PH505 – Introduction to

Nuclear and Particle Physics

Basanta K. Nandi
basanta@iitb.ac.in
PH-505: Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics

u Class Timing: Monday, 10:35 – 11:30

Tuesday, 11:35 – 12:30
Thursday, 08:30 – 09:25

u Evaluation Procedure: Quiz I – 10

Midsem – 20 + 10
Quiz II – 10
Endsem – 40 + 10

u Medical certificate: Visiting only OPD is not accepted for any purpose.
I will not entertain any request on this.

u Exam Announcement: Will be announced in the class/Moodle

No reply to personal query regarding exam
dates/syllabus.
PH-505: Introduction to Nuclear and Particle Physics

• Basic properties of nuclei and interactions: Nuclear Binding energy,

Nuclear moments
• Deuteron problem: Central and Tensor force
• Nuclear Models: Independent particle model, Shell Model
• Radioactive decay: Theory of Alpha decay, Fermi theory of beta decay,
Gamma decay
• Nuclear Reactions: Direct and Compound reactions
• Elementary particles: Classifications, symmetries and conserved quantum
numbers, Quark Model

Reference:
1. S.S.M. Wong, Introductory Nuclear Physics
2. B.I. Cohen, Concepts of Nuclear Physics
3. H.A. Enge, Introduction to Nuclear Physics
4. David Griffiths, Introduction to Elementary Particles
Past, Present and Future of Nuclear/Particle Physics
Ø Objective of Nuclear and Particle Physics:

To know the ultimate building block of matter

v Constituents of Matter
Hindu Mythology (Panchabhuta):
1. Earth (Prithvi)
2. Water (Jal)
3. Fire (Agni)
4. Air (Vayu)
5. Ether (Akasha)

Greek and Roman World:

1. Earth (Prithvi)
610 – 545 B.C.
2. Water (Jal)
Anaximander of
3. Fire (Agni)
Miletus (ancient Greek city)
4. Air (Vayu)

Anaximenes (545 B.C.) elaborates on Anaximander's ideas

and argues that air is the primeval infinite substance,
from which bodies are produced by condensation and rarefication.
v Constituents of Matter

v 400 B.C:
Greek Philosopher Democritus Proposed atomic hypothesis

“Everything is composed of atoms.”

v Early 1800 century: John Dalton

Each chemical elements is composed of a unique type of atom.

The properties of all the elements can be classified based on
such a classification. Led to the discovery of periodic table.
v The Discovery of Radioactivity - 1896

Ø Phenomenon of spontaneous decay of a

nucleus accompanied by the emission of
𝛼, 𝛽 and 𝛾 rays.

Henry Becquerrel
v The Discovery of electron - 1897

J.J. Thompson

"
Ø Composition: Elementary particle, Symbol: 𝑒 !, Spin: #

Ø Mass: 0.51099895000(15) MeV

Ø Electric charge: −1.602176634×10−19 C

Ø Magnetic moment: −1.00115965218091(26) 𝜇! 9

v Atomic Nucleus

Ø The Discovery of electron by J.J. Thompson - 1897

Ø It was realized that all atoms contain electrons

Ø This provided the first important insight of atomic structure

Ø Since atom is neutral and electron carry negative charge, a

positively charged matter of some kind must be present in atom

Ø Now the question is

• What kind and how is it arranged?

10
v Atomic Nucleus

Ø Now the question is

• What kind and how is it arranged?

Ø In 1898, J.J. Thomson proposed the

plum pudding model
Plum pudding Model

Ø This idea was taken very seriously at that time

Ø However, the real atom turned out to be different

Ø How do we probe it?

