show +2 and +4 also. = 4G, WK nC, LnCy, Ln,Cy +0, [+ Ln, | ARO, n(orns+ HX |=" _, inx, sad, yf Actinoids: Ac (Z = 89) to Lr (Z = 103) Electronic configuration: [Ri] 5f'7"* 6d" 73? Properties: | Highly dense metals and forms alloys. High electropositivity and melting point. ™ Atomic and ionic radii decrease with an increase in atomic size due to poor shielding effect of 5f electrons (actinoid contraction). ™ Paramagnetic, ions are coloured and radioactive. .™ Oxidation state: Commonly +3 but exhibit +4, +5, +6 and +7 also. © Less reactive towards acids. > Difference between Lanthanoids and Actinoids: S.No. Lanthanoids _ ia % Rinna (i) _[4forbital is progressively filled. 5f orbital is progressively filled. Scanned with CamScanner> > v v v v Vv idati is most common, but i along with] +3 oxidation state is +3 ondation stat is most common 31008 WIN | higher oxidation state of +4, +5, +6, 47 +2and +4. Except promethium, all are non-radioactive. Less tendency of complex formation, (ii) ‘Allare radioactive. Strong tendency of complex formation. More reactive than lanthanoids. wy) = (v)_ | Chemically less reactive than actinoids, CHAPTER 5 : COORDINATION COMPOUNDS ly charged ions or 4 contain a central metal atom ot ion surrounded by number of oppositely charg The compounds w neutral molecules ae called coordination compounds. eg, [Cu(NH3)4"™ Verner's theory of co-ordination compounds: ee 2 7 of valences ionizable (Primary) and non ionizable (Secondary) valencies. 7 (i) Every metal ion hasa fixed number of secondary valency and this is known as coordination number. (ii) Primary valencies are satisfied by anions while secondary valancies are satisfied by negative group or neutral molecules with lone pair of electrons. (Gv) Secondary valencies are directed in space towards internal positions. Double Salt: When two or more salts are added to form a stable solid together and break into constituent ions when dissolved in water or any solvent. e.g, FeSOq(NH,);SO,.6HO (Mohr's salt). c-ordinate sphere The metal ion surrounded by fixed number of ions or molecules is called central metal atom or ion, eg., in Kq[Fe(CNg], Fe** is central metal ion. ' A ligand is the ion or molecule bound to the central atonvion in the coordination entity. For example, Cl, OH", CN’, CO, NH, H,0, etc. A ligand may be neutral or charged species. Monodentate ligands ligate through one donor atom, bidentate ligands ligate through two donor atoms and polydentate ligands ligate through more than two donor atoms. When a di- or polydentate ligand uses its two or more donor atoms to bind a single metal ion, itis said to be a chelate ligand. Aumbidentate ligand i a ligand which contains two donor atoms but only one of them forms a coordinate bond at a time with central metal/ion. {eordination number: Number of ligands through which the metals directly bonded. The number of such ligat- ing groups is called the denticity of the ligand. (Ghatge on the complex ion: The charge on the complex ion is equal to the algebr thi ¢ = empl lon: The charg ont 4 Igebric sum of the charges on all the Qxidation number of central atom is defined as the charge it would carry if all it the ligands are removed along with the electron pairs that are shared with the central atom, It is represented by Roman numedea ns Counter ions: The ions which are not included in the prima t 8; in Ke[Fe(CN¢], K* ions are counter ions, Primary coordination sphere are known as counter ions, Homoleptic complexes are complexes in which metalis atom bound toonly one type of ligands e.g., [Co(NH)6l°*, whereas complexes bound to mori toon und to more than one kind of ligands are known ae heteroleptic complexes. e.g, Complexes in which only one metal atom is present are known ash reer e lomonuclear complexes. ¢.g,, [Co(NHs)¢ICls end “¥(NH3)4]8g. Complexes in which more than one metal atom ie Present are known as polynuclear com- Scanned with CamScanner> Nomenclature of coordination compoun: ()_Thecation whether simple or complex (ii) Ligands are named in alphabetical order. (iii) For indicating