Dire Dawa Institute of Technology

HIGHWAY ENGINEERING - I

2018
 HIGHWAY ENGINEERING - I 2018

Table of Contents
CHAPTER ONE ............................................................................................................................................................3
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING ..............................................................................................................................3
INTRODUCTION .........................................................................................................................................................3
1.1 Basic elements of transportation planning process ..............................................................................................4
1.2. Planning Data collection .....................................................................................................................................6
1.3 Transport modeling ..............................................................................................................................................8
1.4 The Environment of Highway Engineering ....................................................................................................... 13
1.4.1 The Physical Environment .......................................................................................................................... 13
1.4.2 The Technological Environment ................................................................................................................ 14
1.4.3 The Economic Environment ....................................................................................................................... 14
1.4.4 The Social Environment ............................................................................................................................. 15
1.5 The Highway Engineering Problem................................................................................................................... 15
1.6 Economic Evaluation of Highways ................................................................................................................... 16
1.7 Effect of Highways on the Environment ........................................................................................................... 16
CHAPTER TWO ......................................................................................................................................................... 19
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION ............................................................................................ 19
2.1 Highway alignment ............................................................................................................................................ 19
2.2 Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location .................................................................................................. 20
2.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment ........................................................................................................... 21
2.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location ...................................................................................................... 22
CHAPTER THREE ..................................................................................................................................................... 29
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY .................................................................................................................... 29
3.1. Introduction ...................................................................................................................................................... 29
3.2. Design Controls and Criteria ............................................................................................................................ 29
3.3. Highway Cross-Section Elements .................................................................................................................... 37
3.4. Design Standards as ERA Manual .................................................................................................................... 46
3.5. Departures from Standards ............................................................................................................................... 46
4.6. Principles of Highway Alignment .................................................................................................................... 47
3.7. Horizontal curves .............................................................................................................................................. 47
3.7.2. Simple Circular Curve ............................................................................................................................... 48
3.7.3. Compound curve ........................................................................................................................................ 55
3.7.4. Reverse curve ............................................................................................................................................ 60
3.7.8. Relationship between various elements of a reverse curve ........................................................................ 62
3.7.5. Transition curves ....................................................................................................................................... 69
3.8. Widening of Curves .......................................................................................................................................... 75
3.9. Friction ............................................................................................................................................................. 77
3.10. Vertical Curve ................................................................................................................................................. 78

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3.10.1. Purposes of vertical curves ...................................................................................................................... 79
3.10.2. Design criteria of vertical curve ............................................................................................................... 79
3.10.3. Types of vertical curves ........................................................................................................................... 79
3.10.4. Design of Vertical Summit Curve ............................................................................................................ 81
3.10.5. Design of vertical valley curve ................................................................................................................ 82
3.10.6. Types of vertical curves ........................................................................................................................... 82
3.10.7. Elements of vertical curves ...................................................................................................................... 83
3.10.8. High and Low points on Vertical Curves ................................................................................................ 84
3.10.9. Gradient or grade ..................................................................................................................................... 84
3.11. Sight distance .................................................................................................................................................. 91
CHAPTER FOUR ..................................................................................................................................................... 104
EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS.......................................................................................................................... 104
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 104
4.1 Classification of Excavated Material ............................................................................................................... 104
4.2 Volume of Earthwork ...................................................................................................................................... 109
4.3 Haul and Overhaul ........................................................................................................................................... 110
Mass Diagram ..................................................................................................................................................... 111
CHAPTER FIVE ....................................................................................................................................................... 114
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE .......................................................................................................................................... 114
Introduction ............................................................................................................................................................... 114
5.1 Surface drainage .............................................................................................................................................. 115
Determination of Runoffs ................................................................................................................................. 117
Design of Open Channels .................................................................................................................................. 119
5.2 Subsurface Drainage ........................................................................................................................................ 121
CHAPTER SIX ......................................................................................................................................................... 126
INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES.............................................................................................................. 126
Types of Intersection ........................................................................................................................................... 126
Design Consideration and Objectives ............................................................................................................ 129
Conflict area at Intersection ............................................................................................................................ 129
Type of Intersection Control ............................................................................................................................... 130
Stop signs .......................................................................................................................................................... 130
Yield Signs ........................................................................................................................................................ 131
Intersection Channelization ........................................................................................................................ 131
Uncontrolled Intersections .......................................................................................................................... 133
6.1 Interchanges ............................................................................................................................................. 134

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CHAPTER ONE
TRANSPORTATION PLANNING
INTRODUCTION
The objective transportation planning is to build or improve various parts of transportation
system such as bridge, highway, tunnels, harbor, and railways, of airport runways etc. most of
these facilities were selected for construction or improvement because those involved concluded
that the project would result in overall improvement.
Transport planning includes studies, planning, and realization of strategies to supply the
requirement of transport services to meet the transport demand. Transport is normally justified
for improvement of traffic flow and safety, saving the travel time and energy
consumption, economic growth and increase accessibility. Some transportation project ,
however may be selected for other reasons e.g. to stimulate employment in a particular region,
to compete with other cities and state for prestige, to attract industry, to respond to a political
pressure or constituency or to get personal benefit from particular rout e location or
construction project. In some instants transportation projects are not selected construction
because of the opposition from those who would be adversely affected. E.g. a new high way may
require taking residential properties or construction of airport may introduce un-desirable noise
due to law fling planes. Whatever the reason for selecting or rejecting a transport project, a
specific process lead to the conclusion to build or not to build the project, the transport
planning process also include the estimate of the construction maintenance and operating
cost.
The process must be flexible enough to be applicable to any transportation depending on society
needs and concern. An example of the social concern includes energy conservation, traffic
congestion, environmental impacts, safety, security, and efficient productivity. The process
also intends to give appropriate information to these who will be responsible for deciding go
forward.
The benefits of planning transportation system include Reduce travel demand, length of trip,
travel cost, pollution, etc.

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1.1 Basic elements of transportation planning process

The transportation planning process comprises of 9seven basic elements which era interrelated
and not necessarily carried out sequentially. The information acquired in one phase of the
process can be helpful in some earlier or later phase so that there is a continuity of effort that
finally results in a decision.
The elements in a process are;
 Situation definition
 Problem definition
 Search for solution
 Analysis of performance
 Evaluation of alternatives
 Choice of project for specification and construction.
1. Situation definition; is the first step which involves all of the activities required to
understand the situation that gave rise to the perceived need for a transportation
improvement. In this phase the basic factors that created the present situation are described
and its characteristics are described. Information about the surrounding area;-its people and
their travel habits are reviewed and summarized. Both the scope of the study and the
domain of the system to be investigated are delineated. Example for a new bridge
construction situation definition involves developing adscript of the present highway traffic
volume, reviewing prior studies, geological maps and soil conations delineating the scope
of the study and the area affected.
2. Problem definition;-the purpose of this step is to describe the problem in terms of the
objectives to be accomplished by the project and to translate those objectives into criteria
that can be quantified. The objectives of problem definition are to reduce traffic
composition to improve safety, and to maximize net highway user. Benefits criteria are the
measure of effectiveness. The objectives for the bridge project might be to reduce travel
composition aver roads or to reduce travel time between certain areas. The criteria used to
measure how well these objectives are achieved is average delays or average travel time.
Constraints placed on the projects might be physical limitations such as the presence of
other structures topography or historic buildings. Design standards for bridge width,
clearance, loadings, and capacity should also be noted.

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3. Search for the solution;-in this phase of the planning process consideration is solutions to
the problems. This is the brainstorming stage in which many options may be proposed for
later testing and evaluation to a variety of ideas, designs, location, and system
configuration. Some data gathering, field testing and cost estimating may be necessary at
this stage to determine the practical and financial feasibility of the alternative being
proposed. On the case of over hypothetical bridge contrition a variety of options may be
considered including different location and bridge types. The study should also include the
option of not building the bridge might also what other alternatives are available.
4. Performance analysis; - the purpose of performance analysis is to estimate how each of
the proposed alternative would reform under present and future condition. The criteria
identified in the previous stapes are calculated for each transportation option include in this
step is a determination of the investment cost of the building, the transportation project as
well as annual cost for maintenance and operation cost. This element also involves the use
of mathematical models for estimating travel demand. The number of people and vehicle is
also determined and these results expressed in vehicles or persons per hour serves for the
design. To analysis the performance of a new bridge we prepare preliminary cost estimate
for the each location being considered. Then we would capture estimates of the traffic that
would the bridge given various toll levels and bridge width. The average trip length as land
required and average travel time for bridge users would be determined and compared with
the existing or no build condition other impacts such as land required usual effects noise
levels and air or water quality charges also be computed.
5. Evaluation of alternatives;-the purpose of evaluation phase is to determine how well each
alternative will achieves the objective of the project as defined by the criteria. The
evaluations evolve method of comparing on analytical way relative value of the
alternatives. One of the most used approaches is the benefit cost ratio which compares the
alternatives on the bases of benefit and costs. The benefit cost ratio is the means of
identifying the most economical efficient alterative by defining benefits and costs in
monetary terms. In the bridge evaluation we would analysis the benefits of costs to
determine whether the project is meet the benefit-cost criteria. In the result were positive
the evaluation of alternative sites would require comparison of many factors, both for
engineering and economic feasibility and environmental impacts.

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6. Choice of project; - the final project selection is made after considering all the factors
involved. In a simple situation for example where the project has been authorized and is in
the design phase a single critical such as cost might be use and chosen project would be the
one with the lowest cost. With a more complex project, however many factors have to be
considered and selection is based on how the result are perceived by those involved in
design making. The transportation engineer who furnishes a recommendation may
have developed a strong opinion as to which alternative to select. In deciding whether or
not to build the hypnotically bridge, decision makers would look carefully at the first cost
of forecasts and probably selected based on a careful study of the factors involved.
The information gathering in the earlier phases would be used together with engineering
judgments and political considerations to arrive at final project selection.
7. Specification and construction; - once the transport project has been selected a detailed
design phase begins in which each of the components of the facility is specified. For
transportation faculty this involves physical location, geometric demission and structural
configuration. Design plans can be used to estimate the cost of building the project when
construction firm is selected these plan will be the bases on which the project will be built.
For our bridge project once a decision to proceed has been made we would produce a
design that include the type of super structure piers and foundations and road way
widths and approaches as well as appearances such as tool booths prepares bid for the
construction.
1.2. Planning Data collection
Provides information about the land use as well as the socio-economic factors and the transport
system, which will serve as the basis for developing of travel demand estimates. Travel survey is
fundamental source of data for transport studies. It enables transport planners to obtain as compel
of all travel data in typical time within a specified area.
Travel survey identifies;-
Where & when trips begins and end (origins destination survey/ O-D survey), the trip purpose,
the mode travel, socio-economic characteristics of the trip maker, the type of land use,
automobile occupancy, for freight transport, the type of commodity transported etc.
Travel survey categorized into 4 general classifications:
A) House hold travel surveys C) modal survey

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B) Road side survey D) Good movement survey
A). house hold travel surveys
Prepare a questioners, and performing house to house and the data will be arranged for each
house hold groups. The number & characteristic of person trips or auto drives trips made by
residents with a specified study area.
Socio-economic characteristic of the house (HH)
Home interview (most important) often representative & high response rate but more
expensive
Telephone interview and mail survey.
B). The road side survey
 Stopping vehicle and asking drivers on trip origin, trip destination, trip purpose
etc.
 Alternative ways of doing this is handing out post cards, recording the plate
number and sending the questionnaires to the address of driver (especially
important to record long freight trips, which are outside the survey area).
C). Modal survey
Travel surveying of the number of trips made by each mode in the transport system (private car,
bus, rail, walking etc) & the survey is mostly undertaken by performing an interview at
passenger terminals, through telephone, home to home survey etc.
D). Goods transport survey
O-D for trucks (trucks load type & weight)
Detail information on the transport of commodities
Generally travel forecasting process summarized as:
Define the study area→ divide into traffic zone → collect data (travel survey) → forecasting the
travel demand of the study area using transport models.
The component of future demand include
a). Existing traffic; - the traffic that currently use the existing faculty
b). Normal traffic growth; - anticipated growth in regional population or economy
c). Diverted traffic; - a traffic that is directed to the improved road due to some factors
d). Converted traffic; - change in mode of transport because of convenience