11
v Atomic Nucleus - 1911

Ø Rutherford Model of Atom

Ø At the suggestion of Ernest Rutherford, Geiger and Marsden used

𝛼-particle as probe

Ø Observations:

1. Most of the 𝛼- particles

passed through the foil
2. Some deflected through
large angles
3. A few scattered in the
backward direction
12
v Atomic Nucleus - 1911

Ø Rutherford Model of Atom

Ø At the suggestion of Ernest Rutherford,

Geiger and Marsden used 𝛼-particle as probe

Ø Observations: Ø Analysis:

1. Most of the 𝛼- particles 1. Empty space

passed through the foil
2. Some deflected thruogh 2. Because of +ve charge
large angles
3. A few scattered in the 3. Because of intense E field
backward direction
Ø Ernest Rutherford hypothesised the Atomic model 13
v Atomic Nucleus - 1911

Ø Rutherford Scattering Formula

#
𝑍𝑒 # 1
𝑁 𝜃 = 𝑁" 𝜋𝑛𝑡
8𝜋𝜀$ 𝑟𝐾 𝜃
sin%
2

Ø Rutherford is, therefore, credited with the discovery of the nucleus

14
v The Discovery of proton - 1919

&
Ø Composition: 𝑢𝑢𝑑, Symbol: 𝑝, Spin:
#

Ø Mass: 938.27208816(29) MeV

Ø Electric charge: −1.602176634×10−19 C

Ø Magnetic moment: 2.79284734463(82) 𝜇'

15
v The Discovery of proton - 1919

Ø Around 1815 William Prout proposed that all atoms are composed of
hydrogen atoms (which he called “prolytes”) based on the early values
of atomic weight

Ø After more accurate measurements were made, this hypothesis

got disproved

Ø In 1919, E Rutherford assumed that proton is ejected from Nitrogen after

getting bombarded by 𝛼- particle.

𝛼 + "#!𝑁 → "#
$𝐶 + 𝛼 + 𝐻% Wrongly proposed

Ø After seeing Blackett’s cloud chamber data in 1925, he proposed that the
𝛼- particle is absorbed by the Nitrogen nucleus and then ejects proton

16
The Discovery of Proton – 1919 Rutherford

Blackett’s cloud chamber data

"$ "#
𝛼+ #𝑁 → !𝑂 + 𝐻%

Proton

"#
!𝑂
17
v The Discovery of neutron - 1932

&
Ø Composition: 𝑢𝑑𝑑, Symbol: 𝑛, Spin:
#

Ø Mass: 939.56542052(54) MeV/c

Ø Electric charge: 0 𝑒

Ø Magnetic moment: −1.91304273(45) 𝜇'

18
v The Discovery of Neutron – 1932

Ø In 1930, German physicists W. Bothe and H. Becker bombarded

𝛼 particles on Beryllium target

Neutral Neutral
particle particle
Polonium 𝛼

Beryllium Lead (Pb)

Ø The radiation emitted from beryllium was able to penetrate matter readily

Ø They ascertained that the radiation is neutral and consists of gamma rays

Ø Since the radiation passed through several centimetres of Pb without being

absorbed suggested that the radiation is of very short wavelength
v The Discovery of Neutron – 1932

Ø Irene Curie and F. Joliot bombarded this neutral radiation on paraffin

Neutral
particle 5.7 MeV proton
Polonium 𝛼

Beryllium Paraffin

Ø This resulted knocking out proton of maximum 5.7 MeV K.E. from paraffin

Ø Initially people believed that a short wavelength gamma ray can knock out
proton like knocking out electron from atom in Compton scattering

Ø Let us do the calculation

v The Discovery of Neutron – 1932
ℎ𝜈 (

𝑝 ℎ𝜈 𝑝

𝑝
𝐾!"# = 5.7 𝑀𝑒𝑉

Ø This is equivalent to Compton scattering (proton instead of electron)

5.7 ℎ
𝐾)*+ = ℎ𝜈 − ℎ𝜈 ( = 𝜈 − 𝜈( 𝜆( − 𝜆 = 1 − cos 𝜃
ℎ 𝑚, 𝑐

Ø Maximum energy transfer when 𝜆( is maximum ⇒ 𝜃 = 𝜋

2ℎ 𝑐 2ℎ 2ℎ𝜈 ( 5.7 2ℎ 5.7
(
𝜆 −𝜆 = −𝜆 = ( 𝑐−𝜆 𝜈− = 𝜈−
𝑐 − 𝜆𝜈 =
𝑚, 𝑐 𝜈 ( 𝑚, 𝑐 𝑚, 𝑐 ℎ 𝑚, 𝑐 ℎ

