EDUCATION STUDIES 1B

Outline of the module

Developer and Presenter: Menias Mashaba
Academic Leader: Joseph Jinja Divala
Module Purpose:
To guide students in studying current educational challenges from perspectives of
sociocultural theories of education in order to understand how education is shaped socially
and politically
Specific Objectives and Competencies
This module is designed to achieve the following specific objectives and competencies in
students:
- Ability to examine and critique the various issues that affect education using different
theories
- To problematise forces that influence the education system both within and outside
schools
- To think critically and assess ideologies underpinning schooling in South Africa
- Capacity to explain how systems have evolved in the South African education system
Module content:
This module is organized under four units that are mostly introductory debates to educational
challenges and how a beginning teacher can begin to understand the nature of education and
its challenges
Unit 1: Social Stratification to address current issues in Education
Week 1: Introduction to the module
In this week’s lesson, we focus on the structure and organization of the module with
social stratification as an overarching theme. Thus, the module is broadly framed to
address issues of stratification in the way that they are used as systems of collective
social ranking and the ideologies that support them. In this way, we zero in on the
sociological question of “Whether the differences in society require or justify
differential opportunities, privileges, responsibilities, and rewards or put negatively
domination and exploitation?”. In the case of education, our focus is on the issue of
education and reproduction and, consequently, how this threatens equality and justice
in society.
Week 2: Social Stratification

In this week's lesson, we will discuss the meaning of Social Stratification and look at
some definitions; discuss the origin of stratification; look at the types of stratification;
highlight the characteristics of social stratification; examine the nature of the social
class or a component of social stratification; and lastly, look at the principles of social
stratification and consider the factors of social stratification.
 Activity 1:
1. Draw from the prescribed reading, choose one example/category of social
stratification, and explain whether they are based on social phenomena or
biological facts?

(i) What do you think is the relationship between social class in Africa and
the gap between the poor and the rich? Explain.
(ii) Is there any relationship between class and racial stratification? What do
you think?

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Define ‘stratification’ and ‘social stratification.’
- Classify systems of social ranking and their limitations and/or merits
- Identify sources of ‘social stratification and critique them

References
Berreman, G. D. (1972). Race, caste, and other invidious distinctions in social
stratification. Race, 13(4), 385-414.

Week 3: Social Stratification and the Sociology of Social Inequality

This lesson will focus on social structure, stratification, and social processes in
society. We will, therefore, enumerate the function of social stratification in society,
the conflict arising in society because of the status quo, and what the social structure
symbolizes by discussing the three major sociological perspectives. Thus, we will
look at how sociologists study social inequality by highlighting the functions and
dysfunctions of inequality. In this way, we will have an understanding of how society
operates.

Activity 2:
1. What is your view about social inequality in the community?
2. What problems does conflict theory see in education?
3. How does symbolic interactionism account for educational differentiation?
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- List the major function of education
- Explain the problems that conflict theory sees in education
- Describe the understanding of education from a symbolic interactionism point of
view.
 References

Mooney, L. A., Knox, D., and Schacht, C. (2007): Understanding Social

Problems, 5th Edition. Pp 1-2.

Week 4: Marxism and Education

In this week’s lesson, we interact with the work of American neo-Marxist sociologists
by the name of Bowles and Gintis. Bowles and Gintis coined the ‘correspondence
theory to argue that there is a relationship between school and the workplace.
Therefore, we will develop an understanding of the roles for which schools prepare
students.

Activity 3.

1. What claims do Bowles and Gintis make about differential outcomes in school?
2. Do you agree with Bowles and Gintis when they argue that neutrality, equality,
meritocracy, and impartiality in education do not exist? Explain your answer.

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

- Explain the correspondence theory.
- Describe the relationship between school and the workplace.
- Identify the role of the hidden curriculum in promoting inequalities in educational
achievements.

References
Bowles, S., Gintis, H. (1976). Chapter 11: Schooling in Capitalist America. In
Haralambos, M., Holborn, M. & Heald R. (2004), Sociology: Themes and
Perspectives. Pp 787-794.

Week 5: Organization of schools in South Africa

In this lesson, we will examine the organization of schools in South Africa in terms of
the quintile system, what these quintiles represent, and the issue of class and race
implied herewith. Consequently, we look at how the above-mentioned factors account
for the ideology/ideologies underpinning schooling in South Africa and how historical
factors largely explain the status quo.
Activity 4.

