FIGURE OF SPEECH

1) SYNECDOCHE - an association of some important part with the whole it represents. Example: The face
who launched a thousand ships.

2) SIMILE - an indirect association. Example: She is like a flower.

3) PERSONIFICATION - giving human attributes to an inanimate object (animal, idea, etc.)

Example: The sun is looking down on me.

4) OXYMORON - a self-contrasting statement. Example: Loud silence

5) METONYMY - an association wherein the name of something is substituted by something that

represents it.

Example: Toothpaste is sometimes called Colgate.

6) METAPHOR - a direct comparison.

Example: You are the sunshine of my life.

7) IRONY - the contrast between what was expected and what actually happened.

Example: No smoking sign during a cigarette break.

😎 HYPERBOLE - an exaggeration.

Example: Cry me a river.

9) EUPHEMISM - creating a positive connotation out of something negative.

Example: Comfort women (prostitute)

10) ELLIPSIS - omission of words in a sentence.

Example: She walked away and so the world turns....

11) ASYNDETON - not putting any connectors (conjunctions or prepositions).

Example: No retreat, no surrender

12) APOSTROPHE - a direct address to an abstract things or a person who passed away.

Example: Love, please come and take me!

9 Parts of Speech
1. Nouns are a part of speech that comprise words that are used to name people, places, animals,
objects and ideas. Anything we can touch, see, smell, taste, hear and hold can be referred to as nouns.

2. A pronoun is defined as ‘a word that is used instead of a noun or a noun phrase’, according to the
Cambridge Dictionary. The Merriam-Webster Dictionary defines pronouns as ‘any of a small set of words
(such as I, she, he, you, it, we, or they).

3. A verb is a word that expresses action, state of being, or a relation between two things in a sentence.

4. An adjective is a word that modifies a noun or a pronoun.

5. An adverb is a word that modifies (describes) a verb (“he sings loudly”), an adjective (“very tall”),
another adverb (“ended too quickly”), or even a whole sentence (“Fortunately, I had brought an
umbrella.”). Adverbs often end in -ly, but some (such as fast) look exactly the same as their adjective
counterparts.

6. A preposition is a word—and almost always a very small, very common word—that shows direction,
location, or time, or that introduces an object.

7. A conjunction is a word that is used to connect words, phrases, and clauses.

8. Interjection are a part of speech used to convey or express sudden feelings and emotions.

9. An article is a determiner that precedes a noun or noun phrase and identifies it as either specific or
nonspecific. The definite article is the, and the indefinite articles are a and an.

ENGLISH NOTES
✍🏻
EIGHT PARTS OF SPEECH

▪NOUNS -names of people, place, thing

▪PRONOUNS -replace nouns

▪VERBS -action words

▪ADJECTIVES - describe nouns

▪ADVERBS -describe verb, adjective or adverb

▪ARTICLES -the, a, an

▪PREPOSITION -relationship between words

▪CONJUNCTIONS -connecting words

▪INTERJECTIONS -exclamation

NOUN

Types:

•Common - names in general like girl, teacher.

•Proper - specific names like Marie.

•Concrete - exist physically like Cup.

•Compound - two or more word like Rainfall.

•Countable - having singular/plural form like bike--->bikes.

•Uncountable - substances, liquids & abstract.

•Abstract - no physical existence or emotion.

• Collective - set or group like TEAM.

Functions of noun:

-subjects

-direct objects
-indirects objects

-objects of preposition

-predicate nominatives

-object complements

PRONOUN

•Interrogative Who, Where, Why

•Possessive Mine, Yours, Our

•Reflexive Myself, Herself, Himself

•Reciprocal each other, one another

•Demonstrative this, that, these, those

•Indefinite several, few, many, all

•Relative Whom, Whose, That

•Personal

Number Singular(I) Plural(We)

Person 1st (I) 2nd(You) 3rd(He)

Case Subject(We) Object(Us)

Gender Masculine(He) Feminine(She) Neuter(It)

VERB

Intransitive No object

Transitive Has object

Infinitive to + Verb

Modal may/might/will

Auxiliary helps main verb

Voice of verb

Active -subject performs action.

I eat the apple.

Passive -subject received action.

The apple was eaten by me.

Moods of Verb

Declarative I eat an apple.

Interrogative Do you eat apples?

Imperatives Eat your apple.

Verb Tenses

•Simple

Present She writes a novel.

Past She wrote a novel.

Future She will write a novel.

•Continuous (Progressive)

Present C. She is writing a novel.

Past C. She was writing a novel.

Future C. She will be writing a novel.

•Perfect

Present P. She has written a novel.

Past P. She had written a novel.

Future P. She will have written a novel.

•Perfect Continuous

Present P.C. She has been writing a novel.