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e). Change of destination;-it is different from diverted traffic because of your destination is
changed. It could be either due to the in land use or the transport facility.
f). Development traffic; - it is due to the development nearby road which classed changes in
the transport system of the road.
g). Induced traffic; - traffic that didn’t previously exist in any form but results when new or
improved transport faculties are provided.
1.3 Transport modeling
Transport model is a simplified mathematical representation of a small part of the real world,
aiming at describing and explaining travel behavior and visualization the amount and patterns of
transport. It is mathematical models which on basis of human behavior, calculates the resulting
traffic on the transport network for the present and future conditions. For the present situation
these calculations can be compared with the traffic we can observe with the traffic on the public
transport systems. A model is only realistic from a particular perspective. Its appropriateness is
highly dependent on the context where it will be used i.e. its value is limited to a range of
problems under specific conditions. Therefore, extreme care should be taken when choosing and
adapting models for a particular context.
Transport models are organized into 4 basic stages/steps
The most popular of the transport modeling approaches is the classic Four-Step Model (FSM).
The FSM aims to establish the spatial distribution of travel explicitly by means of an appropriate
system of zones. It is presented as a sequence of four mathematical sub models:

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3. Trip generation (Production and Attraction)

4. Trip distribution

2. Modal split

1. Trip assignment

1. Trip generation:
Forecasts the number of trips that will be made.
Is a function of trip Production and attraction;

 f (Trip Production) = Household income, household size, Car ownership, number of

working person in the household

 f (Trip Attraction) = Land-use characteristic

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 Trip ends are classified into Generations and Attractions
o No. of Trip Generations = No. of Trip Attractions
Objectives:
 Understand the reasons behind the trip making behavior.
 Produce mathematical relationships to represent trip-making pattern on the basis of
observed trips, land-use data and household characteristics.

Factors Govern Trip Generation

 Income
 Car ownership
 Family size and composition
 Land use characteristics
 Distance of the zone from the town center.
 Accessibility to public transport system and its efficiency
 Employment opportunities
Multiple Linear Regression Analysis
Multiple regression analysis is used to develop the prediction equations for the trips
generated by various types of land use.

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 The general form of the equation obtained is:

Yp= a1X1+ a2X2+ a3X3, ..., an Xn+ U

 Yp= number-of trips generated for specified purpose
 X1, X2, X3,....... Xn= independent variables, for example, land-use socio-economic
factors etc.
 a1, a2,a3….. a0= Regression Coefficients obtained by linear regression analysis
 U = Error term
2. Trip distribution- determines where the trips will go.
Methods of Trip Distribution
1. Growth Factors Methods Old
 Uniform factor method
 Average factor method
 Fratar method
 Furness method
2. Synthetic Methods More Rational
 Gravity model
 Tanner model
 Intervening opportunities model
 Competing opportunities model
Growth Factors Methods
Assume that in the future the trip-making pattern will remainsubstantially the same as today
but that the volume of trips will increase according to the growth of the generating and
attracting zones.
Advantages:
 Simpler than Synthetic Methods
 Good for small towns where considerable changes in land-use and external factors are not
expected
Trip Distribution by Gravity Model

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Where:
Ti-j = Trips between zones i and j
Pi = Trips produced in zone i
Aj = Trips attracted to zone j
di-j = Distanceor TimeorCostbetween zones i and j
n = an exponential constant, usually between 1 and 3
K = constant

This formula can be expressed as follows:

3. Modal split- predicts how the trips will be divided among the available modes of travel.
Decision Structure

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4. Trip assignment- predicts the routes that the trips will take, resulting in traffic forecasts
for the highway system and rider-ship forecasts for the transit system.

Minimum path tree for zone 1 Trip assignment from Zone 1

1.4 The Environment of Highway Engineering

The highway-engineering problem, like any other problem, exists in a complex
environment that must be taken into account in decision-making. The engineer must analyze a
particular problem and, on the basis of this analysis, make recommendations which are not
only scientifically sound but are also adaptable to the physical environment,
technologically achievable, economically viable, and in the final analysis, socially acceptable.
1.4.1 The Physical Environment
This has traditionally been the environment of most concern to engineers, and includes the
following factors:
 Topography

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 Geology
 Soils
 Natural drainage
 Vegetation
 Land use
 Rainfall
 Climate
 Materials
Highway engineers quickly come to know the effect of topography on alignment and gradient or
of geology on location and depth of cuts, or of materials on pavement design, or of vegetation on
clearing and grubbing.
1.4.2 The Technological Environment
The technological environment in which a solution may be prescribed seriously affects the
success of its implementation, whether success is measured in terms of quality,
completion, or time.
Technological factors that affect highway-engineering decisions include:
 Skilled manpower
 Management manpower
 Tools and equipment
 Construction technology
 Technological literacy and awareness
1.4.3 The Economic Environment
Some of the factors that define the economic environment in so far as it affects highway-
engineering decision are as follows:
 Gross national product (GNP) or gross domestic product (GDP).
 Cash versus food crop cultivation.
 Agricultural versus industrial production.
 Distribution of economic activity.
 Export-import ratio.

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With very few exceptions, the development of roads is the responsibility of governments, and the
extent to which this responsibility can be met is a function of the ability to set aside funds from
government revenue. The overall performance of the economy, therefore, whether measured
in GNP, GDP or per capita income, compelled with competing demands from other development
sectors establishes the limits of expenditure on road engineering, whether it is construction or
maintenance.
1.4.4 The Social Environment
Social acceptance is a vital factor in highway planning and engineering. A road program which
makes maximum utilization of the surplus manpower that is likely to exist in the rural
community through which it passes or into which it extends, and the construction of which is
timed to coincide with off-harvest peaks, is more likely to have the support of the community
than a program which is based on equipment technology requiring the importation of skilled
manpower that is not likely to be found waiting around.
1.5 The Highway Engineering Problem
• The route location problem
• The design problem
• The construction problem
• The maintenance problem
The Route Location Problem:
Between any two points that are to be connected by a road, there exist an infinite number of
combinations of horizontal and vertical alignment. The route location problem is to establish,
initially, a general location, or a narrow band, within which a more precise alignment would be
finally designed.
The Design problem:
 Geometric Design
 Drainage design
 Pavement design

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1.6 Economic Evaluation of Highways

Economic evaluation is a rational approach at quantifying the future benefits and costs of
proposed highway improvements with a view to determine to what extent the schemes will
contribute to the goal of raising the living standard of the people and their general welfare.
The economic evaluation of highway schemes is generally done by computing the total transport
cost which consists of the following components:
Cost of construction of the facility
Cost of maintenance of the facility
Road user cost
Cost to the society
Road user cost is composed of:
 Vehicle operation cost
 Travel time costs
 Accident cost
Cost of society includes:
 Impact on the environment (noise pollution, air pollution, vibration)
 Changes in land values
 Land severance (splitting)
 Loss of aesthetics
1.7 Effect of Highways on the Environment
Highway and traffic have earned the dubious distinction of being the worst defilers of the
environment. They have a direct impact on social and community values, the environment
and the ecology. In view of the growing awareness of the community and the government to
preserve and enhance the environmental values, highway engineers have to plan, construct, and
maintain highways with this special requirement in mind. Before the highway engineer prepares
any scheme, he should prepare an environmental impact statement. The environmental impact
statement containing an assessment of the anticipated significantly effects that the proposed
action may have on the quality of the environment. The purpose of the environmental impact
statement is to ensure that careful attention is given to environmental matters and that such
matters are appropriately considered in the highway agency’s decision.

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Contents of an environmental impact statement:
 Description of the proposed action and alternatives considered
 Location, type, and length of facility, termini, number of lanes, right- of-way width.
 Other design features such as general horizontal and vertical alignment,
structures, etc.
 Deficiencies of existing facilities, anticipated benefits
 Land use planning: description of planning processes for the area
 Probable impact of proposed action on the environment
 Natural, ecological, scenic resource impacts
 Relocation of individuals and families
 Social impacts
 Air quality impacts
 Noise impacts
 Water quality impacts
 Construction impacts
 Alternatives to the proposed action
 Probable adverse environmental effects that cannot be avoided.
 The relationship between local short-term uses of man’s environment and the
maintenance and enhancement of long-term productivity.
 Irreversible and irretrievable commitments of resources.
 The impact on properties and sites of historic and cultural significance
The effect of highways and traffic on the environment will be of the following type:
 Noise pollution
 Air pollution
 Visual intrusion and degrading the aesthetics
 Community impact: relocation of individuals and families.
Classification of Roads
Generally, roads are classified into different categories based on different criteria. These are:
The different types of roads are classified into two categories, depending on whether they can
be used during different seasons of the year or not:

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 All – weather roads: - during all weather (except at major river crossings).
 Fair – weather roads: - interrupted during monsoon season.
Based on type of carriageway or the road pavement:
 Paved roads: - with hard pavement course.
 Unpaved roads: - without hard pavement course (ex. Earth or gravel roads).
Based on the type of pavement surfacing provided:
 Surfaced roads: - with bituminous or cement concrete surfacing.
 Un-surfaced roads: - without surface course.
The other methods used for road classification are:
 Traffic volume – as heavy, medium, and light traffic roads (measured by
vehicles/day).
 Load transported or tonnage – as class-I, II etc. (expressed by tones/day).
 Location and function – more acceptable method.
As per this method, we have three types:
 Primary system: -
(a) Expressways
(b) National Highway (NH)
 Secondary system: -
(a) State Highways (SH)
(b) Major District Roads (MDR)
 Tertiary system (Rural roads): -
(a) Other District Roads (ODR)
(b) Village Roads (VR)
Classification of Urban Roads
The urban roads, other than expressways, are classified as:
 Arterial roads: - through traffic on a continuous route.
 Sub – arterial roads: - lower level of traffic mobility than the arterial.
 Collector streets: - provide access to arterial streets.
 Local streets: - provide access to abutting property

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CHAPTER TWO
HIGHWAY ALIGNMENT AND ROUTE LOCATION
2.1 Highway alignment
Highway alignment is the position or the layout of the center line of the highway on the
ground is called the alignment.
 Horizontal alignment consists of straight paths and curves.
 Vertical alignment consists of grades and curves.
Improper alignment of a road facility implies capital loss initially in construction as well as
loss in costs of maintenance and vehicle operation. Once the road is aligned and constructed, it
is not easy to change the alignment due to increase in cost of adjoining land and construction
of costly structures by the road side. Hence careful considerations while finalizing the
alignment of a new road need be over-emphasized.
 Requirements of an ideal alignment between two terminals include:
 Short
 A straight alignment would be the shortest, though there may be several
practical considerations which would cause a deviation from the shortest path.
 Easy
 Easy to construction
 Easy to maintain
 Easy for operation with easy grades and curves
 Economical
 Design should consider initial capital cost, maintenance cost, and operation
cost minimum.
 Safe
 Safe enough for construction and maintenance from the view point of stability of
natural slopes, embankments, cut slopes, and foundations.
 Safe for traffic operations with ease geometric features such as sharpness of
curves, grades, side’s lopes and etc.
In general, the aim of alignment selection process is to find a location for the new road that
will result in the lowest total construction, land, traffic, and environmental costs.

