DEPARTMENT OF MATHEMATICS

MAT391: ENGINEERING MATHEMATICS III

WEEK 3: LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF STEP AND IMPULSE

FUNCTIONS

August 2024
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 1 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
In this section we explore the Laplace transform of
⇛ The Heaviside unit step function;
⇛ Unit step functions; and
⇛ Periodic functions.
We considered linear differential equations in which the forcing functions
were continuous. In many engineering applications the forcing function
may frequently be discontinuous. In order to accommodate such
discontinuous functions, we use the Heaviside unit step function H(t),
which is defined by (
0 t < 0,
H(t) =
1 t≥0
and is illustrated graphically as
y H(t)
1
x

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 2 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
The Heaviside function is also frequently referred to simply as the unit
step function. A function representing a unit step at t = c > 0 may be
obtained by a horizontal translation of duration c. This is defined by
(
0 t < c,
H(t − c) =
1 t≥c

and depicted graphically as:

y

H(t − c)
1
x
c

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 3 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions

The product function f (t)H(t − c) takes values so the function H(t − c)

may be interpreted as a device for switching on the function f (t) at t = c.
By definition of the Laplace transform, the transform of H(t − c), c ≥ 0,
is given by
Z ∞ Z c Z ∞
L[H(t − c)] = H(t − c)e dt =
−st
0e dt +
−st
e −st dt
 0 −st ∞ 0 c
e e −cs
= =
−s c s

Theorem 1 (The second shift theorem /the Heaviside theorem/)

If L[f (t)] = F (s) then for a positive constant c

L[H(t − c)f (t − c)] = e −cs F (s).

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 4 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions

Example 2
2e −3s
1 L[2H(t − 3)] =
s
e −5s
2 L[H(t − 5)e t−5 ] =
s −1
3! 6e −2s
3 L[H(t − 2)(t − 2)3 ] = e −2s L[t 3 ] = e −2s =
s4 s4
1 2e −4s
4 L[H(t − 4)e 2(t−4) ] = e −4s L[e 2t ] = 2e −4s =
s −2 s −2
3 3e −s
5 L[H(t − 1) sin 3(t − 1)] = e −s L[sin 3t] = e −s 2 = 2
s +9 s +9
πs
π π πs πs s se − 2
6 L[H(t − ) cos 2(t − )] = e − 2 L[cos 2t] = e − 2 2 = 2
2 2 s +4 s +4

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 5 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 3
Find Laplace transform of

f (t) = H(t − 2)(t 2 + 3).

Solution. We note that

t 2 + 3 = (t − 2)2 + 4(t − 2) + 4 + 3
= (t − 2)2 + 4(t − 2) + 7

So that

L[f (t)] = L[H(t − 2)((t − 2)2 + 4(t − 2) + 7)]

= e −2s L[t 2 + 4t + 7]
2 4 7
= e −2s [ 3 + 2 + ]
s s s
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 6 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
It follows from the Second Shift Theorem that if L−1 [F (s)] = f (t), then
L−1 [e −cs F (s)] = H(t − c)f (t − c).

Example 4
Find the function whose Laplace transform is

e −4s
G (s) =
s2
Solution. The numerator corresponds to e −cs where c = 4 and therefore
indicates H(t − 4). Note that

1
f (t) = L−1 [ ] = t.
s2
e −4s
∴ g (t) = L−1 [G (s)] = L−1 [ ] = H(t − 4)f (t − 4) = H(t − 4) (t − 4).
s2
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 7 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 5
Determine inverse Laplace transform of

6e −2s
G (s) = .
s2 + 4
Solution. The numerator corresponds to e −cs where c = 2 and therefore
indicates H(t − 2). Note that

6 2
f (t) = L−1 [ ] = 3L−1 [ 2 ] = 3 sin 2t.
s2 +4 s +4

6e −2s
∴ g (t) = L−1 [G (s)] = L−1 [ ]
s2 + 4
= H(t − 2)f (t − 2)
= 3H(t − 2) sin 2(t − 2).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 8 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 6
Determine inverse Laplace transform of

2se −3s
G (s) =
s 2 − 16
Solution. The numerator corresponds to e −cs where c = 3 and therefore
indicates H(t − 3). Note that

2s s
f (t) = L−1 [ ] = 2L−1 [ 2 ] = 2 cosh 4t.
s2 − 16 s − 16

2se −3s
∴ g (t) = L−1 [G (s)] = L−1 [ ]
s 2 − 16
= H(t − 3)f (t − 3)
= 2H(t − 3) cosh 4(t − 3).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 9 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Laplace transform of piecewise continuous functions
Let 0 < a < b. Then the graph of

k(t) = H(t − a) − H(t − b)

is as shown below.

