RF Fundamentals Seminar

Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

The R&S ‘Microwaves and Beyond’ Poster
► Free poster that provides reference for a wide variety of fundamental RF topics
− Frequency Bands in the RF and Microwave Spectrum
− RF Connector Types
− Signal Level Conversions
(dBm, Watts, Volts, etc.)
− Correction Factor for (low) S/N
− Uncertainty Due to Mismatch
− Waveguide Standards (1 GHz to 1.7 THz)
− Directivity and Uncertainty

2 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Transmission Lines and RF Connectors
Transmission Lines
► What is a Transmission line?
− a physical conductive path with controlled geometry that is designed to
efficiently propagate high-frequency (RF) signals
► Are clip leads a transmission line?
− No – the geometry of the wires in relation to each other is not controlled
► Would clip leads work for connecting RF signals?
− Poorly, if at all: When the wavelength of a signal is short relative to the
length of the wires – the inductance and capacitance of the wires cause
severe attenuation
− Wires like this work for signals with wavelengths much longer than the
length of the wire (e.g. DC, power lines, audio, etc.)
► When the wavelength is short in comparison to line length, we must use a
‘transmission line’

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Transmission Lines
► Conductors with controlled geometry
► The geometry determines capacitance (C) and inductance (L) per unit length, which determines
impedance: Z0 = L C

Coax Cable

Parallel Lines (twin-lead)

Twisted Pair
Z = ~120 W

Microstrip Coplanar

Waveguide
Stripline
5 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics
Why 50 Ohms?
► The industry standard transmission line impedance for most applications is 50 Ω, but why?
► Power handling capacity peaks at 30 Ω (limited by breakdown voltage in cable)
► Cable loss is lowest at 77 Ω (due to center conductor diameter)
► 50 Ω is a compromise between these two cases
► 75 Ω is used mainly in the cable TV/internet industry where lower insertion loss over long
distances is necessary

Source: Maury Microwave Corporation 5A-021

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RF Connectors
► RF connectors are needed to connect transmission lines to RF devices and to each other
► There are many types of RF connectors for different frequency ranges and physical durability
► They have various geometries and are generally made with two types of dielectric: Teflon or air
► They are available in three grades: field (low cost), instrumentation, and metrology (high cost)

7 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Connector Detail
► Sex is determined by inner conductor, not outer

Male Threaded Coupling Female

Inner
conductor
Outer Outer
conductor conductor

Mating Plane / Reference Plane

8 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Sexless Connectors
► High performance connector types
► Most common type is the 7mm connector, known as APC 7 (Amphenol)
► Primarily due to cost reasons, these connectors are not very common
► Mostly found on HP VNAs in the 1980’s and 1990’s

Outer conductor Outer conductor

Inner Inner
conductor conductor APC 7

9 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Dielectric Material

SMA - Teflon 3.5mm - Air

dielectric

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Terminology: Precision vs. Non-Precision
► High precision connectors are called “Metrology” grade or “Instrumentation” grade
► These connectors:
− Exhibit good electrical performance
− Have tighter mechanical tolerances
− Have air dielectric (no Teflon)
− Standard for Precision Coaxial Connectors: IEEE 287
− Examples: APC 7 mm (sexless), Type N, 3.5 mm, 2.92 mm, 2.4 mm, 1.85 mm, 1 mm
► “Field” or “Production” grade connectors are much lower cost
− Lower quality construction
− Looser mechanical tolerances
− Teflon dielectric
− Examples: Type N, SMA, BNC, TNC, SMC, SMB

11 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

RF Connector Frequency Ranges
0.8 mm 145 GHz
0.9 mm 120 GHz
1 mm 110 GHz
1.35 mm 90 GHz
1.85 mm (V) 67 GHz
2.4 mm 50 GHz
2.92 mm (K) 40 GHz
SSMA 38 GHz
3.5 mm 33 GHz
7 mm 18 GHz
Precision N 18 GHz
SMA 18 GHz
Type N 12 GHz
TNC 11 GHz
SMC 10 GHz
4.3-10 6 GHz
7/16 5 GHz
SMB 4 GHz
BNC 4 GHz
F 2 GHz
UHF 1 GHz
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140 150 160
Frequency (GHz)