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Before an attempt can be made at selecting a physical location for a highway improvement, data
must be available regarding traffic desires and needs the planning intentions within the area to be
traversed, and estimates or the future physical characteristics of the highway itself: Location
surveys involving geologic and photogrammetric skills provide the basic information for
structural design, as well as the economic analysis that have a considerable influence on the final
location of the highway. Steps in route location:
 Know the termini points of the scheme.
 From the study of a map of the area, identify and locate:
 National parks
 Any ancient relics, castles and the likes
 Existence of monasteries
 Mining sites
 Existing transport facilities
 Other public facilities (electricity, water)
 Location of construction materials
 Conduct preliminary and reconnaissance surveys and collect information on pertinent
details of topography, climate, soil, vegetation, and any other factors.
 Based on the information collected in the previous two steps select a corridor.
 Identify a number of possible centerlines within the corridor.
 Make a preliminary design for the possible alternative alignments and plot on a base map.
 Examine each of the alternative alignment with respect to grades, volume of
earthwork, drainage, crossing structures, etc. to select the best alternative route.
 Make final design and location of the selected best alternative route.
2.2 Guidelines for Alignment and Route Location
There are certain guidelines that must be borne in mind in selecting the alignment and locating
the route. They are:
 The route of the highway should be so selected that it can handle the traffic most
efficiently and serve the inhabited localities.
 A direct alignment usually results in overall economy.

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 The gradients and curvature should be kept to the minimum necessary for the terrain.
Excess of both may result in economy of initial cost, but will involve high operation
costs, time costs and accident costs.
 The location should minimize the use of agricultural land. If a road already exists, it may
be advisable to make use of the land already available to the maximum extent.
 The location should involve the least impact on the environment.
 Obstructions such as cemeteries, places of worship, archaeological and historical
monuments should be steered through.
 Proximity to schools, playgrounds and hospitals should be avoided.
 Interference with utility services like electric overhead transmission lines, water supply
mains, sewers, pipelines, etc. should be avoided as far as possible.
 Frequent crossing and re-crossing of railway lines should be avoided.
 Locate the highway close to sources of embankment materials and pavement materials.
 Avoid marshy and low-lying land areas having poor drainage.
 Avoid areas liable to flooding.
 Steep terrain should be avoided as much as possible.
 Deep cutting and costly tunnels should be avoided as far as possible.
 When the alignment has to cross major rivers, the crossing point should be fixed
carefully.
To aid in the decision making process, a classical conceptual approach has tended to be
developed with regard to gathering information about the areas being evaluated.
2.3 Factors Controlling Highway Alignment
 Obligatory Points
 Points through which the alignment is to pass
 Chosen Bridge Site, Intermediate town to be accessed between the termini, a
mountain passes, etc.
 Points which should be avoided
 Areas requiring costly structures highly developed expensive areas,
marshes and low lying lands subject to flooding, hilly terrain where there is a
possibility of landslides, etc.
 Traffic
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 The alignment should suit the traffic requirements

 Present and future travel patterns should be observed & forecasted
 Traffic “Desire line” should be drawn showing path of traffic flow
 Geometric Constraints
 Design factors such as max. gradient, minimum radius of curve, minimum available
sight distance, maximum allowable super-elevation, etc. should be within the limits of
allowable design values which are governed by the expected traffic speed
 Economy
 Total transportation cost including initial construction cost, maintenance cost, and
operation cost
Example:
 Deep cuttings, high embankments, no of bridges that need to be constructed, etc.
increases the initial cost of construction.
 Other considerations
 Drainage considerations
 Hydrological factors
 Political considerations
 Monotony
2.4 Engineering Surveys for Highway Location
In the relocation or reconstruction of existing highways and the establishment of new roads,
surveys are required for the development of project plans and the estimation of costs. The
performance of good surveys requires well-trained engineers who have an understanding of the
planning, design and economic aspects of highway location and who are sensitive to the social
and environmental impacts of highway development.
Therefore, before a highway alignment is finalized in highway project, the engineering surveys
are to be carried out. The surveys may be completed in four stages. The first three stages
consider all possible alternate alignments keeping in view the various requirements of highway
alignment. The fourth stage is meant for the detailed survey of the selected alignment. To aid in
the decision making process, a classical conceptual approach has tended to be developed with

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regard to gathering information about the areas being evaluated. Generally, these can be divided
into:
Desk / Map study
Reconnaissance survey
Preliminary location survey
Final location and detailed survey
Desk / Map Study
Before any field or photogrammetric investigation is made, a great deal can be learned from a
desk study of the area. The first step in highway location and design is to procure all
available pertinent data. These data may be in the form of maps, aerial photographs, charts or
graphs, and so on and may require the application of a large variety of engineering,
environmental, social, and economic knowledge. The type and amount of data collected
during this initial phase will, of course, vary with the functional classification of the road and
the nature and size of the project.
Engineering Data
Topographic and geological maps
Stream and drainage basin maps
Climatic records
Preliminary survey maps of previous projects Traffic surveys and capacity studies
Environmental Data
Agricultural soil surveys indicating soil erodibility
Water quality studies
Air pollution studies
Noise and noise attenuation studies Fish and wildlife inventories Historical studies
Social Data
Demographic and land-use information
Census data
Zoning plans and trends
Building permit records
Motor-vehicle registration records
Economic Data

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Overall costs of previous projects
Unit construction cost data
Agricultural, industrial, commercial activities and trends
Property values
When all the available data have been assembled, a detailed analysis should reveal much
information pertinent to the proposed project. For example, analysis of the available information
may allow the engineer to determine the advisability of selecting an entirely new location or
improving the existing one. After an exhaustive study of aerial photographs, topographic maps,
drainage maps, soil maps, and other data is made in the office, a series of proposed locations may
be selected for a field or photogrammetric investigation. Map study thus gives a rough guidance
of the routes to be further surveyed in the field. The Fig. below shows the different stages for
highway location and design process.
Reconnaissance Survey
The purpose of the reconnaissance survey is to evaluate the feasibility of one or more corridor
routes for a highway between specific points that may be many kilometers away. Mostly a desk
study, good reconnaissance survey can be the greatest single money-saving phase in the
construction of a new road. Hence the engineer should make ample provision in both time and
finance for this stage of highway location study. The following is a useful checklist of the
general information required in the first phase of the reconnaissance study for a major
highway, irrespective of whether it is in a rural or in an urban area.
1. General Land Survey
a). Location of site on published maps and charts
b). Aerial survey, where appropriate
c). Site boundaries, outlines of structures, and building lines
d). Ground contours and natural drainage features
e). Above ground obstructions to view and flying, e.g. transmission lines
f). Meteorological information
2. Permitted use and restrictions
a). Planning and statutory restrictions applying to the particular areas
b). Tunnels, mine-works (abandoned, active and proposed)
c). Ancient monuments, burial grounds, etc

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3. Approaches and access (including temporary access for construction purpose)
a). Road
b). Railway
c). By water
d). By air
4. Ground conditions
a). Geological maps
b). Flooding, erosion, landslide and subsidence history
c). Construction and investigation records of adjacent sites
d). Seismicity
5. Sources of material for the construction
a). Naturals
b). Tips and waste materials
c). Imported materials
6. Drainage and sewerage
d). Names of the sewerage and land drainage
e). Location and levels of the existing systems
f). Existing flow quantities
g). Flood risk to the proposed works
7. Water supply
8. Electric and gas supply
9. Telephone and others

The first step in the reconnaissance survey is the location and acquisition of all maps and data
relating to the area, as well as the most suitable air photographs. These are then thoroughly
studied. A visit to the area may also be considered desirable at this stage. Where appropriate,
additional information may be obtained from the relevant offices. Next, armed with questions
generated by the desk study, the engineer will evaluate the engineering economic aspect of the
area and delimits areas that are obviously unsuitable for highway construction.
Upon completion of the reconnaissance survey, the engineer should be at least in a position to
design the more detailed geotechnical investigations which are likely to follow, and should
also have sufficient information available which, when taken in combination with the social,

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ecology, traffic, economic, and political inputs, will enable the selection of one or more
apparently feasible corridor routes. If the reconnaissance survey has been very thorough, and the
necessary data are readily available, it may be possible immediately to carry out the necessary
economic and environmental comparisons to aid in the determination of the best route.
The results of these studies are presented in a reconnaissance report. In its barest
essentials, this report should state the service and geometric criteria to be satisfied by the project,
describe the preferred route(s), and present tentative estimates of the cost.
Preliminary Location Survey
The preliminary survey is a large-scale study of one or more feasible corridor routes. It results in
a paper location and alignment that defines the line for the subsequent final location survey. This
paper location and alignment should show enough ties to existing topography to permit a
location party to peg the centerline. In many cases field details for final design may also be
obtained economically during the preliminary survey phase. The preliminary survey is made for
the purpose of collecting the additional physical information that may affect the location of the
highway within a given corridor area, the shape of the ground, any potential ground
subsidence problems, the limits of the catchment areas, the positions and invert levels of
streams and ditches, and the positions of trees, banks and hedges, bridges, culverts, existing
roads, power lines and pipe lines, houses and monuments are determined and noted. These are
then translated into maps, profiles and (frequently) cross sections that can assist the engineer in
the determination of preliminary grades and alignments and the preparation of cost estimates for
alternative centerlines.
Two approaches are available for preliminary survey mapping:
Aerial surveys and
Ground surveys, either separately or in various combinations.
The ground method is best used in the situation where then corridor is closely defined, narrow
right-of-way are contemplated, and the problems of man-made culture are clear. Ground surveys,
beginning with a traverse baseline, will probably furnish necessary data quite economically.
Additional operations that can be quite easily included are the profile levels and cross-sections,
and the ties to land lines and cultural objects.
The aerial survey is likely to be more suitable and economical in the following instances:
 Where the reconnaissance was unable to approximate closely the final alignment

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 Where a wide right-of-way is necessitated
 Where it is desired to prevent the premature or erroneous disclosure of the details of
probable location (preventing any land speculation or the premature awakening of local
public concerns).
The choice of method should be an educated one, based on an advanced cost analysis that takes
into account the overall project schedule and the time and need requirements of various
techniques. The following discussion is primarily with the carrying out of the traditional type of
ground survey.
The first step is the carrying out of a baseline traverse – a series of connecting straight
lines and tangents stationed continuously from the beginning to the end of the survey.
The degree of accuracy commensurate with the importance of the project and the nature
of the topography being traversed.
Angles between connecting lines should be measured in accordance with accepted
highway surveying procedures and every single point should be carefully referenced to at
least two points established well outside the area that might be occupied by the highway
construction.
To furnish date for a profile of the baseline, levels should be taken at all marked stations,
as well as at all important breaks in the ground. Elevations should also be noted at all
cross roads, streams, and other critical points on the line.
After the baseline has been pegged and levels run over it, the topography
elevations may be taken by one of the several methods, i.e. Cross-sectional
leveling. These are done at the same time as the profile levels. Observations are made at
right angles from each station as far as is considered necessary to cover the expected
construction area for a given centerline.
At the same time locations of all trees, fences, building and important elements are noted
so that they can be shown on the preliminary amp.
Final Location Survey
This survey, much of which is very often carried out as part of the preliminary survey, serves the
dual purpose of fixing the centerline of the road, while at the same time collecting physical data
which are necessary for the preparation of plans for construction purposes.