Graph of k(t)

a b

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 10 / 38

The Heaviside unit step function may be used to write a concise
formulation of piecewise-continuous functions.
 To illustrate this, consider
f (t), 0 < t ≤ a

the piecewise continuous function g (t) = h(t), a < t ≤ b

ℓ(t), t > b.


f (t) ℓ(t)
h(t)

a b

∴ g (t) = f (t)[H(t) − H(t − a)] + h(t)[H(t − a) − H(t − b)] + ℓ(t)H(t − b).

In order to apply the second shift theorem, each term must be rearranged
to be of the form f (t − c)H(t − c)..

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 11 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions

Example 7 (Piecewise continuous function)

(
4 for 0 < t < 2
Determine the Laplace transform of f (t) =
2t − 3 for t > 2
Solution. Note that f (t) = 4[H(t) − H(t − 2)] + (2t − 3)H(t − 2). See
the graph below.

f (t)
6

1 2 3 4 5 6

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 12 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Therefore,

L[f (t)] = L[4[H(t) − H(t − 2)] + (2t − 3)H(t − 2)]

= L[4H(t) + (2t − 7)H(t − 2)]
4
= 4L[H(t)] + L[(2(t − 2) − 3)H(t − 2)] = + e −2s L[2t − 3]
s
4 2 3 4 3e −2s 2e −2s
= + e −2s [ 2 − ] = − +
s s s s s s2

Example 8 (Piecewise continuous function)


6, for 0 < t < 1

A function f (t) is defined by f (t) == 8 − 2t, for 1 < t < 3 Sketch

4, for t > 3

the graph of f (t), express it using a Heaviside unit step function, and
determine the Laplace transform of f (t).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 13 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Solution. The graph of f (t) is as shown below.
7

6 f (t)

1 2 3 4 5 6

Hence
f (t) = 6[H(t) − H(t − 1)] + (8 − 2t)[H(t − 1) − H(t − 3)] + 4H(t − 3)
= 6H(t) + (−6 + 8 − 2t)H(t − 1) + (−8 + 2t + 4)H(t − 3)
= 6H(t) − 2(t − 1)H(t − 1) + (2(t − 3) + 2)H(t − 3)
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 14 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Using the Second Shift Theorem we get

L[f (t)] = 6L[H(t)] − 2L[(t − 1)H(t − 1)] + 2L[((t − 3) + 1)H(t − 3)]

6
= − 2e −s L[t] + 2e −3s L[t + 1]
s
6 2e −s 1 1
= − 2 + 2e −3s [ 2 + ]
s s s s
6 2e −s 2e −3s 2e −3s
= − 2 + +
s s s s2

6 2e −s 2e −3s 2e −3s
L[f (t)] = − 2 + +
s s s s2

Example 9 (Inverse Laplace Transform)

3 4e −s 5e −2s
Determine inverse Laplace transform of F (s) = − 2 + .
s s s2
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 15 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Solution. We note that
3
(1) g (t) = L−1 [ ] = 3
s 
−1 −4
(2) h(t) = L = −4t
s2
 
5
(3) k(t) = L−1 2 = 5t
s
It follows from the Second Shift Theorem that
3
(1) L−1 [ ] = 3 = 3H(t)
s 
−1 −4e
−s
(2) L = h(t − 1)H(t − 1) = −4(t − 1)H(t − 1)
s2
 −2s 
5e
(3) L−1 = k(t − 2)H(t − 2) = 5(t − 2)H(t − 2)
s2

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 16 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
It follows from (1), (2) and (3) that
 
3 4e −s 5e −2s
f (t) = L−1 − 2 +
s s s2
= 3H(t) − 4(t − 1)H(t − 1) + 5(t − 2)H(t − 2)

 3,
 0<t <1
= 7 − 4t, 1<t <2

t − 3, t>2


4
f (t)
2

2 4 6

−2

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 17 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 10 (Inverse Laplace Transform)
 −2s )(1 + e −4s ) 
−1 (1 − e
Determine f (t) = L .
s2