the number of individual ligand within the coordination entity, numerical prefixes di, tri, tetra, etcare used. For ligands containing any of these prefixes in their names, their numbers are indicated by prefs Dis, tris, tetrakis, ete. Anionic ligands end in -o. Neutral ligands retain their names while cationic end in-ium. named first followed by anion. (iv) The coordination sphere is written in square bracket. (6) Innaming, ligands are named first in alphabetical order followed by metal atom and then the oxidation state ‘of metal by a Roman numeral in parenthesis. (ei) Name of coordination compounds starts with a small letter and the complex part is written as one word. > Twoor more coordination compounds which have the same molecular formula but have thet ligands attached tothe isomers metal atom or jon in different ways are known as isomers. The phenomenon of different isomers js known as isomerism > Isomerism in coordination compounds: (2) Structural isomerism {@) Linkage isomerism: Different linking atoms. eg, [Co(NH3)sNOJ)"* and [Co(NH3)(ONO)*- {Coordination isomerism: Cation and anion are complexions which diferin the coordination of ligands eg. [CONHs)g][Cr(CN),)] and [Cr(NH3)lI Co(CN))}- Gi) Ionization isomerism: Gives different ions in solution. e.g. [Co(NH3);SO,]Br and [Co(NFf)sBrISOy. fx) Solvate/hydration isomerism: Differ by whether or not a solvent molecule is directly boncled to the sonal fon or merely present as free solvent molecules inthe crystal lattice. eg (Cx(H0)s)C and [Cx(H,0)sC]C,H20 (©) Geometrical lsomerism: Different possible geometric arrangements ofthe ligands. an ays ca NH; NH,~ Cl cis trans ca cl cl ly na IN| for wa en Co. en Canw, en a > Optical Isomerism: Optical isomers (enantiomers) are mirror images that cannot be superimposed on one oot emer ecules or ions that cannot be superimposed are called chiral. 3+ — £P al lt os % A d-orbital splitting in an octahedral crystal field @-(® Metal a onbitals |” —_ i ad,2 dgdad,, Average energy Splitting ofd orbitals © ofthe d orbitals in in octahedral Freemetalion spherical crystal field crystal field > Valence Bond theory: e " {@ Asuitable number of vacant orbitals must be present in the central metal atom or ion for the formation of ‘coordinate bond with the ligands. cos 7 (Gi) Central metal ion can use appropriate number of s, p or d-orbitals for hybridisation depending upon total mumber of ligands. (Gli) The hybridised orbitals are allowed to overlap with those ligand orbitals that can donate an electron pair partacars (Gv) The outer orbitals or inner orbitals complexes are formed depending upon whether outer d-orbitals or ‘inner d-orbitals are used. > Crystal field theory (CFT): @ The ligands is considered as point charge or point dipole. (Gi) Interaction between metal ion and ligand is considered as electrostatic in nature. {Gii) Metal ion is supposed to be presentaat the origin of the axis. Ligands approach to metal ion along the axis of octahedral complex between the axis of tetrahedral complex and in the case of square planar complex four ligand approach to metal ion along x, y plane. Gv) Due to the electrostatic interaction between ligands electrons and metal d-orbital electron degeneracy of Number of Orbitals and Types of Hybridisations: v ia ontals Average energy o the Spliting of dorbtals & SA ayes BELGE aaa ‘number "apest ion __| Distribution of hybrid orbitals in space 5 Tetrahedral 4 dsp Square planar 3 spd | Trigonal bipyramidal 5 § Octahedral ry Octahedral Scanned with CamScannerOS ee CHAPTER 6 : HALOALKANES AND HALOARENES > Hydrogen atom in aliphatic hydrocarbons replaced by halogen are called haloalkanes, while in benzene ring are called haloarenes. > Allylic halides: Halogen is bonded to allylic carbon. R CHX x Oo ot a R' =CH,. R"=H(2’) R'=R'-CH,3) > Vimylic halides: Halogen is bonded to one of the carbon atoms of a vinylic carbon. or > Aryl halides: Halogen atom is directly bonded to sp” hybridised carbon atom of an aromatic ring. X X CO HC oO > Preparation of haloalkanes and haloarenes: ROH +HK 25 