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CHAPTER THREE
GEOMETRIC DESIGN OF HIGHWAY
3.1. Introduction
The geometric design of roads is the branch of highway engineering concerned with the
positioning of the physical elements of the roadway according to standards and constraints. The
basic objectives in geometric design are to optimize efficiency and safety while minimizing cost
and environmental damage. Geometric design of highway is the determination of layout and
features visible on highway. The emphasis is more on satisfying the need of the driver as well as
to ensure the safety of the vehicle, the comfort while driving and efficiency. Other related factors
are also considered based on the project. Proper Geometric design will help in the reduction of
accidents and their severity. Geometric design the process whereby the layout of the road
through the terrain is designed to meet the needs of the road users. The principal geometric
features are the road cross-section and horizontal and vertical alignment.
 Highway geometric elements:
 Cross-section
 Horizontal and Vertical alignment
 Sight distance
 Vertical and lateral clearance
 Intersections
3.2. Design Controls and Criteria
The choice of design controls and criteria is influenced by the following factors:

1. Functional classification of the road

2. Nature of the terrain
3. Design vehicle
4. Traffic volumes expected on the road
5. Design speed
6. Driver Characteristics
7. Density and character of the adjoining land use and
8. Economic and environmental considerations.

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Functional Classification of Road and Numbering

The functional classification in Ethiopia includes five functional classes. The following are the
functional classes with their description.
I. Trunk Roads (Class I): Centers of international importance and roads terminating at
international boundaries are linked with Addis Ababa by trunk roads. They are numbered with an
"A" prefix: an example is the Addis-Gondar Road (A3). Trunk roads have a present AADT
≥1000, although they can have volumes as low as 100 AADT.

II. Link Roads (Class II): Centers of national or international importance, such as principal
towns and urban centers, must be linked between each other by link roads. A typical link road
has over 400 - 1000 first year AADT, although values can range between 50-10,000 AADT.
They are numbered with a "B" prefix. An example of a typical link road is the Woldiya - Debre
Tabor- Woreta Road (B22), which links, for instance, Woldiya on Road A2 with Bahir Dar of
Road A3.

III. Main Access Roads (Class III): Centers of provincial importance must be linked between
each other by main access roads. First year AADTs are between 30-1,000. They are numbered
with a "C" prefix.

IV. Collector Roads (Class IV): Roads linking locally important centers to each other, to a
more important center, or to higher class roads must be linked by a collector road. First year
AADTs are between 25-400. They are numbered with a "D" prefix.

V. Feeder Roads (Class V): Any road link to a minor center such as market and local locations
is served by a feeder road. First year AADTs are between 0-100. They are numbered with an "E"
prefix.

Roads of the highest classes, trunk and link roads have, as their major function to provide
mobility, while the primary function of lower class roads is to provide access. The roads of
intermediate classes have, for all practical purposes, to provide both mobility and access.

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2. Nature of the Terrain

Topography, physical features and land use have a great effect on road locations and geometric
design. The geometric design elements of a road depend on the transverse terrain through which
the road passes. Transverse terrain properties are categorized into four classes as follows:
I. Flat or gently Terrain: Which offers few obstacles to the construction of a road, having
continuously unrestricted horizontal and vertical alignment (transverse terrain slope up to 5
percent).

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Figure 4.1: Flat Terrain; Flat Roadway Alignment

II. Rolling Terrain: Rolling, hilly or foothill country where the slopes generally rise and
fall moderately and where occasional steep slopes are encountered, resulting in some
restrictions in alignment (transverse terrain slope from 5 to 25 percent).

Figure 4.2: Rolling Terrain; Rolling Roadway Alignment

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III. Mountainous Terrain: Rugged, hilly and mountainous country and river gorges. This
class of terrain imposes definite restrictions on the standard of alignment obtainable and
often involves long steep grades and limited sight distance (transverse terrain slope from 25
percent to 50 percent).

Figure 4.3: Mountainous Terrain; Mountainous Roadway Alignment

IV. Escarpment Terrain: In addition to the terrain classes given above, a fourth class is
added to cater to those situations whereby the standards associated with each of the above
terrain types cannot be met. We refer to escarpment situations inclusive of switchback
roadway sections, or side hill transverse sections where earthwork quantities are
considerable, with transverse terrain slope in excess of 50 percent).

Figure 4.4: Escarpment Terrain; Escarpment Roadway Alignment

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In general, construction costs will be greater as the terrain becomes more difficult and
higher standards will become less justifiable or achievable in such situations than for roads
in either flat or rolling terrain. Drivers accept lower standards in such conditions and
therefore adjust their driving accordingly, so minimizing accident risk. Design speed will
therefore vary with transverse terrain.

3. Design vehicle
Both the physical characteristics and turning capabilities of vehicles are controls in geometric
design. Vehicle characteristics and dimensions affecting design include power to weight ratio,
minimum turning radius and travel path during a turn, and vehicle height and width. The road
elements affected include the selection of maximum gradient, lane width, horizontal curve
radius, widening, and junction design. The present vehicle fleet in Ethiopia includes a high
number of four-wheel drive utility vehicles and overloaded trucks. The four design vehicles
should be used in the control of geometric design:
Table 3.2: Design Vehicle Dimensions and Characteristics
Design Design Overall (m) Overhang (m) Wheelbase Min.
Vehicle Vehicle Height Width Length Front Rear (m) Design
Designation Turning
Radius
(m)
4x4 Utility DV1 1.3 2.1 5.8 0.9 1.5 3.4 7.3
Vehicle
Single Unit DV2 4.1 2.6 11.0 1.5 3.0 6.5 12.8
Truck
Single Unit DV3 4.1 2.6 12.1 2.1 2.4 7.6 12.8
Bus
Semi-Trailer DV4 4.1 2.6 15.2 1.2 1.8 4.8+8.4 = 13.7
Combination 13.2
 According to AASHTO there are 4 classes
 Passenger cars
 Buses
 Trucks
 Recreational vehicles

4. Design Traffic volumes Traffic volume is number of vehicles that pass a point along a
roadway during a specified time period. Traffic volumes are directly affects features of design
such as:

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 Number of lanes
 Widths
 Alignments and
 Gradients.
 Annual Average Daily Traffic (AADT): During a period of 24 consecutive hours
averaged over a period of 365 days.
 Average Daily Traffic (ADT): is the average of 24-hr counts collected over a number of
days greater than one but less than a year.
 One truck is often equivalent to several passenger cars.

A further factor influencing the development of road design standards, and in particular the
design speed, is the volume and composition of traffic. The design of a road should be based in
part on factual traffic volumes. Traffic indicates the need for improvement and directly affects
features of design such as widths, alignments, and gradients. Traffic data for a road or section of
road, including traffic trends, is generally available in terms of annual average daily traffic
(AADT).
Table 3.3: Design Standards vs. Road Classification and AADT

Road Functional Classification Design Standard No. Design Traffic Flow (AADT)

10,000 – 15,000
TRUNK

DS1

DS2 5,000 – 10,000

DS3 1,000 – 5,000
LINK

M DS4 200 – 1,000

A
C I DS5 100 – 200
O N
L A DS6 50 – 100
L C
F E C
E C E
E S DS7 30 – 75
T
D O S
E R DS8 25 – 50
R
DS9 0 – 25
DS10 0 – 15

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5. Design speed

The Design Speed is used as an index which links road function, traffic flow and terrain to the
design parameters of sight distance and curvature to ensure that a driver is presented with a
reasonably consistent speed environment. In practice, most roads will only be constrained to
minimum parameter values over short sections or on specific geometric elements.
Design elements such as lane and shoulder widths, horizontal radius, super elevation, sight
distance and gradient are directly related to, and vary, with design speed. Thus all of the
geometric design parameters of a road are directly related to the selected design speed. It is
important to note that the design of a road in accordance with a chosen design speed should
ensure a safe design. The various design elements have to be combined in a balanced way,
avoiding the application of minimum values for one or a few of the elements at a particular
location when the other elements are considerably above the minimum requirements.
6. Density and character of the adjoining land use
For urban or peri-urban conditions, the design speed selection is influenced by other factors. In
such areas, speed controls are frequently included. Traffic speeds are in fact influenced by the
presence of other vehicles traveling in and across the through lanes, physical and rightof-way
constraints, together with pedestrian and safety considerations. However, of note is the fact that
the present speed limit through villages is 30 km/h. It is possible that this limit will be increased
in the future. A design speed through peri-urban or urban areas of 50 km/h shall be used,
although such segments are posted presently at 30 km/h. Legal speed limits should not
necessarily be used as design parameters.
7. Driver Characteristics
Geometric design of a highway should consider users, especially drivers’ performance limits.
There are limits to a driver’s vision, perception, reaction, concentration, comfort that could
impact the highway safety and operating efficiency.
Example: The average brake-reaction time of a driver (including decision time), is 2.5 sec which
important in determining sight distance in highway geometric design.
8. Economic and environmental considerations
Economy: The design adopted should be economical as far as possible. It should match with the
funds allotted for capital cost and maintenance cost.

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Environmental: Factors like air pollution, noise pollution etc. should be given due consideration
in the geometric design of roads.

3.3. Highway Cross-Section Elements

A cross-section will normally consist of the carriageway, shoulders or curbs, drainage
features, and earthwork profiles.
 Carriageway: - The part of the road constructed for use by moving traffic, including
traffic lanes, auxiliary lanes such as acceleration and deceleration lanes, climbing lanes,
and passing lanes, and bus bays and lay-byes.
 Roadway:- Consists of the carriageway and the shoulders, parking lanes and viewing
areas
 Earthwork profiles:- includes side slopes and back slopes
For urban cross-sections, cross-section elements may also include facilities for pedestrians,
cyclists, or other specialist user groups. These include curbs, footpaths, and islands. It may also
provide for parking lanes. For dual carriageways, the cross-section will also include medians.
 Highways are categorized into
 Divided highways
 Undivided highways
 The distinction is based on the presence of median
 The components of divided highways within the right of way are:-
 Highway Travel Lanes
 Shoulders
 Medians
 Pavement Crowns
 Curbs
 Drainage Ditches
 Side slopes
 Guardrails
1. Highway Travel Lanes or Carriage Way
The portion of roadway provided for movement of vehicles. Width of the carriage way or the
width of the pavement depends on the width of the traffic lane and number of lanes. Width of a

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traffic lane depends on the width of the vehicle and the clearance. Side clearance improves
operating speed and safety. It should:-
 Vary according to functional class of highway, design speed, traffic volume and level of
development of the area.
 Should accommodate the type & volume of traffic, assumed design speed
 Unequal-width lanes are used, locating the wider lane on the outside (right) provides
more space for large vehicles that usually occupy that lane.
2. Shoulders
A shoulder is the portion of the roadway contiguous to the carriageway for the accommodation
of stopped vehicles; traditional and intermediate non-motorized traffic, animals, and pedestrians;
emergency use; the recovery of errant vehicles; and lateral support of the pavement courses,
increase sight distance on horizontal curves, provide clearance for placement of road signs and
additional space for bicycle use. They vary from no shoulder on minor rural roads where there is
no surfacing, to a 1.5-3.0m or even greater sealed shoulder on major roads depending on the
terrain and design classification.
 Materials used to surface shoulders include:
 Gravel, shell, crushed rock, mineral or chemical additives, bituminous surface
treatments
 All shoulders should be sloped sufficiently to rapidly drain surface water
 The slope of the shoulder should be greater than that of the pavement.
 High type surfacing: slope from 2 to 4 percent.
 Gravel :4 to 6 percent
 turf shoulders : 6 to 8 percent slopes
 The color and texture of shoulders be different from those of the traveled way
 To clearly define the traveled way at all times
Table 3.4: Shoulders widths as recommended by the ERA Manual

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3. Medians
Median is the portion of a highway separating opposing directions of the traveled way.