Past P.C. She had been writing a novel.

Future P.C. She will have been writing a novel.

ADJECTIVE

Clean Good

Comparative Cleaner Better

Superlative Cleanest Best

Adjective phrase - group of words

E.g young handsome

Adjective clause

E.g drinking milk

ADVERB

Degrees of Comparison

Quickly

Comparative More Quickly

Superlative Most Quickly

•Manner How Quickly

•Time When Later

•Place Where Here

•Frequency How often Never

Adverbial phrase He eats in his bed.

Adverbial clause He eats because he is hungry at night.

PREPOSITIONS

Place in, out, at, behind, under, on, up

Time in, on, at

Movement from, to, on, by

CONJUNCTIONS

Coordinating: and, but, or, nor, for, so, yet

Correlative: both/&, either/or, neither/not

Subordinating: while, if, since, because, after

INTERJECTIONS

Hey! Ouch! Wow! Help! Alas!

SENTENCE

- group of words that are out together to mean something.

- has subject and verb.

Types:
1. SIMPLE SENTENCE has only one clause and obe independent variable.

The cat is happy.

2. COMPOUND SENTENCE has two or more clauses.

The dog is happy but the cat is sad.

3. COMPLEX SENTENCE has one clause with a relative clause.

The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy.

4. COMPLEX COMPOUND SENTENCE has many clauses, atleast one of which is a telative clause.

The dog, which is eating the bone, is happy but the cat is sad.

Purposes:

•Declarative Sentence (declaration)

The dog is happy.

•Interrogative Sentence (question)

Are you happy?

•Exclamatory Sentence (exclamation)

The dog is the happiest dog I've ever seen!

•Imperative Sentence (command)

Give the dog a bone.

Phrase -word or group of words that function as a single unit in the syntax of a sentence.

Clause -verb, its necessary grammatical arguments and any adjuncts affecting them.

- verb along with its subject and their modifiers.

SENTENCE PATTERNS
Independent clause- contains subject, verb and a complete thought.

Dependent clause- contains subject, verb but no complete thought.

1. Independent Clause

The way people write has changed.

2. Independent Clause; Independent Clause

The way people write has changed ; more people are writing than ever before.

3. Independent Clause; Conjunctive Adverb , Independent Clause

The way people write has changed; in addition, more people are writing than ever before.

4. Independent Clause; Coordinating Conjunction, Independent Clause

The way people write has changed, and more people are writing than ever before.

5. Independent, Nonrestrictive Modifier, Clause

Writing, which humans have done for thousands of years, has changed.

6. Independent, Restrictive Modifier, Clause

The writing that is done in the workplace has changed.

7. Subordinate Clause, Independent Clause

Because the way people write has changed, the way we teach writing has also changed.

8. Independent Clause, Subordinate Clause

The way people write has changed though many people claim otherwise.

GRAMMAR RULES

• A sentence starts with a capital letter and ends with a period , question or exclamation mark.

- My dog is very clever!

• The order of a basic positive sentence is Subject--Verb--Object.

- John loves Mary.

• Every sentence must have a subject and a verb. An object is optional.

- John teaches.

• The subject and verb must agree in number.

- John & Mary work in London.

• When two singular subjects are connected by or use a singular verb.

- John or Mary is coming tonight.

• Adjectives usually before a noun.

- I have a big dog.

• When using two or more adjectives together, the usual order is opinion--adj.+fact--adj.+noun.

- I saw a nice French table.

• Treat collective nouns as singular or plural.

- The committee are having sandwiches for lunch.

- My family likes going to the zoo.

• The words its and it's are two different words with different meanings.

- Here is your coffee.

- You're looking good.

• The words there, their and they're are three different words with different meanings.

- There was nobody at the part.

- I saw their new car.

- Do you think they're happy.

• The contraction he's can mean he is or he has.

- He's finished.

- He is working.

• The contraction he'd can mean he had or he would.

- He had eaten when I arrived.

- He would eat more if possible.

• Spell a proper noun with an initial capital letter.

- Is China in Asia?

• Spell a proper adjectives with an initial capital letter.

- London is an English town.

• Use a or an for countable nouns in general, the for specific countable nouns and all uncountable
nouns.

- He always saves some of the money that he earns.

• Use a with words beginning with a consonant sound. Use an with words beginning with a vowel sound.

- a cat, a dog, an apple, an honorable noun

• Use many or few with countable nouns, use much or little for uncountable nouns.

- There is little traffic on the roads.

• To show possession use an apostrophe+s for singular.

• In general, use the active voice in preference to the passive voice.

PROPER SEQUENCE OF WORDS IN A SENTENCE

1. Articles

2. Opinion

3. Size

4. Age

5. Shape

6. Color

7. Material

8. Purpose