RX+H,0K= CBr) R-OH + NaBr + H,S0,—> RBr + NaHS, + H,0 BROH + PXs—+ 3R-X + HsPOs (X = Cl, Br) R-OH + PC;—+ R-Cl + POCI; + HCl os SEE Rx R-OH + SOC —> R-Cl + $0; + HCI CH,CH,CH,CH, —CAES CHCH,CH,CH,CI + CHsCH,CHCICH nButyl chloride _sec-Butyl chloride (Major product) ride R—CH = CH, + HBr ears? RCH) — CH — Br R—CH = CH, + Hx tometer Ge x BScecdh 4+ Bry 4 BrCH, —CHBr HZ AS NH nano + Hx (on ee wa K > Sandmeyer’s reaction: Benzene diazonium halide Scanned with CamScanner) v ‘Arylhalide Oe LB) Finkelstein Reaction: REX4Nal DRESSES RA + NaX ‘Swarts Reactio px ABEHEECOPOESYE spp Properties: ‘Mechanism of Nucleophilic substitution reaction: & Unimolecular nucleophilic substitution reaction (Syl): STEPI: CHX, RCHX , as f Batok r Rr R 2 Sy? reactivity Increase (i) Nucleophilic substitution reactions: When an atom or group of atoms is replaced by nucleophile, the reac- tion is called nucleophilic substitution reaction. e.g, ub ee be og C—X + 1Z———+5C—Z+ :X Nucleophile Product Leaving group Scanned with CamScanner+ KOH (aq) R—OH + KX += Alcohol + NaOR +> R—O—R' + NaX Taher + KCN(ale) RCN + KX AAlkyt eyanidle 4+ AgCN “ R— NC + Agx a +¥NO, . pe leo ea > R—-O—N= Allyt halide iti + AgNO: Alkyl nitrite R—NO2 Nitroafkane 9 i} 9 +R—C—O—Ag q PAR Sa On R—C—O—R' + Agx + LIAIHy, ee | * es RH Aiiane +NH3 R—NH)+H—X + NaSH R—SH + NaX ~ e Thaeal +NaCeCH eae (@) Elimination reaction: cH, i CS tan cH,—C—A+ KOH <> kt th +KCI+H,0 Gy oh ii) Reduction: ' Rex +9 —ZaHCcone)_, R-H+H-X (iv) Reaction with metals: CH,CHBr + Mg ash, CHjCH)MgBr Grignard reagent RigX + HO —+ RH + Mg(OH)X Wurtz reaction: 2RX + 2Na—+ RR + 2NaX > Asyihalidesare less reactive towards nucleophilic substitution reaction, due to resonance effect and hybritsation, on NaOH.623K, 300 atm oO eee wi? Scanned with CamScannerHalogenation: a a Aniiyd. FeCl O SS a a 1, 4Dichlorobenzene (Major) o° 1, ee Nitration: a a NO Oe cose oa 1-Chloro-2-nitrobenzene NO, etinas) 1-Chloro-4-nitrobenzene (Major) Sulphonation: a cl o== Oo": 2-Chlorobenzenesulphonic acid SO3H Minor) 4-Chlorobenzenesulphonic acid (Major) Friedel-Crafts reaction: a ca cl CH Q + CH,cl SAS Ah, Cy + 1-Chloro-2-methylbenzene (Minor) CHs 1-Chloro-4-methylbenzene (Minor) o ° co a QO Hcdc Aya, co CH, 2-Chloroacetophen« One) ene 07 SCH; 4-Chloroacetophenone > Wurtz-Fittig reaction: (Major) > Fittig reaction: x R Co +Na+Rx —Biher, Co one Co +2Na —Eiher + 2NaX Diphenyl Scanned with CamScannera OH +NaOH Bua 623 K, 300 atm Chlorobenzene Phenol Important Terms: = Stereoisomerism: Isomerism exhibited by two or more compounds with the same molecular and structural formula, but different spatial arrangements of atoms or groups in space. = Plane-polarised light is the beam of light whose oscillations or vibrations are confined to one plane only is called plane-polarised light, Nicol prism is a special type of prism made from calcite, a special crystalline form of calcium carbonate. Optical rotation: Property of rotating the plane of polarisation either towards left or right. _ Dextrorotatory: Those substances which rotate the plane of polarisation of light towards right, i, in clock- wise, denoted by ‘d’ and (+). = Laevorotatory: Those substances which rotate the plane of polarisation of light towards the left, ie, in an- ticlockwise direction are called laevorotatory, denoted by ‘’ and (-) . | observed rotation (a,4,) Specific rotation [a] = —Tength of tube (@,) * concentration of solution (5 mol") Optically active substances are those substances which rotate the plane of polarisation of plane-polarised light when it is passed through their solutions. ™Polarimeter is the instrument to measure angle of rotation by which the plane-polarised light is rotated. Chiral: An object which is non-superimposable on its mirror image. 