 The principal functions:

 To separate opposing traffic
 Provide a recovery area for out of- control vehicles,
 Provide a stopping area in case of emergencies,
 Allow space for speed changes and storage of left-turning and U-turning vehicles,
 minimize headlight glare, and
 Provide width for future lanes.
 Additional benefits:
 In an urban area are that it may offer an open green space,
 May provide a refuge area for pedestrians crossing the street, and
 May control the location of intersection traffic conflicts.
 For maximum efficiency, a median should be highly visible both night and day and
should contrast with the traveled
 Median can be either raised, flush or depressed.
 Median widths is from 1.2 to 24 m or more
 On freeways, a median barrier may be used

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4. Pavement Crowns
Pavement crown is the raising of the centerline of the roadway above the elevation of the
pavement edges but not being so great as to make steering difficult. It used to provide adequate
surface drainage.
 Normal cross fall should be 2.5% on paved roads and 4 5% on unpaved roads
 Unpaved shoulders on a paved road should be 1.5 % steeper
 When four or more traffic lanes are used, it is advisable to provide a higher rate of crown
on the outer lanes

5. Curbs
Curbs indicate the boundary between the carriage way and the shoulder or islands or footpaths. A
curb is a steep raised element at the edge of roadway. It is the high-speed rural highways at the
outside edge of the shoulder. The functions of curbs curbs are:
 Drainage control, roadway edge delineation,
 Right-of-way reduction, aesthetics,

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 Delineation of pedestrian walkways,
 Reduction of maintenance operations, and
 Assistance in orderly roadside development.
Vertical curbs may range from 150 to 200 mm in height. When the slope of the curb face is
steeper than 1V:1H, and 1V:2H, the height should be limited to about 150 mm.

6. Camber or Normal Crossfall

Camber or cant is the cross slope provided to raise middle of the road surface in the transverse
direction to drain off rain water from road surface. The objectives of providing camber are:
 Surface protection especially for gravel and bituminous roads
 Sub-grade protection by proper drainage
 Quick drying of pavement which in turn increases safety

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Figure 4.8: Different types of camber
7. Parking lanes
Parking lanes are provided in urban lanes for side parking. Parallel parking is preferred because
it is safe for the vehicles moving on the road. The parking lane should have a minimum of 3.0 m
width in the case of parallel parking.

8. Cycle track
Cycle tracks are provided in urban areas when the volume of cycle traffic is high Minimum
width of 2 meter is required, which may be increased by 1 meter for every additional track.

9. Footpath
Footpaths are exclusive right of way to pedestrians, especially in urban areas. They are provided
for the safety of the pedestrians when both the pedestrian traffic and vehicular traffic is high.
Minimum width is 1.5 meter and may be increased based on the traffic. The footpath should be
either as smooth as the pavement or more smoother than that to induce the pedestrian to use the
footpath.

10. Guard rails

They are provided at the edge of the shoulder usually when the road is on an embankment. They
serve to prevent the vehicles from running off the embankment, especially when the height of the
fill exceeds 3 m. Various designs of guard rails are there. Guard stones painted in alternate black
and white are usually used. They also give better visibility of curves at night under headlights of
vehicles.

11. Width of formation

Width of formation or roadway width is the sum of the widths of pavements or carriage way
including separators and shoulders. This does not include the extra land in formation/cutting. The
values suggested by ERA are given in Table 2.2.

12. Right of way

Right of way (ROW) or land width is the width of land acquired for the road, along its
alignment. It should be adequate to accommodate all the cross-sectional elements of the highway
and may reasonably provide for future development. To prevent ribbon development along
highways, control lines and building lines may be provided. Control line is a line which

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represents the nearest limits of future uncontrolled building activity in relation to a road.
Building line represents a line on either side of the road, between which and the road no building
activity is permitted at all.

Figure 4.9: A typical Right of way (ROW)

13. Drainage Ditches
Drainage ditches function is collecting and conveying surface water from the highway right-of-
way. It have an adequate capacity for the design runoff. The depth of channel should be
sufficient to remove surface water without saturation of the subgrade.

14. Side Slopes and Back Slopes

Side slopes should be designed to insure the stability of the roadway and to provide a reasonable
opportunity for recovery of an out-of-control vehicle. Three regions of the roadside are important
when evaluating the safety aspects: the top of the slope (hinge point), the side slope, and the toe
of the slope (intersection of the fore slope with level ground or with a back slope, forming a
ditch). Figure 4.9 illustrates these three regions.

Figure 4.9: Designation of Roadside Regions, Source: AASHTO

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Table 3.5: Slope Ratio Table – Vertical to Horizontal based on ERA Manual

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Figure 4.10: Typical Fill & Cut Sections, Source ERA Manual

3.4. Design Standards as ERA Manual

Tables 2-2 to 2-11 give several parameters of the Ethiopian Roads Authority’s ten design
standards, reflecting the government policy of design flexibility and emphasis on labor-based
techniques. These standards apply to divided highways, trunk and link roads, main access and
collector roads, and feeder roads.

3.5. Departures from Standards

It is anticipated that there may be situations where the designer will be compelled to deviate from
these standards. An example of a Departure from Standard is the inclusion of a switchback or the
use of a gradient greater than the desirable value. Where the designer departs from a standard, he
must obtain written approval from ERA. The Designer shall submit the following information to
ERA:
 The number, name, and description of the road
 The facet of design for which a Departure from Standards is desired;
 A description of the standard, including normal value, and the value of the
Departure from Standards
 The reason for the Departure from Standards, and
 Any mitigation to be applied in the interests of safety.
The Designer must submit all major and minor Departures from Standards to the Design and
Research Division Manager for evaluation. If the proposed Departures from Standards are

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acceptable, the Departures from Standards will be submitted to the General Manager for final
approval.
N.B Refer the geometric design parameters for each design standards from ERA manual

4.6. Principles of Highway Alignment

The centerline of a road consists of series of straight lines interconnected by curves that are used
to change the alignment, direction, or slope of the road. Those curves that change the alignment
or direction are known as horizontal curves, and those that change the slope are vertical
curves. The horizontal alignment of a highway, railway, or canal consists of a series of straight
lines and curves. The straight portions are called tangents. The curves are provided for smooth
or gradual change in the direction due to the nature of the terrain, cultural features, or other
unavoidable reasons. In highway practice, it is recommended to provide curves deliberately on
straight routes to break the monotony in driving on long straight routes to avoid accidents.
3.7. Horizontal curves
Horizontal Curves are defined as the curves used in horizontal planes to connect two straight
tangent sections.
3.7.1. Types of horizontal curves
There are different types of horizontal curves. They are described as follows:
1. Simple curve
2. Compound curve Circular curve
3. Reverse curve
4. Spiral curve Transitional curve
5. Broken-back curve
6. Horse – shoe curve
7. Diversion or deviation curve
1. Simple curve: The simple curve is an arc of a circle connecting two tangents. It is the most
commonly used. The radius of the circle determines the “sharpness” or “flatness” of the curve.
The larger the radius, the “flatter” the curve.
2. Compound curve: a curve which is composed of two or more circular arcs of different radii
tangent to each other, with centers on the same side of the alignment or curving in the same
direction.

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3. Reverse curve: A reverse curve consists of two simple curves joined together, but curving in
opposite direction. For safety reasons, the use of this curve should be avoided when possible.

4. Spiral curve: a curve whose radius decreases uniformly from infinity at the tangent to that of
the curve it meets. The spiral is a curve with varying radius used on railroads and some modern
highways. Its purpose is to provide a transition from the tangent to a simple curve or between
simple curves in a compound curve.
5. Broken-back curve: the combination of short length of tangent connecting two circular arcs
that have centers on the same side.

6. Horse – shoe curve: It is a special case of a simple curve with a central angle exceeding 1800.

7. Diversion or deviation curve: A 0diversion or deviation curve consists of two reverse curves,
taking off from a straight and rejoining it at a certain distance.

3.7.2. Simple Circular Curve

3.7.2.1. Elements of simple curve
The elements of a simple curve are explained as follows:
1. Point of Intersection (PI): The point of intersection is the point where the back and
forward tangents intersect. Sometimes, the point of intersection is designated as V
(vertex).
2. Intersecting Angle (I): The intersecting angle is the deflection angle at the PI. Its value
is either computed from the preliminary traverse angles or measured in the field.

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3. Central Angle (∆): The central angle is the angle formed by two radii drawn from the
center of the circle (O) to the PC and PT. The value of the central angle is equal to the I
angle. Some authorities call both the intersecting angle and central angle either I or ∆.
4. Radius (R): The radius of the circle of which the curve is an arc, or segment. The radius
is always perpendicular to back and forward tangents.
5. Point of Curvature (PC): The point of curvature is the point on the back tangent where
the circular curve begins. It is sometimes designated as BC (beginning of curve) or TC
(tangent to curve).
6. Point of Tangency (PT): The point of tangency is the point on the forward tangent
where the curve ends. It is sometimes designated as EC (end of curve) or CT (curve to
tangent).
7. Point of Curve (POC): The point of curve is any point along the curve.
8. Length of Curve (l): The length of curve is the distance from the PC to the PT,
measured along the curve.
9. Tangent Distance (T): The tangent distance is the distance along the tangents from the
PI to the PC or the PT. These distances are equal on a simple curve.
10. Length of Long Chord (L): The long chord is the straight-line distance from the PC to
the Other types of chords are designated as follows:
11. External Distance (E): The external distance (also called the external secant) is the
distance from the PI to the midpoint of the curve. The external distance bisects the
interior angle at the PI.
12. Middle Ordinate (M): The middle ordinate is the distance from the midpoint of the
curve to the midpoint of the long chord. The extension of the middle ordinate bisects the
central angle.
13. Degree of Curve (D): The degree of curve defines the sharpness or flatness of the
curve.

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Figure 1: Elements of horizontal curve

3.7.2.2. Derivation of simple curve
The following formulae are used for the computation of various elements of curve.

Figure 2: Simple circular curve

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Tangentlength(T) Lengthof longchord(L)
T  T1 I  IT2 T1OD  T2 OD
 
T  OT1 tan L  2OT1 s sin
2 2
 
T  R tan L  2 R sin
2 2
Length of curve (l) Mid ordinate( M )
l  T1CT2 M  DC
2R M  OC  OD
l 
360 
R M  R  R cos
l  2
180 
M  R[1  cos ]
2

3.7.2.3. Designation of a circular curve

The sharpness of curvature of a curve may be expressed in any of the following ways:
A. Radius of curve
B. Degree of curvature
A. Radius of curve
In highways, the minimum radius of the curve is determined from the following formula:

V2
Rmin 
127(e  f )
Where
V  The speed of vehiclesin km/h
e  The maximum super elevation
f  The maximum friction(  0.16)

In railways, the minimum radius of the curve is determined from the following formula:

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BV 2
Rmin 
127e
Where
B  The gaugeof the rail way track
B. Degree of curvature

Here the curvature is expressed by stating the degree of curve D, which traditionally defined as
the angle subtended at the center of the curve by an arc or a chord of specified length. Thus,
there are arc and chord definitions.

1. Arc definition

Here the degree of curve is the central angle Da that is subtended by an arc of 30m length. This
method is most frequently followed in highway practice.

Da 360

30 2R
10800
Da  degrees
2R
1718.9
Da  degrees(approximate)
R
Note: Da is in degrees

Figure 3: Arc definition of curve

2. Chord definition

The degree of curve may also be defined as the central angle of the curve that is subtended by
chord AB of 30m length. Almost invariably applied in railway routes.