Solution. We note that (1 − e −2s )(1 + e −4s ) = 1 − e −2s + e −4s − e −6s

and g (t) = L−1 s12 = t. It follows from the Second Shift Theorem that
 

 −2s )(1 + e −4s ) 

−1 (1 − e
f (t) = L
s2
 
−1 1
=L (1 − e −2s
+e −4s
−e )−6s
s2
   −2s   −4s   −6s 
1 e −1 e −1 e
== L−1 2 − L−1 + L − L
s s2 s2 s2
= g (t)H(t) − g (t − 2)H(t − 2) + g (t − 4)H(t − 4) − g (t − 6)H(t − 6)
= tH(t) − (t − 2)H(t − 2) + (t − 4)H(t − 4) − (t − 6)H(t − 6)
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 18 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Therefore, 


 t, 0<t<2

 2, 2<t<4
f (t) =


t − 2, 4<t<6

 4, t>6
with the graph given below.

6
f (t)
4

−2 2 4 6 8 10

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 19 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions

Example 11 (Differential Equation)

Obtain the solution x(t), t ≥ 0, of the differential equation

d 2x dx
+5 + 6x = f (t)
dt 2 dt
where f (t) is the pulse function
(
3 0≤t<6
f (t) =
0 t≥0

and subject to the initial conditions x(0) = 0 and ẋ(0) = 2.

Solution. In terms of Heaviside step functions, f (t) is rewritten as

f (t) = 3H(t) − 3H(t − 6).

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 20 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Taking Laplace transform of both sides of the equation gives

L [ẍ + 5ẋ + 6x] = L [3H(t) − 3H(t − 6)]

3 3e −6s
(s 2 + 5s + 6)X (s) − sx(0) − ẋ(0) − 5x(0) = −
s s
3 3e −6s
(s 2 + 5s + 6)X (s) = sx(0) + ẋ(0) + 5x(0) + −
s s
Imposing the initial conditioning, we get

2s + 3 3e −6s
X (s) = −
s(s + 2)(s + 3) s(s + 2)(s + 3)
Resolving X (s) into partial fractions gives
! !
1 1 1 3
2 2 1 2 2 1
X (s) = + − − e −6s − +
s s +2 s +3 s s +2 s +3

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 21 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions

Taking inverse Laplace transforms

" # " !#
1 1 1 3
1 1
x(t) = L−1 2 + 2 − − L−1 e −6s 2 − 2 +
s s +2 s +3 s s +2 s +3
   
1 1 −2t 1 3 −2(t−6)
= + e −e −3t
− − e +e −3(t−6)
H(t − 6)
2 2 2 2

which is the required solution. It may be written as

(
1
+ 12 e −2t − e −3t for 0 ≤ t < 6
x(t) = 2 1 −2t
− e −3t + 32 e −2(t−6) − e −3(t−6) for t ≥ 6



2e

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 22 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
THE IMPULSE FUNCTION
The impulse function is defined as an infinitely high, infinitely narrow
pulse, with an area of unity. Consider the pulse function φ(t) defined by

0,
 0 < t < a − 12 T
φ(t) = TA a − 12 T ≤ t < a + 12 T
t ≥ a + 12 T .

0,


Since the height of the pulse is TA and its duration (or width) is T , the
area under the pulse is A; that is,
Z ∞ Z a+ 1 T
2 A
φ(t)dt = dt = A
−∞ a− T1 T
2

If we now consider the limiting process in which the duration of the pulse
approaches zero, in such a way that the area under the pulse remains A,
then we obtain a formulation of the impulse function of magnitude A
occurring at time t = a.
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 23 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
The impulse function whose magnitude is unity is called the unit impulse
function or Dirac delta function (or simply delta function). The unit
impulse occurring at t = a is the limiting case of the pulse φ(t) with A
having the value unity. It is denoted by δ(t − a) and has the properties

(i ) δ(t − a) = 0 for t 6= a.
Z ∞
(ii ) δ(t − a)dt = 1.
−∞

Likewise, an impulse function of magnitude A occurring at t = a is

denoted by Aδ(t − a).
Remark 12
An impulse function is not a function in the usual sense, but is an example
of a class of what are called generalized functions, which may be analyzed
using the theory of generalized calculus.