12 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

 Common RF Connector Summary
Connector Metrology Instrument Production Freq Sexed
(GHz)
Type F (75) N N Y 1 Y

BNC (50) N N Y 4 Y

SMC N Y N 10 Y
(from poster)
Type N (50) Y Y Y 18 Y

APC7 or 7mm Y Y Y 18 N

SMA N N Y 18 Y
Mechanically 3.5 mm Y Y Y 33 Y
Compatible
2.92 mm (K) N Y Y 40 Y

2.4 mm Y Y Y 52 Y
Mechanically
Compatible 1.85 mm (V) N Y Y 70 Y

1.0 mm N Y Y 110 Y

13 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

F Connector
► The F connector was developed in the 1950’s and is used almost exclusively for television
connections (cable, satellite, and terrestrial)
► Available only in 75 ohm impedance
► It is designed for low frequency (<2 GHz) and low cost. In most cases, the center conductor of
the attached cable is the center pin of the connector. A push-on version is also available.

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 2 GHz
− Dielectric: PTFE (Teflon)
− Torque value: 20-30 in-lb

14 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

BNC Connector
► The BNC (Bayonet Neill-Concelman or Bayonet Naval Connector) was developed in the 1950’s
as a quick connect (non-threaded) connector useful up to 4 GHz
► Available in 50 and 75 ohm versions
► The threaded version is the TNC connector which is only in 50 ohms and is usable to 11 GHz

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 4 GHz
BNC Connectors
− Dielectric: PTFE (Teflon)
− Torque value: N/A (twist-on)

TNC Connectors

15 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

SMA Connector
► SMA (Sub Miniature version A) was developed in the 1960’s by Bendix Scintilla Corp
► SMA connectors are semi-precision, small, inexpensive units that provide good electrical
performance up to 18 GHz
► General purpose connectors that are compact and have good mechanical durability
► SMA is one of the most commonly used RF connectors

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 12 or 18 GHz
− Pin Diameter: 0.9 mm
− Outer Conduction Diameter: 4.1 mm
− Dielectric: PTFE (Teflon)
− Torque value: 5 in-lb (56 N-cm)

16 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

RP-SMA (Reverse Polarity SMA)
► All dimensions are identical to SMA, but location of pin and socket are reversed
► Used on WiFi routers and antennas
► Originally used to discourage use of widely available antennas with gain on WiFi access points
(which would violate FCC rules*)
► Be aware that an RP-SMA Male on a SMA Female is an open connection!

*FCC Part 15 15.203: An intentional radiator shall be designed to ensure that no antenna other than that furnished by the responsible
party shall be used with the device. The use of a permanently attached antenna or of an antenna that uses a unique coupling to the
intentional radiator shall be considered sufficient to comply with the provisions of this section. The manufacturer may design the unit so
that a broken antenna can be replaced by the user, but the use of a standard antenna jack or electrical connector is prohibited.

17 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Type N Connector
► The Type N (Navy) connector was developed in the 1940’s by Paul Neill of Bell Labs as a
durable, weatherproof, medium size RF connector with consistent performance up to 12GHz
► Precision Type N connectors are available up to 18 GHz
► Type N connectors are available in a 75 ohm version with a smaller center conductor and are not
compatible with 50 ohm Type N connectors

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 12 or 18 GHz
− Pin Diameter: 3 mm
− Outer Conductor Diameter: 7 mm
− Dielectric: PTFE or Air
− Torque value: 12 in-lb (136 N-cm)

18 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

3.5 mm Connector
► The 3.5 mm connector is a precision version of SMA with tighter mechanical tolerances
► It was designed to be a more physically rugged connector that would mate with the many SMA
connectors in use. It is designed for thousands of repeatable connections.
► This connector is fully compatible with lower-cost SMA connectors, but be cautious when mating
an SMA male to 3.5 mm female – damage is possible if the SMA pin diameter is out of tolerance