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Dc AC
sin 
2 AO
D 15
sin c 
2 R
 15 
Dc  2 * sin 1  
 R
15
R
D
sin c
2

Fig 4. Chord definition of curve

Note:
 Radius of curvature varies inversely as the degree of curve.
 A sharp curve has a large degree of curve where as a flat curve has a small degree
of curve.
Example 1: Two straight lines AB &BC intersect at chainage of 10+020 and the deflection angle
being 400.The radius of the curve is 280m. Determine:-
a. Tangent Distance (T)
b. Long Chord (LC)
c. Point Curvature (PC)
d. Length of Curve (L)
e. Point of Tangency (PT)
f. External Distance (E)
g. Middle Ordinate (M)
0
Given, PI=10+020m, ∆ =40 & R=280m

Solution

a. Tangent Distance (T) =Rtan∆/2= 280m*tan200 = 101.91m

b. Long Chord (LC) =2Rsin∆/2=2*280m*sin200 =191.53m
c. Point Curvature (PC) = PI-T= 10+020-0+101.91= 9918.09 = 9+918.09m
d. Length of Curve (l) =∆IIR/1800=400 *3.14*280m/1800=195.38m
e. Point of Tangency (PT) = PC+l = 9+918.09+195.38m=10+113.47m
f. External Distance (E) =R(Sec∆/2-1)=R (1/Sin∆/2-1)=280m (1/Sin200-1) =538.66m
g. Middle Ordinate (M)=R(1-cos∆/2)=280m (1-cos200)=16.89m

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Example 2: Deflection angle of a 4º curve is 55º25’, PI at station 245+97.04. Find length of
curve, T, and station of PT.
D = 4º
 = 55º25’ = 55.417º
D = _5729.58_ R = _5729.58_ = 1,432.4 ft
R 4
l = 2R = 2(1,432.4 ft)(55.417º) = 1385.42ft
360 360
T = R tan  = 1,432.4 ft tan (55.417) = 752.29 ft
2 2
Station at PC = PI – T = 245+97.04 – 752.29 = 238+44.75
Station at PT = PC + l = 238+44.75 + 1385.42 = 252+30.17
Example 3: A circular curve has 300 m radius and 60° deflection angle. What is its degree by (a)
arc definition and (b) chord definition of standard length 30m. Also calculate (i) length of curve,
(ii) tangent length, (iii) length of long chord,
(iv) mid- ordinate and (v) apex distance.

Example 4: Two straights intersect at chainage 2056.44m and the angle of intersection is 120o.If
the radius of simple curve to be introduced is 600m, find the following:-

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I. Tangent distances
II. Length of the curve
III. Chainage of the point of commencement.
IV. Chainage of the point of tangency
V. Length of the long chord
Solution. (Fig. below)

The deflection angle   180  120  60 ; R = 600m

 60
I. Tangent distances(length), T  R tan  600 tan  346.41m
2 2
R 600 60  
II. Length of the curve, l    628.32m
180 180
III. Chainage of the point of commencement
 Chainage of the point of intersection - tangent length

 2056.44- 346.41 1710.03m

IV. Chainage of the point of tangency
 Chainage of point of commencement  length of the curve
 1710.03 628.32 2338.35m .
 60
V. Length of long chord, L  2 R sin  2  600sin  600.00m
2 2
3.7.3. Compound curve
Compound curves composed of two or more circular arcs of different radii tangent to each other,
with their centers on the same side of the alignment. Compound curves are required when space
restrictions preclude a single circular curve and when there are property boundaries. They are

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often used on exit and entrance ramps of interstate highways and expressways, although
easement curves are generally a better choice for these situations.

Figure 1.12: Compound curve

3.7.3.1. Elements of a compound curve
Figure below shows a two centered curve T1T3T2 having two circular arcs T1T3 and T3T2
meeting at a common point T3 known as the point of compound curve (PCC). T1 is the point of
commencement (PC) and T2 is the point of tangency (PT). The other elements such as tangent
lengths, length of curve, etc., for smaller and larger curves, will be designated by the subscripts S
and L, respectively, as below:

Figure 2.13
Elements of a compound curve

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RS , RL  the radii of the curves
ΔS , ΔL  the deflectionangles
l S ,l L  the lengthof the curves
t S ,t L  the tangentlengths
TS ,TL  the tangentlengthson the sidesof smaller and l arg ercurves, respectively,
for the compound curve
(i ) The tangentlengths for the circular curves

t S  T1M  MT3  RS tan S
2

t L  T3 N  NT2  RL tan L
2
(ii) Total deflectionangle
  S  L

iii 
Tangentlengths for the compound curve
in MBN , we have
MN  MT3  T3 N  t S  t L
sin  L sin  L
BM  MN  (t S  t L )
sin(s  L) sin(s  L)
sin  S sin  S
BN  MN  (t S  t L )
sin(s  L) sin(s  L)
Now,
TS  BT1  BM  MT1
sin  L
 (t S  t L )  tS
sin(s  L)
TL  BT2  BN  NT2
sin  S
(t S  t L )  tL
sin(s  L)

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(iv) Lengthof the compound curve
l  lS  l L
But we have,
RS  S RL  L
lS  and lL 
180 180

l  ( RS  S  RL  L )
180

(v) Chainages
Chainageof T1  chainageof B  TS
Chainageof T3  chainageof T1  lS
Chainageof T2  chainageof T3  l L
Or  chainageof T1  lS  l L
Example 1: Given the following information, determine the stations of the tangent points with
chainage of

PI =212+014

∆S =700 RS =200m

∆L =750 RL =320m

Solution

ts = Rstan∆s/2 = 200tan700/2 = 200tan350 = 140.041m

tL = RLtan∆L/2 = 320tan750/2 = 320tan37.50 = 245.544m

Ts = (tS+tL) sin∆L/sin(∆s+∆L) +ts = (140.041+245.544)sin750/sin1450 +140.041 = 789.381m

TL = (tS+tL)sin∆s/sin(∆s+∆L) + tL = (140.041+245.544)sin700/sin1450 +245.544 = 877.249m

lL = RL∆L/1800 ls = Rs∆s/180

= 3.14*320m*750/1800 =3.14*200m*700/1800

= 418.666m = 244.222m

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l  lS  lL = 244.222m + 418.66m = 662.888m

PC = PI –Ts = 212+014 - 0+789.381 = 211+224.619 m

PCC = PC+ lS = 211+224.619 + 244.222 = 211+468.841 m

PT = PCC+ lL = 211+468.841 +418.666 = 211+887.507 m

Example 2: Two straights AB and BC are intersected by a line MN. The angles AMN and MNC
are 1450 and 1400, respectively. The radius of the first curve is 400 m and that of the second
curve is 600 m. find the chainages of the tangent points and the point of compound curvature,
given that the chainage of the point of intersections is 5555 m.

Given

The angle of AMN = 1450RS = 400m

The angle of MNC = 1400RL = 600m Chainage of B = 5555 m

Solution

∆S =1800- 1450 = 350∆L =1800- 1400 = 400

∆ = ∆S+ ∆L = 350+ 400 =750

tS = RStan∆S/2 = 400*tan350/2 =126.12 m

tL = RLtan∆L/2 = 600tan400/2 =218.38 m

TS = BT1 = (tS+tL)sin∆L/sin∆ + tS = (126.12 + 218.38)sin400/sin750 + 126.12 =355.37 m

Tl = (tS+tL) sin∆S/sin∆ +tL = (126.12 +218.38)sin350/sin750 +218.38 =413.21m

lS = RS∆S/1800 lL = RL∆L/1800

= 3.14*400*350/1800 = 3.14*600*400/1800

=244.35 m = 418.88 m

l  lS  lL = 244.35 + 418.88 =663.23 m

Chainage of T1 = Chainage of B –Ts = 5555 – 355.37 = 5199.63 m

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Chainage of T3 = Chainage of T1 + lS = 5199.63 + 244.35 = 5443.98 m

Chainage of T2 = Chainage of T3 +lL = 5443.98 + 418.88 = 5862.86 m

3.7.4. Reverse curve

Reverse curve Consists of two circular arcs of same or different radii, tangent to each other with
their centers on opposite side of the alignment. It helps to transfer the direction in when the
change continue from one direction to the other. A reverse curve consists of two arc bending in
opposite directions. Their centers lie on opposite sides of the curve. Their radii may be either
equal or different, and they have one common tangent.

Fig.2.14: Reverse curve

3.7.4.1. Elements of reverse curve

As with compound curves, reverse curves have six independent parameters (R1, 1 T1, R2, 2
T2); the solution technique depends on which parameters are known. Figure 2.15. shows a
reverse curve between two straights AT1 and T2B having a total deviation of  at I, let O1 and O2
be the centers of the two circular curves of radii R1 and R2, respectively, and 1 and 2 be their
deflection angles or the central angles assuming 1 greater than 2. Join the point T1 and T2 and
draw perpendiculars O1M and O2N on T1T2 from O1 and O2, respectively. Draw a line O1F
parallel to T1T2 intersecting O2N produced at F.

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Fig. 2.15: Elements of reverse curve

From I 1 II 2 , we have
1     2
Or since T1O1 is perpendicular to T1 I1 ,
  1   2 T2T1O1  90  1
From T1 IT2 , we have and O1M is perpendicular to T1T2 ,
1     2
MO1T1  90  T2T1O1
Or
  1   2  90  (90  1 )
where  1  I 1T1T2  1
 2  T1T2 I
 1   2   1   2

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Similarly,
NO2T2   2 From O1O 2 F , we have
Therefore, NO2T3  T2O2T3  NO2T2 O1 F  O1O 2 sin(O1O 2 F )
 2   2  ( R1  R2 ) sin( 2   2 )
and MO1T3  T1O1T3  MO1T1 O 2 F  ( R1  R2 ) cos( 2   2 )
 1   1 Since, MN  O1 F
Since, O1M is parallelto O2 N ,
 ( R1  R2 ) sin( 2   2 )
MO1O2  NO2O1
We have O 2 F  FN  O 2 N
MO1T3  NO2T3
 R1 cos 1  R2 cos 2
Or 1   1   2   2
Or 1   2   1   2
Equatingthe valueof O 2 F , we get
Now from T1O1M , we have ( R1  R2 ) cos( 2   2 )  R1 cos 1  R2 cos 2
T1M  R1 sin 1 R1 cos 1  R2 cos 2
Or cos( 2   2 ) 
O1M  R1 cos1 R1  R2
And from T2O2 N , we have since, 1   1   2   2
T2 N  R2 sin  2 R1 cos 1  R2 cos 2
cos( 1   1 ) 
O2 N  R2 cos 2 R1  R2

3.7.8. Relationship between various elements of a reverse curve

There are four cases depending on the quantities involved in the determination of unknowns. The
first three cases are for non-parallel straights and the last fourth case is for parallel straights.
Case-1: Non-parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, and ∆2> ∆1 (∆= ∆2– ∆1) given ∆1, ∆2, d, and
chainage of I (Fig 2.16). The quantities to be determined are R, the chainages of T1, T2 and T3.
The formulae to determine these quantities are given below:

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Case-2: Non-parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, given δ1, δ2, and L. It is required to determine
the radius of the curves.

Fig 2.17: Reverse curve between two non-parallel straights when R1 = R2 = R, given δ1, δ2, and L.

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Case-3:Non-parallel straights when R1≠ R2, given δ1, δ2, L and R1(or R2). By using Fig. 2:17.