1 Achiral: Achiral objects are those objects which are superimposable on their mirror images. Asymmetric carbon is the carbon atom which is attached with four different groups of atoms. m Racemic mixture is a mixture containing equal amounts of enantiomers which does not show any optical activity. mt Racemisation is the process of conversion of an enantiomer into racemic mixture. Freon (CCIF,) is a non-toxic gas which can be liquefied easily. Polyhalogen compounds: CHy + 20h, PL CHZCly + ACL org, CH, + 3Cly =i? CHCl, + 3HC1 CH,CH,OH + 6NaOH + 4l, —*4 CHly + SNal + HCOONa + 5H,0 (CH;COCHs + 4NaOH + 312 —4. CHI; + 3Nal + CH3COONa + 3H,0 CS; + 3Cl, 7 CCK + SC CH, + 4c, > CCl + SHC rr Chloral H,$04 —— a-c-c— © - cos— 9-H ‘Condensation I tt . @ a Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 7 : ALCOHOLS, PHENOLS AND ETHERS IH group, the compounds obtained are called alcohol > When one hydrogen atom of alkane is replaced by > General formula CyHaq4;OH > Allylic alcohols: OH group is attached to single bonded sp*-hybridised carbon next to C=C. e.g,, CH; = CH— CH;—OH Vinylic alcohols: —OH group is attached to double bonded sp*-hybridised carbon atom. E.g. CH>CHOH —CH,—OH >ch—on Sc—on Primary (1°) Secondary (2°) Tertiary (3°) > Preparation of Alcohols: Chip C1+ a} KOH— CHy—OH + KCI q a = CH—C—H+H, "24 cH;—CH,— OH 9 OH = CH;—C—CH +H, “5 cH,—cH— cH, 9° OMgBr I I =) H—C—H+CH;MgBr—>] H—C—H_ | HOH » CHyCH,OH + MgO je <— CH " = CH = CH, + H,S0,—> CH;CH,050;H —82 5 CHCH,OH + H,50, H,0; = 3R- = = CH= CH + @H:h2— (R-CHy— CHB Gp .G ? RCH - CH, OH + HBO, (CH-COO) = Gy cota, SOO CH CH CH ig0occH Propene OH) a NaBH, |e Sears AIH, HO oH — RCOOH HHS Ro OH > Preparation of Phenols: q. ONS OH . Oo +NaOH GSK Oo= * Phenol, SO3H OH . lcum NOH wor NH, NG ou ‘ eet > In alcoh is i Lleere ols and phenols increases with increase in C atoms. In alcohols, bp. decreases with increase in Scanned with CamScannerReactions of Phenol: Waa CotsONa +H [> gH,0Na + H,0 2n Distitavion + 2n0, NH, Ha cin 10 Pol, t—2+ 6,H,Cl cHcoct Pyridine? CeHsCOOCH, [ERROR] carscoocely Na |_Na_, Geig? CeHgOCH OH Bywater i 2446. Tremophanal ‘OH OH ‘o-and pBromophencl Peon No, cone. nos, 02% 2 ‘Cone. HSO,, No, 2,46-Tinlvophenol OH oH SO,H onc. HS0y . | Sone Bete SO,H NaOH + CO, 190-140" C COOH |_ NaH + 082 HF Kolbe Schmidt reaction o-Hydroxy benzoic acid |_wccy+KOHmHY ‘CHO | —Rimor-Temenn reaction. —_— | cone Oy o” 6 ontecetanet NO, p-Nitropteno! Nag00r 750, o Benzoquinone Scanned with CamScanner> Reactions of Ethanol: fal cyrc+ Hel HERP, cy 41, +H0 NilyTHO,60K_, ©. 14.NH, +Secondary and tertiary amine {POs c.n,c1 + Pod, + HCl | S08, CHCl + $0, + HCL Mi ZaGh aN, Men 88 1S c,H,ONa oo C,H,0OCCH, + CH,COOH aoe | 8 C,H,0C,H, + 4,0 ALD Lae? CH=CH, +H,0 CjHNH, + HO {0} {0} }-—+ CH,CHO—+ CH,COOH Heat with H)S0 4, CjH,OH in excess are GHs-O-C.Hs H,SO, in excess “HK [oe SEK. CHCHO +H,O Ci = CH, +H.0 HO}, cri,cHo 24 CCL,CHO 1+ NaOH Pe ci, C8 sag Soot > Distinction between Primary, Secondary and Tertiary Alcohols: @ Lucas Test: In tertiary alcohol turbidity appears immediate] yin id turbidit S Gite fc mites nin prinary hol tri appen on heating alcohol —s Jodoform ren by compounds with a methyl veh Clip onthe cn oer ound wih a methyl group next toa carbonyl group, Secondary alcohols > Ethers R—O —R : General formula : CgHoy 430 > Preparation of ethers: = Williamson synthesis: R—X +Na—O—R'—4 R—O-R' + NaX © GHsOH + HOCH; EH. , CHOC Hs + HO me 2CHsCI + Ag,O heat, C,Hs—O—CoH; + 2AgC1 (CH3Cl + Ag20 + C2HsCl—+ CHy—O—C,H, + 2AgC1 Br . CHSOCHCl + BrMgCaHHs—s CH, —O— City — Cals + Mg a = GHsOH + CHN, + HOCH, + Ny Scanned with CamScannerOH ONa R . Omer 4 ee > Kolbe reaction: NaOH, pes a 7atm oon) oe “CO,” Sodium Sodium * ae acid phenoxide salicylate OH OcOcH, COOH COOH “+ (CH,CO),O cone. (CHCO),O cone. HSO,, + CH,COOH wan Acetic acid Salicylic acid Salicyicacid. > Fries Rearrangement: ‘OCOCH, OH OCH, et : Phenyl o-Hydroxy pert COCH, actephenone Hydroxy actephenone > Properties: m R—O—R+HX —@5> ROH + RX (X = Br, I) Ring substitution in aromatic ethers: ocx, = 6-5 ijn) ocH,, cH, yc | eieaercans aoa?” oc o- igen anise | uZ-oraivancs, 6 om aaron sor ocH,, ocH, No, HNoyeoney$0, (ened % Neto xo, inn Noarbole Pale Scanned with CamScannerCHAPTER 8 : ALDEHYDES, KETONES AND CARBOXYLIC ACIDS ne > ~S Carbonyl group: Functional group >C = O > Aldehydes: Carbonyl group is attached to either two hydrogen atoms