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 33 GHz (typically used to 26.5 GHz)
− Pin Diameter: 1.51 mm
− Outer Conductor Diameter: 3.5 mm
− Dielectric: Air
− Torque value: 8 in-lb (90 N-cm)

19 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

2.92 mm or K Connector
► The 2.92 mm connector was developed by Mario Maury in 1974 and was originally mass-
marketed by Wiltron (now Anritsu)
► 2.92 mm connectors are mechanically compatible with SMA and 3.5 mm connectors, but will
support higher frequencies
► The 2.92 mm is also known as the “K” connector because it supports Ku, K, and Ka bands

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 40 GHz (sometimes used to 44 GHz)
− Pin Diameter: 1.26 mm
− Outer Conductor Diameter: 2.92 mm
− Dielectric: Air
− Torque value: 8 in-lb (90 N-cm)

20 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

2.4 mm and 1.85 mm Connector
► 2.4 mm (50 GHz) and 1.85 mm (67 GHz) connectors were developed in 1986
► They are mechanically compatible with each other, but not with SMA, 3.5 mm, or 2.92 mm
► The 1.85 mm is also known as the “V” connector because it covers the V frequency band

► Specs: 2.4 mm 1.85 mm

− Max Freq: 50 GHz 67 GHz
− Pin Diameter: 1.04 mm 0.8 mm
− Outer Conductor Diameter: 2.4 mm 1.85 mm
− Dielectric: Air
− Torque value: 8 in-lb (90 N-cm)

21 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

1.0 mm Connector
► The 1.0 mm connector was developed in 1989
► It has smaller geometry to support frequencies up to 110 GHz
► These connectors require extremely tight tolerances (+0.005 mm) and are quite expensive
► This connector is not compatible with any other connector type

► Specs:
− Max Freq: 110 GHz
− Pin Diameter: 0.434 mm
− Outer Conductor Diameter: 1.000 mm
− Dielectric: Air
− Torque value: 3 in-lb (34 N-cm)

22 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Mating Connectors: Visual Inspection Before Connection
► Inspect all connectors before each connection
► Look for metal particles, contaminants, and defects
► Never use a damaged connector – it will likely damage other connectors

Good, clean connector

23 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Cleaning
► Use compressed air to dislodge any particles
► Use >99% isopropyl alcohol (don’t use acetone or rubbing alcohol)
► Use foam swabs (don’t use regular cotton Q-Tips – they can leave fibers in the connector)
► Clean connector threads

24 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Mating Connectors: Proper Technique

► Bring the two connectors together along a common axis

− Proper alignment is important to avoid excessive wear and
damage

► Turn only the coupling nut – not the inner connector

− Continue until finger tight (if you feel resistance, disconnect and
check alignment)

► Use appropriate torque wrench to finish the connection

25 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Mating Connectors: Torqueing
► Stop torqueing the connector as soon as you feel the torque wrench start to “break”

26 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Handling and Storage Tips
► Do
− Keep connectors clean
− Use plastic end caps during storage

► Don’t
− Do not store connectors loosely together
− Do not place connector face down on surfaces

27 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

RF Connectors: Poster Info
► Shows connector types and frequency ranges
► Mechanically compatible connectors
► Photos for easy identification

28 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

dB Review and Signal Levels
Metric Prefixes and Scientific Notation
1 femtometer
10-15 m
We experience Proton
millimeters to
kilometers every
day 0.000000000000001 m

Difference in scale between a proton and the Milky Way galaxy

• ~ 1 femtometer vs. ~ 1 zettameter 1 zettameter
• which is 10-15 meters vs. 1021 meters 1021 m
• this ratio is:
1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 Milky Way
(15 + 21 = 36 zeros!) Galaxy