Case-4: Parallel straights when ∆1 = ∆2, given R1, R2, and ∆1(=∆2). (Fig. 2.17). If the between
the two straight is D, the distance between T1 and T2along the straights is H, and the length of
T1T2is L, then D, H and L are given by:-

Fig. 2.17: Reverse curve between two parallel straights

Example 1: Two straights AT1 and BT2 meet at vertex V. A reverse curve of common radius R
having T1 and T2 as tangent points is to be introduced. The angles VT1T2 and VT2T1 measured at

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T1 and T2 are 45°30’and 25°30’, respectively. The distance T1T2 is equal to 800m. Determine the
common radius and the central angles for the two arcs.
Solution

Example 2: The first branch of a reverse curve has a radius of 200 m. find the radius of the
second branch so that the curve can connect parallel straights 18 m apart. The distance between
tangent points is to be 110 m. Also calculate the lengths of the two branches of the curve.
Given: R1 = 200 m, D = 18 m, L = 110 m
Solution
√

[√ ]

[√ ]

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The length of the first branch of the curve =

The length of the second branch of the curve =

Example 3:A reverse curve is to be set out between two parallel tangents10 m apart. The
distance between the tangent points measured parallel to the tangents is 80 m. If the radius of the
first branch is 150 m, calculate the radius of the second branch. Also calculate the lengths of the
two branches.

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Example 4: It is proposed to introduce a reverse curve between two straights AB and CD

intersecting at a point I with ∠CBI = 30° and ∠BCI = 120°. The reverse curve consists of two
circular arcs AX and XD, X lying on the common tangent BC. If BC = 791.71, the radius R AX =
750 m, and chainage of B is 1250 m, calculate
(i) The radius RXD,
(ii) The lengths of the reverse curve, and
(iii) The chainage of D.
Solution( fig. 2.18)

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Fig. 2.18

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3.7.5. Transition curves

Transition Curves are curves in which the radius changes from infinity to a particular value. The
effect of this is to gradually increase the radial force P from zero to its highest value & thereby
reduce its effect. For a Vehicle traveling from PC to PT, the force gradually increases from zero
to its maximum on the circular curve and then decreases to zero again. This greatly reduces the
tendency to skid & reduces the discomfort experienced by passengers in the vehicles. This is one
of the purposes of transition curves; by introducing the radial force gradually and uniformly and
uniformly they minimize passenger discomfort. If road do not provide transition curve vehicles
and passenger will expanse for shock or discomfort even it may expiries for overturning.
Because the centrifugal force acts out ward the edge of the road /rail but if transition length is
provided over turning and any other illness effect minimize.

Fig. 2 19: Transition curve

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3.7.5.1. Advantages of a transition curves
In generally transition curves have the following advantages:

 To reduce the chance of overturning.

 Minimize any discomfort.
 To gradually introduce super elevation or Make super elevation product.
 To make gradual change in direction from straight to circular curve and vice versa.
 To make gradual change of curvature introduced from curve to curve.

3.7.5.2. Requirements of a transition curves

A transition curves introduced between tangent and circular curve should fulfil the following
conditions:

1. It should be tangential to the straight.

2. It should meet the circular curve tangentially.
3. Its curvature should be zero (R = ∞) at the origin on tangent.
4. Its curvature should be equal to that of the circular curve at the junction with the circular
curve.
5. The rat of change of curvature from zero to the radius of the circular curve should be the
same as that of increase of cant or super elevation.
6. The length of the transition curve should be such that full cant or super elevation is
attained at the junction with the circular curve.
3.7.5.3. Super elevation or cant
When a vehicle moves on a curved path, a force known as the centrifugal force P acts upon it
horizontally through the center of gravity G of the vehicle in a direction away from the center of
the curve. This force is in addition to the weight W of the vehicle. The force P tends to push the
vehicle off the road or track. In order to balance this force, the outer edge of the road or outer rail
on railways is raised above the inner one.

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Fig.2.20: Super elevation

The difference h in top levels of outer and inner edges or rails is called super elevation or cant.
The amount of raising depends upon the radius of the curve and the average speed of the
vehicles. Centrifugal force P is given by

Where v = Speed of the vehicle (m/s)

R = Radius of the curve (m)
g = Acceleration due to gravity (g = 9.81 m/s2)
From the above eq. we have

Now,

Where, B = is the horizontal distance between the two edges of a highway or the gauge
of the railway track.

Maximum centrifugal ratio

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The ratio is known as centrifugal ratio. It increases as R decreases. To avoid excessive

inconvenience to slow-moving vehicles on curve. The maximum value of the centrifugal ratio is

generally kept as for highways and as for railways.

Maximum speed (v)

The maximum value of speed v for the vehicles to pass comfortably and safety over a curve of
radius R is given by,

For highways

For railways

Minimum Radius (R)

The minimum value of radius R of the curve for the given speed v so that the vehicles can pass
safety, is given by

For highways

For railways

3.7.5.4. Types of transition curves

There are mainly types of transition curves

1. Cubic spiral
2. Cubic parabola

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3. The lemniscate curve
The cubic spiral and cubic parabola are best suited on railways and the lemniscate curves on
highways.

3.7.5.5. Element of transition curve

Fig. 2.21: Element of transition curve

Pc = Point of curvature Pi = Point of intersection

PT= Point of tangency ∆ = Deflection angle
R = Radius of circular curve T= Tangent length
lt = Total length of curve lc = Length of circular curve
L = Length of transition curve Δs = Spiral angle
Lc = Length of long chord of the transition
S = a shift of vertical curve due to the introduction of transition curve
3.7.5.6. Formula for various element of transition curve
ERA recommends employing Euler spiral, which is also known as the clothoid, for calculation of
horizontal curve with transition. All the curves are designed using the following formulas.

1. Spiral angle (Δs)

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Δs = radians or Δs = degrees
2. Shift (S)

s=
3. Total tangent length
T = (R + S) tan +

4. Length of the transition curve

Where,α = maximum rate of change of radial acceleration

5. Central angle for the circular curve = Δ - 2Δs

6. Length of the circular curve

7. Total length of the combined curve (lt): total length of the transition curve and the
circular curve is given by

8. Length of long chord of the transition curve (Lc)

√

9. Chainages:
Chainage of T = chainage of PI – Tt

Chainage of D = chainage of T + L

Chainage of D’ = chainage of D + lc

Chainage of T’ = chainage of D’ + L or

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Chainage of T’ = chainage of T + 2L + lc

10. Deflection angles

a) For transition curve

b) For circular curve

The total deflection angles are,

Δ1 = 1

Δ2 = Δ1 + 2

Δn = Δn-1 + n

Example 2: two tangents intersect at a deflection angle= 35° at station I= 23+20. These tangents
are to be connected by two similar transition curves 75m long and a circular curve, R = 300 m.
Calculate stations TS, SC, CS and

3.8. Widening of Curves

As vehicle turns, the design vehicle occupies a greater width because the rear wheels generally
track inside front wheels (off tracking) in negotiating curves.

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 Drivers experience difficulty in steering their vehicles in the center of the lane.
 Total widening is computed by adding the mechanical widening and psychological
widening.

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3.9. Friction
When vehicles negotiate a circular curve, a sideways frictional force is developed between the
tyres and road surface. This inertial force must be balanced by centripetal forces derived from the
applied super elevation. The relationship between the radius, speed and frictional forces required
to keep the vehicle in its path are given by:

Where
R = the radius of curve (m)
V = the speed of vehicle (km/h)
e = the cross fall of road (per cent) (e is negative for adverse cross fall) and
f = the coefficient of side (radial) friction force developed between the tyres and road
pavement.
When vehicles brake while traversing a curve, both side and tangential frictional forces become
active. The portion of the side friction factor that can be used with comfort and safety is normally
determined as not more than half of the tangential coefficient of friction.
Table 4.16: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 8% Super elevation (Source: ERA)

Table 417: Minimum Radii for Horizontal Curves: 4% Super elevation (Source: ERA)

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3.10. Vertical Curve

A vertical curve provides a transition between two sloped roadways, allowing a vertical to
negotiate the elevation rate change at a gradual rate rather than a sharp cut. Vertical curve is a
parabolic curve drawn tangent to two intersecting grade lines to provide a smooth transition from
one grade to another. The curve in a vertical alignment which is produced when two different
gradients meet is known as vertical curves. It is provided to secure safety, appearance and
visibility. The design of the curve is dependent on the intended design speed for the roadway, as
well as other factors including drainage, slope, acceptable rate of change, and friction.

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Fig. 3.1: Vertical curves

3.10.1. Purposes of vertical curves
There are two general purposes of vertical curves:
1. To obtain adequate visibility or safe driving.

2. To secure comfort to the passengers.

3.10.2. Design criteria of vertical curve

1. Provide good fit with existing ground.
2. Balance cut and fill.
3. Maintain adequate drainage system.
4. Do not exceed maximum grades.
5. Meeting fixed elevations.
6. Fit the grade lines they connect to tangent.
7. Have sufficient lengths to meet specifications on maximum rate of change.
8. Provide good sight distance.

3.10.3. Types of vertical curves

Depending upon the shape of profile, a vertical curve may be classified as:

1. Crest or Summit curve

2. Sag or Valley curve

1. Crest or Summit curve

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Crest curve is the when two grades meet at the summit and the curve will have convexity
upwards. Crest vertical curves are curves that connect inclined sections of roadway, forming a
crest. Crest curves is one for which the algebraic difference is negative when calculated from
right to left.

Fig. 3.2: Crest curves

2. Sag or Valley curve
Sag curve is when two grades meet at the valley (sag) and the curve will have convexity
downwards. Sag vertical curves are curves that connect descending grades, forming a bowl or
sag. Sag curves is one for which the algebraic difference of the gradients is positive when
calculated from right to left.

Fig. 3.3: Sag curves

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Fig. 3.4: Crest and Sag vertical curves

3.10.4. Design of Vertical Summit Curve
Summit curves are those curves which have convexity upwards. They are formed under the four
following conditions:

1. When a positive gradient meets another mild positive gradient.

2. When a positive gradient meets a level zero gradient.
3. When a positive gradient meets with a negative gradient.
4. When a negative gradient meets another steeper negative gradient.

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3.10.5. Design of vertical valley curve
Valley (Sag) curves are those curves which have convexity downwards. They are formed under
the four following conditions:

1. When a negative gradient meets another mild negative gradient.

2. When a negative gradient meets a level zero gradient.
3. When a negative gradient meets with a positive gradient.
4. When a positive gradient meets another steeper positive gradient.

3.10.6. Types of vertical curves

Depending upon the length of profile, a vertical curve may be classified as:

1. Symmetrical vertical curve: A symmetrical vertical curve is one in which the horizontal
distance from the PVI to the PVC is equal to the horizontal distance from the PVI to the
PVT. In other words, L1 equal L2.

Fig. 3.5: Symmetrical vertical curve

2. Unsymmetrical vertical curve: An unsymmetrical vertical curve is a curve in which the
horizontal distance from the PVI to the PVC is different from the horizontal distance

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between the PVI to the PVT. In other words, L1 unequal L2. Unsymmetrical vertical
curve are sometimes described as having unequal tangents and referred as dog legs.

Fig. 3.6: Unsymmetrical vertical curve

3.10.7. Elements of vertical curves
1. PVC/BVC: Point of vertical curvature; the place where the curve begins.
2. PVI: Point of vertical intersection; where the grade tangents intersect.
3. PVT/EVC: Point of vertical tangency; where the curve ends.
4. POVC: Point on vertical curve; applies to any point on the parabola.
5. POVT: Point on vertical tangent; applies to any point on either tangent.
6. g1: Grade of the tangent on which the PVC is located; measured in percent of slope.
7. g2: Grade of the tangent on which the PVT is located; measured in percent of slope.
8. G: The algebraic difference of the grades: G = g2 –g1, where in plus values are assigned
to uphill grades and minus values to downhill grades.
9. L: Length of the curve; the horizontal length measured from the PVC to the PVT. This
length may be computed using the formula L = G/r, where r is the rate of change.
10. 11: Horizontal length of the portion of the PVC to the PVI.
11. 12: Horizontal length of the portion of the curve forms the PVI to the PVT.
12. e: Vertical (external) distance from the PVI to the curve. This distance is computed using
the formula e = LG/8, where L is the total length in stations and G is the algebraic
difference of the grades in percent.
13. x: Horizontal distance from the PVC to any POVC or POVT back of the PVI, or the
distance from the PVT to any POVC.