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 24 / 38

Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
An important property of the unit impulse function that is of practical
significance is the so-called sifting property, which states that if f (t) is
continuous at t = a then
Z ∞
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = f (a),
−∞
Moreover, for any finite interval p < a < q we have
Z q
f (t)δ(t − a)dt = f (a), p < a < q.
p
This is referred to as the sifting property because it provides a method of
isolating, or sifting out, the value of a function at any particular point.
By the sifting property,
Z ∞
L[δ(t − a)] = e −st δ(t − a) = e −as ;
0
or, in terms of the inverse transform,
L−1 [e −as ] = δ(t − a).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 25 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 13
Evaluate the following integrals.
Z 3
1 (t 2 + 4)δ(t − 2)dt = 22 + 4 = 8.
Z1 π
π π
2 cos (6t)δ(t − )dt = cos 6( ) = cos 3π = −1.
2 2
Z0 ∞
3 (3t 2 − 4t + 5)δ(t − 2)dt = 3(22 ) − 4(2) + 5 = 9.
0
Z 5
4 e −2t δ(t − 4)dt = e −2(4) = e −8 .
2

Theorem 14
If f (t) is continuous at t = a, then

L[f (t)δ(t − a)] = f (a)e −as .

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 26 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 15
Evaluate the following.
1 L[6δ(t − 4)] = 6L[δ(t − 4]] = 6e −4s .
2 L[t 3 δ(t − 2)] = 23 e −2s = 8e −2s .
π 3π π π
3 L[sin 3t.δ(t − )] = sin ( )e − 2 s = −e − 2 s .
2 2
4 L[cosh 2t.δ(t)] = cosh 0e 0 = 1.
 2 
−1 s
5 L 2
.
s +4
 2   
s 4
L−1
=L −1
1− 2
s2 + 4 s +4
 
4
= L [1] − L
−1 −1
s2 + 4
= δ(t) − 2 sin 2t
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 27 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Example 16 (Solving Differential Equation)
Solve the initial value problem

d 2x dx
+5 + 4x = 3δ(t − 2), x(0) = 2, ẋ(0) = −2.
dt 2 dt
Solution.
 2 
d x dx
L +5 + 4x = 3L[δ(t − 2)]
dt 2 dt
(s 2 + 5s + 4)X (s) − sx(0) − ẋ(0) − 5x(0) = 3e −2s
2s + 8 3e −2s 2 1 1
X (s) = + = + e −2s [ − ]
(s + 1)(s + 4) (s + 1)(s + 4) s +1 s +1 s +4
Taking inverse transform we get

x(t) = L−1 [X (s)] = 2e −t + H(t − 2)e −(t−2) − H(t − 2)e −4(t−2)

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 28 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
PERIODIC FUNCTIONS
Theorem 17
If f (t), defined for all positive t, is a periodic function with period τ, that
is f (t + nτ ) = f (t) for all integers n, then

1
Z τ
L[f (t)] = e st f (t)dt = F (s).
1 − e −sτ 0

Example 18 (Laplace Transform of a Periodic Function)

Determine the Laplace transform of the rectified half-wave defined by
(
sin ωt, 0 < t < ωπ
f (t) =
0, ωπ < t < 2 ωπ
2nπ
f (t + ) = f (t) for all integers n.
ω
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 29 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Solution.
2π
1
Z
ω
L[f (t)] = 2πs e −st sin ωtdt
1 − e− ω 0
!
πs
1 ω ωe − ω
= 2πs +
1 − e− ω s 2 + ω2 s 2 + ω2
πs
!
ω 1 + e− ω
=
s2 + ω2
πs
1 − e −2 ω
 
ω 1
= 2
s + ω2 1 − e − ω
πs

Example 19 (Inverse Transform)

Determine  
−1 3(1 − e −s )
L .
s(1 − e −3s )
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 30 / 38
Laplace transform of Step and impulse functions
Solution. Note that
3(1 − e −s )
ft = L[ ] = 3[H(t) − H(t − 1)].
s
Therefore, a periodic function f (t) of period T = 3 that takes values
f1 (t) = 3[H(t) − H(t − 1)] on the interval [0, 3] is given by
(
3 0 ≤ t < 1,
f (t) =
0 1 ≤ t < 3,
f (t + 3n) = f (t) for all nonnegative integers n.