1. Do you think the classification of schools in current South Africa is justifiable?

 2. “The child’s education in South Africa is dependent on where they are born, how
wealthy they are, and the colour of their skin” (Daily Maverick news, 2020,
paragraph 7). Do you agree with this statement? Explain with reference to the
influences of historical factors.
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Analyse the structural organization of schooling in South Africa
- Identify ideologies that underpin the schooling system in South Africa
- Relate ideologies that support schooling in South Africa to historical factors

References
White, C. J., & Van Dyk, H. (2019). Theory and practice of the quintile ranking
of schools in South Africa: A financial management perspective. South African
Journal of Education, 39(Supplement 1), s1-19.

Unit 2: Race and Education

Week 6: Race Construction and Legitimating Differences
This lesson builds from the previous unit on categories of differentiation and maps out
‘race’ as one of the constructs that drive social stratification. To highlight the issue of
race, we will focus on the discussion about the legacy of Apartheid, which exalted one
particular race over others by legitimizing birth-ascribed social differences and
attributing to them innate biological, hence ‘racial’ differences.
Activity 5:
1. How did Apartheid policies legitimize ‘racial’ stratification in South Africa?
2. How do issues of ‘racial’ stratification manifest in schools?
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Identify that ‘race’ is a social construct than a biological factor
- Identify that ‘race’ acquire meaning only through its social definition in a given
society
- Interpret historical systems and their roles in ‘racial’ stratification

References
Posel, D. (2001). Race as common sense: Racial classification in twentieth-
century South Africa. African Studies Review, 44(2), 87-114.

Week 7: Operation of Race in Schools

 The focus here is on the construction of ‘race’ in South African schools. Thus, we
look at the manner in which different races are located and who goes to which school.
In this way, we open up the discussion about how race is continually remade within
changing circumstances and constructed and located, in part, in institutions’
pedagogical practices and discourses.
Activity 6:
1. In what way can a ‘hidden curriculum’ reinforce issues of ‘racial’ stratification?
Give examples
2. What would you consider a ‘just’ practice, and explain how it can be used to
challenge social inequality?
Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Describe the social structure in relation to race in South Africa and its implication on
education
- Interpret ‘ideologies’ that underpin the school curriculum
- Problematise practices that reinforce the reproduction of race and class
References
Dolby, N. (2002). Making white: Constructing race in a South African high
school. Curriculum Inquiry, 32(1), 7-29.

Unit 3 Philosophical Assumptions

Week 8: Rationalism: Plato and education
Having analysed how stratification operates in society from the previous lessons, we
now turn to philosophical thoughts, the first of which is ‘rationalism’ and how it has
been used as an ideology to legitimize and justify differences in society. Hence, we
address the question of what does it mean to essentialize people philosophically?
Activity 7:
1. Do you agree with Plato’s statement that people should be trained according to
their abilities in society? For example, courageous people make good soldiers and
patient people make good craftsmen. What are the implications of these thoughts?
2. What relevance does Plato’s theory of essentialism have to the organization of
schools in South Africa?

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- To understand the importance of reason and rationalism
- To evaluate Plato’s principle of specialization in relation to social stratification
- To evaluate the relevance of Plato’s theory to the South African democracy
 References

Bailey, R., Barrow, R., Carr, D. and McCarthy, C. 2010. The Sage Handbook of
Philosophy of Education. London: Sage. (69-84)

Week 9: Progressive Pedagogical Practice

In this lesson, we look at perspectives suggested to challenge; educational policies
and practices, curriculum, and pedagogy that seek to promote hierarchical social
arrangements like White supremacists and patriarchal and capitalist values. Bell
Hooks offers a theory undergirded by anti-colonialism, feminism, and
multiculturalism, all of which form the basis for transforming schools and classroom
practices. In short, the theory promotes teaching that is against racial, sexual, and
class boundaries.

Activity 8:
1. Do you think that the theory of ‘engaged pedagogy’ can be used to challenge the
status quo? In what way, explain?
2. Do students stand to benefit or not from being taught using the ‘engaged
pedagogy’ approach? How is the approach different from traditional classroom
practices?
3. Based on Hook’s ideas, what would you say is the purpose of education?

Lesson objectives:

At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:

- Explain the principles and application of ‘engaged pedagogy’

- Explain using ‘engaged pedagogy’ as an approach can result in meaningful learning in
multicultural classrooms
- Describe how you would apply the ‘engaged pedagogy’ philosophy in future

References
Burke, B. 2004. bell hooks on education. The encyclopaedia of informal
education, www.infed.org/mobi/bell-hooks-on-education.htm.