How do we deal with these very small and 1,000,000,000,000,000,000,000 m

very large values?
30 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics
Logarithmic Scales
► Using a logarithmic scale solves the problem of dealing with such huge ranges of values
► In the 1920s, Bell Telephone Laboratories was trying to quantify the signal loss in telegraph and
telephone circuits and defined the Bel as a power ratio of 10x
− The Bel was named for Alexander Graham Bell (as was Bell Telephone Labs)
► The decibel (dB) is very commonly used and is 1/10 of a Bel (deci-Bel)
− dB = 10 x log10 (power ratio)
− eg. 100x = 20 dB

Ratio
► The ratio of 100/0.01 (10000) 100
0.01 0.1 1 10
is mapped to a more manageable
range of +20 dB to -20 dB
dB
-20 -10 0 10 20

31 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Some Common dB Values to Remember
► If you memorize these you can estimate many dB values without a calculator

What is a factor of 25 in dB?

Hint: It’s ¼ of 100…
-6 dB + 20 dB = 14 dB

What is a factor of 1/8 in dB?

Hint: It’s ½ of ¼…
-3 dB - 6 dB = -9 dB

What is a factor of 500 in dB?

Hint: It’s ½ of 1000…
-3 dB + 30 dB = 27 dB

32 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

dB or Not dB?
► Since “dB”s express a relative difference (ratio), how can
we use dB to express absolute power levels?
− We define a reference power (by convention) and use it
for P0 (denominator)

► For “dBm”, the reference power (P0) is 1 mW

− PdBm = 10 log(PmW / 1 mW)

► Example: What is 16 mW expressed in dBm?

− 10 log(16 mW / 1 mW) = 12.0 dBm

R&S Application Note 1MA98

33 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Some dBm Values…
► 1 mW ► 62 mW
− 0 dBm − 10 log(62 mW / 1 mW)
− +17.92 dBm
► 2 mW
− (sometimes you need a calculator!)
− +3 dBm

► 10 mW
− +10 dBm

► 1 uW
− -30 dBm

► 10 W
− +40 dBm (= 10 dBW)

34 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Logarithmic vs Linear Scales

Log Scale
Shows full range of signal,
including the noise floor.
100 dB of range (10 Billion)

This small signal and noise, Linear Scale

clearly visible on a log scale, are
far smaller than a single pixel on Shows small fraction of signal,
a linear scale and are not visible cannot see difference between
lower level signal and noise
floor

35 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Common (Typical) Power Levels
80 dBm 100 kW Typical transmission power of FM radio station with 50-kilometre (31 mi) range
62 dBm 1.588 kW 1500 W is the maximal legal power output of a U.S. ham radio station
60 dBm 1 kW Typical combined radiated RF power of microwave oven elements
55 dBm ~300 W Typical single-channel RF output power of a Ku-band geostationary satellite
50 dBm 100 W Typical maximal output RF power from a ham radio HF transceiver
37 dBm 5W Typical maximal output RF power from a handheld ham radio VHF/UHF transceiver
36 dBm 4W Typical maximal output power for a citizens band radio station (27 MHz) in many countries
33 dBm 2W Maximal output from a GSM850/900 mobile phone
24 dBm 251 mW Maximal output from a UMTS/3G mobile phone (Power class 3 mobiles)
15 dBm 32 mW Typical wireless LAN transmission power in laptops
4 dBm 2.5 mW Bluetooth Class 2 radio, 10 m range
−10 dBm 100 µW Maximal received signal power of wireless network (802.11 variants)
−100 dBm 0.1 pW Minimal received signal power of wireless network (802.11 variants)
−127.5 dBm 0.178 fW Typical received signal power from a GPS satellite
−174 dBm 0.004 aW Thermal noise floor for 1 Hz bandwidth at room temperature (20 °C)

36 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

How do we use dB with Voltage?
► What is the output voltage of a 3 dB attenuator with
2 V applied to its input? (Hint: It’s NOT 1 V) 2V 3 dB attenuator ?