5.7𝑐 2ℎ 5.7
= 𝜈− 5.7𝑚, 𝑐 # = 2 ℎ𝜈 # − 11.4 ℎ𝜈
ℎ𝜈 𝑚, 𝑐 ℎ
2 ℎ𝜈 # − 11.4 ℎ𝜈 − 5700 = 0 ℎ𝜈 = 𝐸 = ~54𝑀𝑒𝑉
v The Discovery of Neutron – 1932

Ø Irene Curie and F. Joliot bombarded this neutral radiation on paraffin

Neutral
particle 5.7 MeV proton
Polonium 𝛼

Beryllium Paraffin

Ø Another interesting observation

Ø 𝛼 + 𝐵𝑒 reaction yields a carbon nucleus. This results a decrease of mass

equivalent to 10.7 MeV

Ø This can not give 54 MeV gamma ray

v The Discovery of Neutron – 1932
Ø In 1930, Bothe and Becker

Be Paraffin
𝛾?
Neutral
𝛼 particle 𝑝
K.E. = 5.7 MeV

𝐸L , 𝑝⃗L 𝐸M , 𝑝⃗M

Ø Conservation of Energy Momentum => ~ 50 MeV incoming neutral particle

5.7 MeV proton could easily be explained by considering the neutral particle
mass equivalent to the mass of proton.
v The Discovery of Neutron -1932

Ø James Chadwick (another associate of Rutherford) studied the

scattering cross section and found that
the cross section is much higher than the Compton scattering
Ø Based on energy and cross section, it was concluded that the neutral
particle is not a gamma ray. Need to establish the mass of the neutral part.

Energy conservation ⇒ Mass of the neutral particle = 938 ±1.8 MeV

v What we know:

Ø By 1932, we knew

• Electron: Mass = 0.51 MeV

Atom • Proton: Mass = 938.272 MeV

~Å Nucleus
• Neutron: Mass = 939.565 MeV ~fm
v Structure of Nucleon (proton and neutron)
Ø Prediction of Dirac equation:
𝑞
• Magnetic moment of a free spin ½ particle : 𝜇⃗ = 𝑔𝑆⃗
2𝑚𝑐
For point particle 𝑔 = 2

• For electron, 𝜇- = 1𝜇! From experiment: 𝜇- = 1.001159 𝜇!

• Expected magnetic moment for neutron and proton:

𝑞
𝜇. = 0 𝜇, = = 1.0 𝜇'
2𝑚𝑐
• Magnetic moment of Neutron = -1.91 μN

• Magnetic moment of Proton = 2.79 μN

ü This leads us to see the structure of proton and neutron.

v Discovery of new particles

Ø 1937: Discovery of Muon

Ø 1947: Discovery of pion

Ø 1947: Discovery of Kaon – the first Strange particle

Ø 1950: Discovery of Λ$

Ø 1955: Discovery of antiproton

Ø 1956: Discovery of electron neutrino

Ø 1962: Discovery muon neutrino

Ø 1964: Discovery of Xi baryon

v Discovery of new particles

Ø In 1964, Murray-Gell-Mann and George Zweig independently proposed

the Quark Model

Ø Proposed quarks - 𝑢, 𝑑, 𝑠

Ø By 1965 another quark called charm was proposed by Sheldon Lee Glashow
and James Bjorken

Ø 1968: Deep Inelastic Scattering experiment at SLAC was carried out by

MIT-SLAC collaboration
v Structure of Proton: 1968 SLAC experiment

𝑑𝜎 𝑑𝜎
= 𝐹(𝑞# ) #
𝑑Ω /+, 𝑑Ω 0122

Deep Inelastic scattering

Discovery of Partons (quarks & gluons)

1990 Nobel Prize to Friedman, Kendall and Taylor

v Discovery of Gluon

Three jet events observed in TASSO

Experiment at PETRA 𝑒 3𝑒 4 collider,
DESY - 1978
v Types of Interactions:

Interaction Potential Strength

𝑚'
1. Gravitational 𝑉& 𝑟 = 𝐺 ~ 10,12
𝑟

𝑒'
2. Electromagnetic 𝑉() 𝑟 = ~ 10,1
𝑟

𝑔*+ ' ,)! - " .