or one hydrogen atom and one carbon containing group with hydrogen atom. > Ketones: Carbonyl group is attached with two alkyl or two aryl or one alkyl and one aryl group. > Preparation of aldehydes: KxCr0/H,$0, RCH,;OH |. R-CHO + H;0 > RCH.OH + 10] “Tag r > RCH; OH SB RCHO +H, 5 . H,0,Zn, > R-CH= tee +O; —> R—CH ‘CH—R' no” R—CHO + R—CHO ~ Aldehyde H,SO,/Hg50, | CH= CH+ 1,0 “Se? |cH,= CH] > CHs—CHO Ethyne Unstable peal (Acetylene) (Acetaldehyde) i a0, i Pd-t s > R-~C—a+H, mmang? R-C—H + HCI Acyl chloride oe Aldehyde ™ Stephen reaction: snl, HCl = Etard reaction: CH3 CH(OCrOHCL), CHO ‘Cr 106 2.07 RCN +H, RCH = NH —2*2.5 RCHO + NH,CI ‘Toluene Chromium complex Benzaldehyde = ~ Gattermann Koch reaction: co+Ha ‘CHO —s" Anhyd. AICI/CuCl +Ha Benzene Benzaldehyde > Preparation of ketones: @) 2R—Mg-X + CdClh—+ R,Cd + 2Mg(x)Cl (i) 2R'-C-Cl + Rcd —> 2R'-C-R+ Cac, Mn I ° ° Scanned with CamScannerv NMgBr . 4 10° 72 (il) CH,~ CH, - CaN +H Mgbr 8 5.cH CH, -C ae CH, -C Cat Cath Propiophenone (-Phenylpropanone) RL K,Cr,0VH R. Gv) p7CH-OH + [0] ROA SOL, poet oF Ho 1° " s " 2 Alcohol Ketone RY CG R. ©) yp ACH-OH > c= 04th 2° Alcohol Ketone RL XOX UR RY 7k Sey fe i) C=C oO. 774 tN py 20, Zn cap! ROO Ny 703 > aR R Fe > RCOR + ROR Friedel-Crafts acylation reaction: ° tl g o Cprme-8-0 Py C ne Aldehydes and ketones generally undergo nucleophilic addition reaction. Aldehydes are very reactive than ketones due to more +I effect in ketones. Chemical Properties of Aldehydes and Ketones: = HCN+OH =:CN+H,0 fe [mee —¢—COOH . oO) ow CN Hydroxy acid .e_s SoA Ne7N_] HEBuo mel xc] Boe, Mrs Cyanohydrin > c7 “on amino alcohol > S503 Ne78OsNa Dc=0 + NaH50; == DCL CSG ~ OMX ome, \ OH OH N DC =O + RMgX —> UCL Satie * MBN y OH N — I<" eee = UC=0+HN-Z == [>e<2t Joye N-Z+H,O where Z = Alkyl, aryl, OH, NH;CONH; etc. = R-cHO+ an R—CH,OH ‘Aldehyde 1° Alcohot Scanned with CamScannerR R Niort, Ry, = ®ScLo4H, Nimes ScH-on a R 1m Aldol condensation: acH,—cHo SAL cH, —CH— Cl —CHO is | On CH; — CH = CH—CHO Cross aldol condensation: a — —CH,—CH = CHCHO CH,CHO + CH)CH,CHO ENG CHy—CH = C cro + CHj—CH, CHs > Clemmensen reduction: ~ co 2H, cH, +H,0 7 wa? > Wolff-Kishner reaction: \ Nooo Miettt, Nonna, fonsieeares, Nov 4, mee = > Tollens’ and Fehling test are used to distinguish between aldehydes and ketones. Tollens' test: Ketone does not give this test. RCHO + 2[Ag(NH;),]* + 30H” —+ RCOO~+2Ag + 2H,O + 4NH3 Silver Mirror Febling test: Ketone does not give this test. R-CHO + 2Cu* +50H7—>RCOO-+ — Cu,0 + 3H,0 Red ppt > Cannizzaro reaction H HY HY 4 I e C=0+ \C=0+ Conc. KOH—*-> H-C-OH + H-C He H i \, H ‘OK Formaldehyde Methanol Potassium formate 2 (pret + cone aon 4s (Cp-sson

Preparation: = R—CH— on OEE Oe0. , R—COOH = R—CHO + [0] SESSA, R__ COOH Scanned with CamScanneron o oO ll ll mw R—C=N 42, R—c_NH, HO, R-c_on ° ° " lI mw R—Mg—X+Co, Paste, R_¢_omgx U2 5 R—c—on q CoHsC. Soke, CgHsCOOH + CH;COOH . ong Benzoic acid Ethanoic acid ° Benzoic ethanoic anhydride ™ CHy—CH;—CH;—COOCH;—CH; 80H cH;—CH,—CH;—COONa + CH,CH,-OH 12°, CH,CH,CH,COOH Properties: ™ Carboxylic acids are weak acids. They liberate H* ions on ionization. ™ =2R—COOH + 2Na—>2R—COONa* + Hy Sodium carboxylate = R—COOH + NatOH—+R—COONa* +H,0 = R—COOH + NaHCO;—> R—COONa* + H;0 + CO; t ° Q 0 Y \ cH, 4c ¢ \ CH, +H, BHCC + C—O Sega HC) f-cib 48h0 ‘OH Hi ‘o' Ethanoic acid Ethanoic anhydride = Esterification: RCOOH + R'OH =#= RCOOR' + H,0 RCOOH + PCI; —> RCOCI + POCIs + HCL 3RCOOH + PCI; —+ 3RCOCI + H3PO3 RCOOH + SOC —+ RCOCI + $0, + HCIt Reduction: (UAL deter oF Bey = ty R-CH,OH R-COOH Ta i ™ R—COOH +NH; = R—COO-NH, ie R—CONH; Carboxylicacid Amide coon COONH, CONH; 4 Benzoic acid ‘Ammonium benzoate Benzamide Scanned with CamScannerCOONH, "2148 COOH , yy, . (Omen ae Ores NH," Hell Volhard Zelinsky reaction: (XyReat phoephors ———e—e—— R-CH,-COOH ip . Nitration COOH ‘Cone. HNOs “Conc SO,” x X=CLB Phthalamide Re {COOH jr «1 -Halocarboxylie acid COOH =O, m-Nitrobenzoic acid > Order of strength of Acids: Bromination COOH oO i C CONT song heating OL Nine CONH;—-Nih A 1 Phthalimide COOH BryfFeBry Ol Br m-Bromobenzoic