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 31 / 38

Engineering applications

Example 20 (Electrical circuits)

The LCR circuit consists of a resistor R, a capacitor C and an inductor L
connected in series together with a voltage source e(t). Prior to closing
the switch at time t = 0, both the charge on the capacitor and the
resulting current in the circuit are zero. Determine the charge q(t) on the
capacitor and the resulting current i (t) in the circuit at time t given that
R = 160Ω L = 1H, C = 10−4 F and e(t) = 20V .

R L
t=0
i (t)
e(t) C q

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 32 / 38

Engineering applications
Solution. Applying Kirchhoffs second law to the circuit gives
1
Z
di
Ri + L + i (t)dt = e(t)
dt C
dq
or, using i (t) = ,
dt
d 2q dq 1
L2
+R + q = e(t).
dt dt C
Substituting the given values for L, R, C and e(t) gives
d 2q dq
2
+ 160 + 104 q = 20.
dt dt
Taking Laplace transforms throughout leads to the equation
20
(s 2 + 160s + 104 )Q(s) = (s + 160)q(0) + q̇(0) +
s
where Q(s) is the transform of q(t).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 33 / 38
Engineering applications
We are given that q(0) = 0 and q̇(0) = i (0) = 0, so that this reduces to
20
(s 2 + 160s + 104 )Q(s) = ,
s
that is,
20
Q(s) =
s(s 2 + 160s + 104 )
Resolving into partial fractions gives
 
1 1 s + 160
Q(s) = − 2
500 s s + 160s + 104
" #
1 1 (s + 80) + 43 (60)
= −
500 s (s + 80)2 + 602
 
1 1 s + 80 4 60
= − −
500 s (s + 80)2 + 602 3 (s + 80)2 + 602

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 34 / 38

Engineering applications

Taking inverse Laplace transforms, making use of the shift theorem, gives
 
1 4 −80t
q(t) = 1−e −80t
cos 60t − e sin 60t
500 3

The resulting current i (t) in the circuit is then given by

dq 1
q(t) = = e −80t sin 60t.
dt 3

Example 21 (Mechanical vibrations)

The mass of the mass-spring-damper system indicated in the figure below
is subjected to an externally applied periodic force F (t) = 4 sin 2t at time
t = 0. Determine the resulting displacement x(t) of the mass at time t,
given that ẋ(0) = x(0) = 0.

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 35 / 38

Engineering applications

F1 (t) = Kx(t)
F2 (t) = B ẋ(t)
K = 25 B =6

F (t) = 4 sin 2t
M=1

F (t) = 4 sin 2t
x(t)

Solution. The forces acting on the mass M are the applied force F (t) and
the restoring forces F1 and F2 due to the spring and damper respectively.
Thus, by Newtons law,
M ẍ(t) = F (t) − F1 (t) − F2 (t).
WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 36 / 38
Engineering applications

Since M = 1, F (t) = 4 sin 2t, F1 (t) = Kx(t) = 25x(t) and

F2 (t) = B ẋ(t) = 6ẋ(t), this gives

ẍ(t) + 6ẋ(t) + 25x(t) = 4 sin 2t

as the differential equation representing the motion of the system. Taking

Laplace transforms throughout gives
8
(s 2 + 6s + 25)X (s) = [sx(0) + ẋ(0)] + 6x(0) +
s2 + 4
where X (s) is the Laplace transform of x(t). Incorporating the given initial
conditions x(0) = ẋ(0) = 0 leads to

8
X (s) =
(s 2 + 4)(s 2+ 6s + 25)

WEEK 3 MAT391 August 2024 37 / 38

Engineering applications

which, on resolving into partial fractions, leads to

4 −4s + 14 2 8s + 20
X (s) = +
195  s 2 + 4 195 s 2 + 6s
 + 25  
4 s 2 2 8(s + 3) 4
= −4 2 +7 2 + −
195 s +4 s +4 195 (s + 3)2 + 16 (s + 3)2 + 16

Taking inverse Laplace transforms gives the required response

4 2  −3t 
x(t) = [−4 cos 2t + 7 sin 2t] + 8e cos 4t − e −3t sin 4t
195 195
4 2 −3t
= [7 sin 2t − 4 cos 2t+] + e [8 cos 4t − sin 4t]
195 195

4 2 −3t
∴ x(t) = [7 sin 2t − 4 cos 2t+] + e [8 cos 4t − sin 4t] .
195 195

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