Week 10: Existentialism Thought: Promoting Equity in Education

Here we look at the manner in which theory can be used in education to promote
equitable practices. We will then adopt, in particular, the ‘existentialism’ theory as an
approach to drive the argument that schools should be seen as centers based on the
recognition of differences, personal choices, and respect for the humanity of others.
The resulting outcome of the approach is that it favours multicultural education.
 Activity 9:
1. What are the threats of a socially stratified society? Discuss with reference to the
existentialist theory
2. Which qualities do you think should guide an existentialist teacher?

Lesson objectives:
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Evaluate the importance of the theory of existentialism
- Analyse unjust practices using the theory
- Apply the theory to classroom situations

References
Smith, R. G., & Mehmet, D. A. Ğ. (1966). Martin Buber. Ankara Üniversitesi
İlahiyat Fakültesi Dergisi, 26(1), 287-326.

Unit 4: Democratic Education as a Position to Address Inclusive Education

Week 11: Approaches to Multicultural Education

This week’s lesson focuses on approaches to multicultural education and how it is

suggested that multicultural education can challenge discrimination based on race,
gender, age, religion, ability, or sexual orientation. We look at the four approaches as
noted by Banks; contributions, additive, transformation, and social action, and
how teachers can use these approaches to integrate multiculturalism into their
curriculum.

Activity 10.

1. What are the implications of a curriculum promoting a single culture in a

diversified society like South Africa?
2. Based on your knowledge of multicultural education, how can you integrate
different cultures into your practice?
Lesson objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Describe the four approaches to multicultural education
- Analyse the strengths and weaknesses of each of the approaches
- Apply the approaches to educational practices

References
 Banks, J. A. (1993). Approaches to multicultural curriculum
reform. Multicultural education: Issues and perspectives, 2, 195-214.

Week 12: Culture, Language, and, Diversity

This lesson focuses on how the dominant-dominated group(s) dichotomy manifests in

educational settings. We will then look at cultural, linguistic, religious, and political
issues and how they threaten cultural plurality. Therefore, we will adopt a
multicultural position as a basis for inclusion and response to cultural diversity.

Activity 11.

1. Is the superior-inferior group dichotomy based on cultural differences justifiable?

Discuss how the dichotomy plays out in the education system.
2. Is our society averse to social inequalities?
3. What should characterise a multicultural society? Discuss with reference to
characteristics of multicultural education.

Lesson objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Develop an understanding of how the dominant-dominated group dichotomy
manifests in schools
- Analyse how different cultural groups experience schooling
- Apply democratic theories to address social inequalities in education
References
Brubaker, R. (2013). Language, religion and the politics of difference. Nations
and nationalism, 19(1), 1-20.

Week 13: Interactionist theory, Gender and, Sexism

In this lesson, we look at gender inequality resulting from problematic constructions
of masculinity and femineity and how these constructions play out in schools.
Moreover, we will look at how concepts of gender used in schools are resistant to
transformation and the outcome being that of marginalization and reproduction of
gender identities. Therefore, we will refer to the interactionist/symbolic theory as a
position to deal with the problematic construction of gender.
Activity 12.
1. Discuss how the labeling theory can explain the way in which people are
stereotyped and stigmatized.
2. Is it possible that the labeled/stigmatized individuals can resist the labels? Explain
your answer.
 Lesson objectives
At the end of the lesson, students should be able to:
- Analyse how schools reinforce the problematic constructions of gender
- Discuss inequalities based on sex and gender from an interactionist point of view
- Conceptualise how the interactionist theory can be used as an approach to deal with
inequalities in schools and society at large.
References
Kleinman, S., & Cabaniss, E. R. (2019). Towards a feminist symbolic
interactionism. In Critical and Cultural Interactionism (pp. 119-137). Routledge.
Week 14: Revision of Course Content

This week, we focus on summarizing and reflecting on course content. Here, you
should be prepared to share insight gained by engaging with complex social and
political issues that shape education. Moreover, discuss how issues in this module
have shaped your concept of education.

Envisaged Learning outcomes

On completion of this module, students should be able to:
- Develop an understanding of social structures and how they affect education.
- Develop the ability to interpret education systems from a sociological and
philosophical point of view.
- Understand how diversity in many of its forms affects and shapes education.