acid HCOOH > CH;COOH > CHsCH,COOH > C3H,COOH (CC1;COOH > CHCI;COOH > CH,CICOOH > CH;COOH, > Uses: Hexanedioic acid is used in the manufacture of nylon-6, 6. Esters of benzoic acid are used in perfumery. ‘Sodium benzoate is used as a food preservative. Higher fatty acids are used for the manufacture of soaps and detergents. CHAPTER 9 : AMINES > Amines are considered as derivatives of ammonia by replacement of hydrogen atoms with alkyl or aryl groups. Cry Cee Ny, CH NH-CHy CN CH, CH, % Amines exhibit hydrogen bonding which influence their physical properties. % Identification of primary, secondary and tertiary amines: aerate [Primary amine ‘Secondary amine ‘Action with HNO} Alcohol is formed and ni- trogen is evolved, Nitroso-amine is, formed which with phenol and cone. HSO4 gives green colour (Liebermann Test). ‘Tertiary amine In cold, nitrite salt is formed which on heating gives nitroso-amine. This nitroso-amine —_ gives Liebermann test. 2 Action with CHCl, and ale. KOH. Isocyanide offensive odour formed, with is No reaction, No reaction. Scanned with CamScanner3. | Action with CS) and Formed compound has | No reaction. No reaction. HgClz (Mustard oil re-| smell like that of mus- action). tard oil, 4. Action with acetyl | Acetyl derivative _ is| Acetyl derivative is | No reaction. chloride. formed. formed, 5. | Action with CHL. Three molecules of CHl | Tiwo molecules of | Only one molecule ‘on reaction with primary | CHyl on reaction of CHs[ reacts with ter- amine give quaternary | with secondary tiary amine and salt, amine give formation of quaternary quaternary salt. salt takes place. 6. | Action with Mono alkyl Dialkyl No reaction. Hinsberg, sulphonamide sulphonamide (CeH:S0,0) derivative is formed | derivative is formed reagent, which is which is insoluble in soluble in KOH. KOH. ° ° i i ese 2S PICS One a ane oO oO N _ -Alkylphthalimide ° i a a CN ‘HY —| xR He, eta +RNH, “com Tl (1°amine) " oO . Phthalicacid > Hoffmann bromamide degradation reaction: ° { R—C—NH, + Br, + 4NaOH —+ R—NHp + Na;CO3 + 2NaBr + 2,0. > Carbylamine reaction: R—NH, + CHCl, + 3KOH #244 R—NC + 3KCI + 3H,0 > Diazotisation: CgHNH, + NaNO, + 2HC) —2™*+ CoHgN2"CI” + NaCl + 2H30 > Coupling reactions: (ppsencr

NeNC +H

oe N p> NH,+ I+ H,0 p-Aminoazobenzene (yellow dye) Scanned with CamScanner> Methods of preparation and reactions of ethyl amine CHa + NHS CHO + NH CHO} Na+ GHW CHSC o> CHES + OH [UC CHNH;.HCI | MSO. (CyHyNH,)2.H,SO, [AHCI Ch (CHyNH,), HPtCly JOM (Cyt .NH A> (CyHH)sN (HN “> (HH i SERS GH NHCOCH, (chCo,0 |_SHCOG > CHSNHCOC Hs HNO, > CH;OH CHC) + KOH CH;CONH, Carbylamine reaction > GHSNC C3, + KOH, ‘Mustard oil reaction CHHSNCS > GHNHNa PAM CHSCHO 101 CHACHO. aH:N = CHCH CHAPTER 10 : BIOMOLECULES > Biomolecules are naturally occurring organic compounds present as essential constituents of living organism in different cells. e-g,, polysaccharides, proteins, etc. Carbohydrates are optically active polyhydroxy aldehydes or ketones or compound which produce such ., cellulose, glycogen, starch, etc. ‘They are classified as monosaccharides, disaccharides, oligosaccharides and polysaccharides on the basis of > Carbohydrates . units on hydrolysis. e.g. . their behaviour on hydrolysis. . All monosaccharides and disaccharides are sweet in taste, so called sugars. Scanned with CamScannerReducing sugars: Carbohydrat. 5 ; 'es which contain free aldehydic or group and reduce Fel lu tion and Tollens’ reagent. eg, all tanowaechatidn maltore ee Non-reducing sugars: Carboh; ' : Fehling’ssoktion or Tolan era hich donot have free aldehydic or ketonic group and do not reduce Teagent. eg, sucrose, Allreducing carbohydrate undergoes mutarotation in aq Glucose and fructose are examples of monosaccharides, Preparation of Glucose: solution, Cratn2On1 + HOES Cytt20, + Ch 0, (CoHlygO3 + nHZO—$*" _ cat.0, 393K,23bar — Glucose Reactions of glucose: ‘CHO 1 (GHOH), the, (CH5-CH,-CH,-CH,-CH,-CHy CH,OH (n-Hexane) CN cHO CH=N-OH CHO 7 NH,OH - I I ‘OH (HOM), SS (CHO, 2, (HOM, SN, (CHOF), CHLOH CH,OH CH,OH CH,OH Glucose monoxime Glucose cyanohydrin CHO