3. Weak 𝑉*+ 𝑟 = 𝑒 ℏ- ~ 10,!
𝑟

𝑔0 ' ,)# - " .

4. Strong 𝑉0 𝑟 = 𝑒 ℏ- ~1
𝑟
v Gravitational Interaction
Ø Cavendish Experiment – Henry Cavendish, British physicist 1797-1798

𝑚'
1. Gravitational 𝑉& 𝑟 = 𝐺 ~ 10,12
𝑟
v Cavendish Experiment

Originally designed by a famous

Geologist John Michel

Length of the torsion wire: 40 inches

Length of the wood : 6 feet
Radius of the small Pb ball: 2 inches
Radius of the large Pb ball: 8 inches

Cavendish did not determine either G or M. He measured the average

density of earth which is 5.48 times the density of water.

Similarly, Coulomb carried out the experiment to measure the electrostatic force
v Coulomb Experiment: 1777

𝑒'
2. Electromagnetic 𝑉() 𝑟 = ~ 10,1
𝑟
v Strong/Weak Force
v Is it possible to tie two protons at two ends of a thread
and measure the force? NO

Ø What is the solution?

u Indirect or less direct way of measuring the force.

a) Scattering events
b) Decay events
c) Bound states

u Not a trivial task to determine the interaction law from

such an indirect method

ü Model plays a very important role

v Model
Ø Guided by certain general principles

𝑣~𝑐

Relativistic Quantum
Mechanics Field Theory

Classical Quantum
Mechanics Mechanics
𝑣≪𝑐

𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 ≫ 1045𝑚 Smallness 𝑠𝑖𝑧𝑒 ≤ 1045𝑚

 v Model – Standard Model
elementary particles

u c t g
e- photon (g) e-
leptons quarks

force carriers
d s b g e- e-

strong interaction
ne nµ nt Z0
q q
gluon (g)
e µ t W± q q

I II III weak interaction

three generations of matter u e-

W-

8/1/24 d ne
37
v Model – Standard Model
v Describes all of the known elementary particle interactions except gravity
u Electroweak Theory

u Quantum Chromodynamics

Ø Asymptotic Freedom:

Large mom. transfer Coupling

or strength
Small length scale small

Small mom. transfer Coupling

or strength
Large length scale large

2004 Nobel Prize

David J. Gross H. David Politzer Franck Wilczek

v Current Experiments
v Future Experiments

Ø Compressed Baryonic Matter (CBM) – after 2025

Ø Nu-STAR – after 2025

Ø Electron Ion Collider – to be operational after 2030

Ø ILC/CLIC

Ø Neutrino Experiments (DUNE, HyperK, NOvA, …..)

Ø Many more ……
v Introduction

Ø The principal objective of Nuclear Physics is to understand the following questions:

1) What are the building blocks of the nuclei?

2) How do they move relative to each other?
3) What is the law governing the forces holding a nucleus together?

Ø Nuclear Physics is broadly divided into two divisions.

1) Low Energy Nuclear Physics – concerns with the questions of nuclear forces
and nuclear structure
2) High Energy Nuclear Physics or Elementary Particle Physics – deals with
the physics of particles, their interactions and
their structures

42
v Introduction

Ø Low energy Nuclear Physics

In this, some selected nuclear physics experiments are discussed to understand the
nuclear forces and nuclear structure. These experiments can be classified as follows:

1. Measurement of static properties of nuclei, including measurement

of size, Mass, angular momentum, magnetic dipole moment, electric
quadrupole moment etc.

2. Disintegration studies of radioactive nuclei

3. Studies of reactions of transmutation (forced changes)

43
v Introduction

Ø Low energy Nuclear Physics

• Rutherford - 1911
Scattering of Alpha particle by a Au target - Discovery of Nucleus

• Rutherford - 1919
Scattering of Alpha particle by a N target - Discovery of Proton

• James Chadwick – 1932

Existence of Neutron : Neut – Neutral (Latin), on (Greek ending)

ü Building blocks of a nucleus are protons and neutrons

44
v Nomenclature

Where
A
Notation:
Z XN A – Number of protons + neutrons
Z – Number of protons
N – Number of neutrons