► dB values always relate to Power, not Voltage

► So think in terms of power which is proportional to voltage squared
− Assume a 1 ohm system (actually, impedance is irrelevant)
− Power of 2 V into 1 ohm is V2/R = 4 W
− The 3 dB attenuator reduces this by half, or 2 W
− Voltage for 2 W with 1 ohm resistance is P * R = 2 * 1 = 1.41 V

► When working with power, use the formula: dB = 10 * log(P/P0)

► When working with voltage, use the formula: dB = 20 * log(V/V0)

37 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Other Common dB Terms
► dBc: dB relative to a carrier level
− Used for harmonic test, spurious test ….
− Harmonic example: Harmonic level [dBm] – Carrier level [dBm]

► dBW: dB relative to a Watt

► dBmV: dB relative to a millivolt
► dBi: antenna gain in dB relative to an isotropic radiator
► dBm/Hz: dB relative to a milliwatt normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth
− Used for measurements of noise and noise-like signals (power is dependent on
bandwidth)
► dBc/Hz: dB relative to a carrier level normalized to a 1 Hz bandwidth
− Unit for phase noise measurements

38 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

dB: Practical Example
► The diagram shows an example receiver chain with several cascaded components
► What is the signal gain from point A to point B?
− Linear: Multiply all terms
− 500 nW at A * 1584.9 = 792.5 uW at B (correct, but not done this way)
− dB: Add all terms (much easier)
− -33 dBm at A + 32 dB = -1 dBm at B

Linear Gain: 0.79 100 0.25 0.79 31.62 0.25 0.79 15.85 → 1584.9
Gain in dB: -1 dB +20 dB -6 dB -1 dB +15 dB -6 dB -1 dB +12 dB → +32 dB

A B

39 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

dB Review
► Decibels (dB) use logarithmic scaling to make extremely wide ranges of values manageable
− Example:
− High Power Radar Pulse → 1,000,000 Watts
− Thermal Noise → 0.000000000000000000004 Watts
− Using decibels, these values are 90 dBm and -174 dBm, respectively

► dB always expresses a ratio of power levels: dB = 10*log10(P2/P1)

► Since power is proportional to voltage squared, we can also use: dB = 20*log10(V2/V1)
► We can use dB to express absolute levels by defining a reference value (denominator) such as
dBm (dB relative to 1 mW), dBV (dB relative to 1 V), dBW (dB relative to 1 W), dBc (dB relative
to carrier power), etc.
► Good values to remember:
− 2x = 3 dB ½x = -3 dB 4x = 6 dB ¼x = -6 dB 10x = 10 dB 100x = 20 dB

40 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Signal Levels
► How can the level of this signal be expressed? (assume Z = 50 W)
− 1 Vpk
− 2 Vpp
− 0.707 VRMS (far more common than Vpk or Vpp for RF signals – relates to power level)
− -3 dBV 20*log(VRMS / 1 V)
− 57 dBmV 20*log(VRMS / 1 mV)
− 117 dBuV 20*log(VRMS / 1 uV) 1V

− 0.01 W VRMS2 / Z
− 10 mW VRMS2 / Z * 1000
− 10 dBm 10*log(PmW / 1 mW)
− -20 dBW 10*log(PW / 1 W)
-1 V
dBm is most common in the RF world

41 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Signal Level Conversions

42 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Signal Level Conversions
► The Signal Level Conversions table shows levels expressed in
dBm, dBuV, dBV, W, VRMS, and Vpp (all in a 50 W system)
► It also shows the formulas used to do the conversions
► Example: 6 dBm
− PmW = 1 mW * 10PdBm /10 = 3.98 mW = 0.00398 W
− V
RMS = 0.00398 * 50 = 446.1 mV
− Vpp = VRMS * 2 2 = 1.26 V
− dBV = 20*log(VRMS ) = 20*log(0.446) = -7.01 dBV
− dBuV = dBV + 120 = -7.01 + 120 = 112.99 dBuV

43 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics

Other Informative Posters from Rohde & Schwarz

Spectrum Allocation for Radar Spectrum Allocation for Satellite History and Future of Wi-Fi

Demystifying 5G NR Wireless Communication Standards

Satellite-Based Navigation

44 RF Fundamentals - Part 2: RF Transmission Characteristics