COOH I caer! (CHOM, awater, (CHOH), I CH,OH CH,OH Gluconic acid CHO To I ide) 7 (CHOHp, 2 Aectsanhyene, (CHO-C_CH,), +5CHjCOOH I I 9 CH,OH cx,0-tLcx, CHO cooH COOH 1 fencer! Onidation_¢d Oxidation << Ceidation (CHOH) (CHOW) re HNO FHOMM cone NG, CHOFDS CH,OH COOH CELOH Saccharic Gluconic acid acid Sucrose, maltose and lactose are examples of disaccharides. Maltose molecules composed of wo a-D-ghucose units in which C1 of one glucose (1) is linked to C4 of another glucose unit (If) iched chain with 200 ~ 1000 a-D-(+)-glucose units held by Cy ~Cy glycosidic link- Amylose is a long unbran 's in which the chain is formed by Cy Cy age. Amylopectin is a branched chain polymer of a-D-glucose glycosidic linkage whereas branching occurs by | Cy ~ Ce glycosidic linkage. Starch and cellulose are examples of polysaccharides, Cellulose is a polysaccharide whose fundamental structural unit is P-D-glucose joined by lycosidic linkage between Cy of one glucose unit and Ca of the next glucose unit, Deribose and deoxyribose are sugars present in RNA and DNA respectively. Scanned with CamScanner> PROTEINS, VITAMINS and NUCLEIC ACIDS scantsan the «amino aids Proteins are condensation polymers in which monomeric units are roteins a i (-NH;) are called The compounds which contain carboxylic acid (COOH) group and an amino group (NH) amino acids. i ns are classified as fibrous and globular proteins. ® On the basis of structure, proteins are cl : i : as Fibrous proteins are thread like molecules which tend to lay side by side while globular protei folded molecular to form compact units of spheroidal shape. Amino acids (Contain -COOH and -NH, group) Essential Non-essential Acidic Basic.~—-‘Neutral (Not synthesized (Synthesized by the body) by the body) Based on structure and shape: . (@ Primary structure: Each polypeptide in a protein has amino acids linked with each other in a specific sequence. (3) "Secondary structure: It refers to the shape in which a long polypeptide chain exists Le, a-helix and f- pleated sheet. (Gi) Tertiary structure: It represents overall folding of polypeptide chains by H-bonds, disulphide linkages, van der Waals and electrostatic form of attraction. Gs) Quaternary structure: The spatial arrangement of two or more polypeptide chains with respect to each other. ™ ceamino acids exist as dipolar ions or Zwitter ions. Proteins help as transporting agent, as enzymes, as metabolic regulators, as antibodies and as structural materials. = Enzymes are essential biological catalysts which are needed to catalyse biochemical reactions e.g,, lactase, invertase etc. Vitamins are group of organic compounds which are required in a very small amount for the healthy growth and functioning of animal organism. Vitamins can be water soluble (B and C) and fat soluble (A, D, Band). '* Hormones are the chemical substances produced by ductless lands called endocri popes y Slands called endocrine glands such as thy- Nucleic acids are the polymers of nucleotides help in synthesis of protein and transfer genetic traits © Monomeric unit of nucleic acid isa nucleotide. Nucleotide is made up of a pentose st i igar, a heterocyclic ba ic acid unit 1 Nkeacarae nett? ‘yclic base and phosphoric acid unit, (DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid (i) RNA (ribonucleic acid) DNA has a double helical structure, . RNA hasa single strand, Nucleic acid helps in re . plication and protein synthesis RNA: a (mRNA (Messenger RNA) (i) RNA (Ribosomal RNA) (ii) FRNA (Transfer RNA) Scanned with CamScanner> Differences between mt DNA and RNA S.No. RNA (@__ | The sugar is D-ribose. Ttexists as a single chain structure. (il) | The base units are : * Adenine (A) and guanine (G) as DNA The sugar is D-2-deoxyribose. Tthas a double helix structure. ‘The base units are : * Adenine (A) and guanine (G) as purine bases. purine bases. ; * Cytosine (C) and uracil (U) as pyrimidine * Cytosine (C) and thymine (T) as pyrimidine ‘bas- bases. 