Designation Characteristics Example

12 13
Isotopes Equal proton numbers 6 C6 6 C7
13 14
€ Isotones Equal neutron numbers 6 C7 7 N7
17 17
Isobars Equal mass number € € 7 N10 8 O9
€ € 3 3
Mirror nuclei Neutron and proton numbers exchanged 1 H2 2 He1
€ €
22 22 )
Nuclear isomers Different energy states #1𝑇𝑐 #1𝑇𝑐
45
€ €
v Units

Ø Prior to 1961
u The atomic mass unit used by physicists and chemists were different

§ Physicists Unit: It was taken to be one-sixteenth of the mass of 16O isotope,

where 16O is considered to be exactly 16 units.
This was called “𝑎𝑚𝑢”.

Ø Since 1961

The unit of atomic mass is defined to be one-twelfth of the mass of the 12C
isotope, where 12C is taken to be exactly 12 units.
This is designated by the symbol “𝑢”.
1𝑢: 1𝑎𝑚𝑢 = 1.0003172: 1 1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602×104&5𝐽

Ø Let us calculate 1𝑢 =? 𝑀𝑒𝑉/𝑐 #

46
v Units
1𝑒𝑉 = 1.602×104&5𝐽
Ø Calculate the value of atomic mass in 12C scale

u The mass of 1 mole of 12C = 12 𝑔 = 12×1046 𝐾𝑔

u 1 mole of 12C contains 𝑁$ = 6.02205×10#6 atoms

12×1046
u Mass of one 12C atom = 𝑘𝑔
𝑁$
1 12×1046
u 1 𝑢 = one-twelfth of 12C = × 𝑘𝑔 = 1.66×104#7 𝑘𝑔
12 𝑁$
𝑐 #
= 1.66×104#7 𝑘𝑔× #
𝑐

= 14.924427×104&& 𝐽𝑜𝑢𝑙𝑒⁄𝑐 #

= 931.5 MeV⁄𝑐 ' 47

v Units

1 𝑢 = 931.5 MeV⁄𝑐 '

ℏ𝑐 = 197.3 MeVfm
𝑒' 1
Ø Fine structure constant, 𝛼 = =
4𝜋𝜀3ℏ𝑐 137.04

&
Ø For all practical purposes, 𝛼 =
&67

48
v Basic Properties of Nucleus

1. Nuclear size (Nuclear Radius)

2. Binding Energy
3. Angular Momentum
4. Parity and Symmetry
5. Magnetic Dipole Moment => Structure of Nucleon
6. Electric Quadrupole Moment => Shape of the Nucleus
7. Energy of nucleon
8. Non-relativistic/Relativistic Mechanics
9. Classical/Quantum Mechanics
10. What is the force that binds the nucleons? => Nuclear Force

49
v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Some analogy in optics

Ø Consider a piece of chalk. How do you see it?

Visible light
Ø Wavelength of the probe is much much 𝐸8 = 2 − 3 𝑒𝑉
smaller than the object to be probed

𝜆 = 400 − 700𝑛𝑚

Chalk

Ø Let us go back to 1911 – Rutherford’s 𝛼-particle scattering

50
v The Nuclear Radius
Ø Let us go back to 1911 – Rutherford’s 𝛼-particle scattering

1 2𝑍𝑒 #
𝐾=
4𝜋𝜖$ 𝑟$
𝛼 𝑟$

°
2𝑍𝑒 #
180 scattering ⟹ 𝑟$ =
4𝜋𝜖$ 𝐾

Ø The maximum energy of 𝛼-particle is 7.7 MeV ⟹ 𝑟$ = 30 𝑓𝑚

Ø Wavelength of the 𝛼-particle, 𝜆 ≈ 3.4 𝑓𝑚

51
v The Nuclear Radius

Ø Increase the energy of the 𝛼-particle, the radius can be probed accurately

Ø How much more?

ØThere are difficulties with alpha-particle.

a) the projectile is itself an extended object (has a structure)

b) if we increase the K.E. of 𝛼-particle, the interaction between 𝛼-part
and the nucleus is no more electromagnetic. Strong interaction will
play an important role, which is not well understood.

Ø This leads to large uncertainty in the measurement.

Ø What is the solution?

52