6. (iv) _| It is responsible for protein synthesis. Tis responsible for inheritance of characters. Fibrous and Globular protein S.No. Globular proteins 2 Fibrous proteins (i) _| These are water soluble proteins. ‘These are water insoluble proteins. (ii)_ | These are spherical in shape. ‘These are linear in shape. (iii) _| Globular proteins are highly unstable. Fibrous proteins are stable to moderate change in temperature and pH. i Reducing and Non-reducing sugar S.No. Reducing sugar ‘Non-reducing sugar 7 @ Carbohydrates which can reduce Tollens’ rea- | Carbohydrates which cannot reduce gent or Fehling solution. ‘Tollens’ reagent or Fehling solution. (uy | Have eee aldehyde or ketone groups. Do not have free aldehyde or ketone groups. ii) _ | Osazone formation takes place. Osazone formation does not take place. Gv) _| Eg, maltose, glucose. Eg, sucrose, raffinose. . S.No. | Hormones) ____ Gland Function 1. _ | Steroid hormones: () Testosterone (androgens) _| Testes Responsible for development of male sex organs. (i) Estrogen and progesterone | Ovary Influences development of sex organs, maintains pregnancy. (il) Cortisone ‘Adrenal cortex Regulates metabolism of water, mineral salts, 2. | Amine hormones: () Adrenaline Adrenal medulla _| Increases blood pressure and pulse rate. It also releases glucose from glycogen and fatty acids from fats. (i) Thyroxine Thyroid Stimulates rate of /—_ oxidative metabolism and regulates general growth and development. Scanned with CamScanner3. _ | Peptide hormones: | . Posterior pituit jon of some smi i) Oxytocin Posterior pituitary | Causes constriction of ‘ooth 9 muscles. It causes contraction of uterus during child birth. Posterior pituitary | Controls the reabsorption of water in | kidneys. | Pancreas, Controls blood glucose level. | Pancreas Increases blood glucose level. | Deficiency Essential for vision | Night blindness, fish, spinach, green| and growth. | xerophthalmia, re- Excerophytol Se Develops resistance | tarded growth and Ca against diseases. | decreases the im- munity of body to- wards various dis eases. ViteminB, | Thiamine or Aneurin | Egg, fish, meat, rice, | For proper | Beri-beri, anaemia, wheat, yeast ete. functioning _of | weakness of CaHyN,OS . nervous system. muscles etc. Vitamin B, | Riboflavin or Milk, cheese, egg, meat, | Essential for growth | Cracking skin partic Lactoflavin green vegetables, liver | of body. larly at the comers of | etc. mouth (Cheiloss), (Ci7HagNOg lossitis, dermatitis. Vitamin B, | Pyridoxine CgH,05N | Wheat, maize, husk of | In blood formation | Convulsions, LL rice, meat, fish, egg etc. paralysis. Vitamin Bj, | Cyanocobalamin Liver, egg, fish, meat | In blood formation | Macrocytic anaemia ete. or ici CesHegCON Ou? sraenia, Vitamin | Ascorbic acid Citrus fruits such | Forbones, teeth and | Scurvy, pyorthea, as lemon, orange, | healing of wounds, | pain in joints, CeHsOs tomatoes,amlaetc. _| healthy skin, loosening of teeth, mental depression, anaemia, bleeding of gums. Vitamin D | Calcifero or Ergo- Egg, meat, fish, liver oil, | Control of | Rickets, calcferol or Vitamin Dz, | butter ete. metabolism of | osteomalacia. CogHygO calcium and phosphorus in the formation of bones. Scanned with CamScannerVitaminE | a-To focopherol Milk, egg, meat, pulses, | Anti sterility or Loss of ee green vegetables, seeds, reproductive ability asHHs9O2 beans ete, reproduction. or infertility. ink in K Vitami EE ea in Kj or Cabbage, spinach, | Helps in clotting of | Delay in (Vitamin Ky | Phylloquinone green vegetables, egg, | blood. blood clotting ork) Ca1HysO2, Vitamin Ky, | fish ete. (Haemophilia). CarHs.02. > IMPORTANT STRUCTURES Glucose: H—c- on H4— on él CHOH .-D-(+)-Glucose .—D— (+) - Glucopyranose Ho--H O H-}- OH oar ‘CH,OH a-D- (-)-Fructofumnose a 1 HOH,C O__ CH,OH (HO) 13 H OH OH H a-D-())-Fructofuranose B-D-(+)-Glucose 6 ‘CH,OH H /As—® on H \oH HY HO of HOH B-D-(+)—Glucopyranose H+}-0H in 6 ‘CH,OH f-D~ (-)=Fructofunnose ‘ HOH,C OOH H Ol Ki op CH,OH OH H -D-(-)-Fructofuranose Scanned with CamScannerH OH Glycosidic OH &-D-Glucove inkage B-D~Pructose ° ° Zwitter ion: R-CH—C-0-4 cf R-cH—lig NH, Ny ‘Amino acid (Zwitter iony Scanned with CamScanner