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14. y: Vertical distance (offset) from any POVT to the corresponding POVC.

Fig. 3.7: Elements of a vertical curve

3.10.8. High and Low points on Vertical Curves
The high or low point occurs where the curve changes direction vertically. This happens where
the curve tangent has a 0% grade. The locations of curve high and low points are important for
drainage and bridge considerations. Low Point defines location of catch basin for drainage.
High Point defines limits of drainage area for roadways. Also used to determine or set elevations
based on minimum clearance requirements.

3.10.9. Gradient or grade

The gradient may be defined as proportional rise or fall between two points along a straight line.
It may be expressed in either of the following two ways:

1. Percentage (%): The gradient expressed as a percentage is the vertical rise or fall in a
horizontal distance of 100 units. For example, a gradient of +3% means that the slope
rises by 3 m in every 100 m.
2. Ratio: The gradient expressed as a ratio is ratio of the vertical rise or fall over the
horizontal distances. For example, a gradient of 1 in 50 means that there is a rise of 1 m
in 50 m.
3.10.9.1. Rate of change of gradient

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The rate (r) of the change of gradient per chain length is equal to the algebraic difference of the
two gradients meeting at the apex divided by the length of the curve. Thus,

Where,
r = The rate of the change of gradient.
g1 = Percentage gradient before the intersection point.
g2 = Percentage gradient after the intersection point.
L = Length of the vertical curve in chains.
3.10.10. Setting out of vertical curves

The algebraic change in the slope direction is A, A = g2 – g1

The horizontal distance in feet (meters) needed to make 1% change in gradient.

L = Minimum length of the vertical curve

A = Algebraic difference in grade
K = Horizontal distance needed to produce a 1% change in gradient

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The geometric curve used in vertical alignment design is the vertical axis parabola. An important
requirement of vertical curves is that they should provide a constant rate of change of grade and
the parabola fulfils this requirement.

General equation of parabola with its axis vertical is,

y = ax2 + bx + c

The slope of this curve at any point is given by the first derivatives,

The rate of change of slope or grade is given by the second derivatives,

The rate of change of slope (2a) can also be written as, 2a =

3.10.11. Equations of symmetrical parabolic vertical curve

Let
X and Y be the coordinates of point p on the curve with respect to point A.
X = the vertical offset (m) from the vertex (PVI) to the middle of the curve.
Y = the vertical offset (m) from the tangent to any point on the curve.
Method I: Based on the rate of change of grade (r)

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( )

Where
x = the distance of a point on curve from PVC
g1 =the initial grade per station
EPC= elevation of point on curve
EPT= elevation on tangent.
EPVC= elevation of PVC
Method II: Based on the rule of offsets
The entire curve may be established by offsets from the initial tangent or the lst half may be
referred to the 1st& the 2nd half to the second tangent

Where
e = the offset from PVI to curve
y = offset from the tangent to the curve
Elevation on tangent (EPT) = EPVC +g1x
Elevation on Curve (EPC) = EPT + y
EPC = EPVC + g1x + y
2
x
EPC = EPVC + g1x + 4e  
L
Where x = the distance of a point on curve from PVC
L = the length of curve
g1 = the initial grade per station
EPC = elevation of point on curve
EPT = elevation on tangent.
EPVC = elevation of PVC
e = the offset from PVI to curve
3.10.12. Equation of Unsymmetrical Parabolic Vertical Curve

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It is possible that unsymmetrical (unequal tangent) curve will fit more closely certain imposed
requirements than the usual symmetrical (equal tangent) curve.
g 2  g1 g 2  g1
e= l2 l1 if l2 = l1 = ; e= L
2L 8

EPC = EPVC + g1x + 4e ( ) 2when l1 = l2

EPC1= EPVC + g1x + e ( ) 2for the left branch

EPC2 = EPVT -g2x2 + e ( ) 2for the right branch

Method I: Based on the rate of change in grade

Let
r1= rate of change of grade for the left
r2 = rate of change of grade for the left

 g  g1  l2  g  g1  l1
r1   2  , r2   2 
 L  l1  L  l2

I) For the left branch

EPC1 = EPVC + g1x1+ ( ) x 2

II. For the right branch

x22
EPC2 = EPVT - g2x2 + 2 e
l 2

4.10.13. Highest point of crest and lowest point of sag-curve

A. Equal tangent parabola

i. Position of turning point

rx 2
EPC = EPVC + g1x +
2
d
EPC=0+g1+rx=0
dx

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x=

ii. Elevation of turning point

r
EPC1= EPVC - g1x1+ x 2 m
2

Substituting the value of x from the above equation,

g12 L
EPCm  EPVC 
2  g 2  g1 

B. Unequal Tangent Parabola

i. Position of turning point
r1 x 21
EPCl = EPVC + g1x1+
2

d
EPC1  g1  x1 r1  0
dx

 For the left branch of the curve

If x1m>l1, the highest pt is on the left branch.

Similarly

 g 2 L  l2 
x 2m     for the right branch
 g 2  g1  l1 

ii. Elevation of turning point

g 12 L l1
EPCm1  EPVC   for the left
2( g 2  g1 ) l2
g 2 2 L l2
EPCM 2  EPVT   for the left
2( g 2  g1 ) l1

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3.11. Sight distance
Sight distance is the length of highway visible to a driver. A safe sight distance is the distance
needed by a driver on an arterial, or a driver exiting a driveway or street, to verify that the road is
clear and avoid conflicts with other vehicles. Sight lines must be kept free of objects which
might interfere with the ability of drivers to see other vehicles (see figure). Features such as hills,
curves in the road, vegetation, other landscaping, signs, and buildings can reduce sight distance.

3.11.1. Important of sight distance

Sight distance is critical to motorists in making decisions such as to stop, slow down, turn, enter
a traffic stream from a driveway or public road, or merge into traffic. Adequate sight distance
allows motorists the time they need to avoid crashes and conflicts. Adequate sight distance will
help keep roadways operating safely and smoothly.

3.11.2. Types of sight distance

Sight distance may be classified as:

1. Stopping Sight Distance (SSD): Measures the distance between a vehicle on the highway and
an object in the travel path. The stopping sight distance on a roadway must be sufficiently long to
enable a vehicle traveling at the design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its
path. The minimum stopping sight distance is determined from the following formula, which
takes into account both the driver reaction time and the distance required to stop the vehicle. The
formula is:

Where

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d = distance (meter)
t = driver reaction time, generally taken to be 2.5 seconds
V = initial speed (km/h)
f = coefficient of friction between tires and roadway (see Table 3-1)
Table 3-1: Sight Distances

Control of Sight Distance: Sight distances should be checked during design, and adjustments
made to meet the minimum requirements. The following values should be used for the
determination of sight lines (see Figures 3-8 and 3-9):

Driver's eye height: 1.07 meters

Object height for stopping sight distance: 0.15 meters
Object height for passing sight distance: 1.30 meters

Fig. 3.8: Stopping sight distance at sag

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Fig. 3.9: Stopping sight distance at crest

2. Passing Sight Distance (PSD): measures the length of the line of sight between a vehicle
entering the highway from a driveway or crossroad and vehicles on the highway approaching
from the right and left. Passing Sight Distance is the minimum sight distance on two-way single
roadway roads that must be available to enable the driver of one vehicle to pass another vehicle
safely without interfering with the speed of an oncoming vehicle traveling at the design speed.
Within the sight area the terrain should be the same level or a level lower than the roadway.
Otherwise, for horizontal curves, it may be necessary to remove obstructions and widen cuttings
on the insides of curves to obtain the required sight distance. Care must be exercised in
specifying passing/no-passing zones in areas where the sight distance may be obscured in the
future due to vegetative growth. The passing sight distance is generally determined by a formula
with four components, as follows:

d1 = initial maneuver distance, including a time for perception and reaction

d2 = distance during which passing vehicle is in the opposing lane
d3 = clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver
d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle
The formulae for these components are as indicated below:

Where

t1= time of initial maneuver, s

a = average acceleration, km/h/s

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v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
m = difference in speed of passed vehicle and passing vehicle, km/h

Where
1. t2 = time passing vehicle occupies left lane, s
2. v = average speed of passing vehicle, km/h
3. d3 = safe clearance distance between vehicles at the end of the maneuver, is dependenton
ambient speeds as per Table 3-2:
Table 3-2: Clearance Distance (d3) vs. Ambient Speeds

d4 = distance traversed by the opposing vehicle, which is approximately equal to d2 less the
portion of d2 whereby the passing vehicle is entering the left lane, estimated at:

The minimum Passing Sight Distance (PSD) for design is therefore:

3.11.3. Minimum length of a crest and sag vertical curve

1. Minimum length of a crest vertical curve: Minimum length of a crest vertical curve needs to
satisfy the safety, comfort, and appearance criteria. General equation for the length of a crest
vertical curve in terms of algebraic difference in grades.

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2. Minimum length of a sag vertical curve: A design of a sag vertical curve needs to satisfy at
least four difference criteria.

 Head light sight distance

 Passenger comfort

 Drainage control

 General appearance

General equation for the length of a sag vertical curve in terms of algebraic difference in grades.

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Where
L: length of sag vertical cure
S: light beam distance
A: algebraic difference in grades

ᵦ: angle of light beam intersects the surface of the roadway, degree (assumed 1o)
h1: head light height, (assumed 2ft)
Example 1: Vertical curve has an upgrade of 2.5% followed by a downgrade 0.5%. The
recommended rate of change of grade is 0.15% per chain of 20 m. Calculate the length of the
vertical curve.
Given Required
g1 = 2.5% L =?
g2 = -0.5%
r = 0.15% per chain of 20 m.
Solution

Example 2: An engineer is assigned to design a vertical curve for a highway with the design
speed is 70 mph. knowing that the gradients are 3% uphill and -2% downhill. What is the
minimum design length of the vertical curve?

Given Required
g1 = 3% L =?
g2 = -2%

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For 70mph K = 247 using exhibit 3-71 (page 271 of AASHTO)
Solution
A = g2 – g1L = K * A
A = -2 -3 = -5
L = 247 * 5 = 1235 ft.

Example 3: A vertical curve is to connect two tangents that intersect at station 5+000 and
elevation 500m. The back tangent gradient is -4 percent, the forward tangent gradient is 2
percent. The length of the length of the curve is 160m. Setup a table that shows elevations at
PVC, PVT and at full stations along the curve. The Vertical curve is symmetrical parabolic
curve.

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Solution
Station of PVI = 5+000
-L/2 = -0+080
_____________________
PVC = 4+920
+ L = 0+ 160
_____________________
PVT = 5+080

Elevation of PVC = EPVI g1L/2

4 160
=5000 + *
100 2
= 500 +3.2
= 503.20m

Elevation On tangent
EPT = EPVC + g1x
Elevation on curve = Elevation on tangent + y
EPC = EPT +y
2
x
= EPVC + g1 x + 4e  
L
at x= 20m, (at full station = 4+ 940)

 4 
2
 20 
EPC= 503. 20 +    20   4e  
 100   160 

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24
 160 
 800 
g 2  g1
but e L  6 *160  1.2
8 800
 2 4 
160 EPC20  503.20  80  4 1.2   2 
2
 
 100 100  100  16 
8  503.20  0.80  0.075
 502.475m
2
x
EPc40  EPVC  g1 x  4e  
L
4e
is cons tan t for acurve
L2
4 *1.2
 1.875 *104
160 
2

4
EPC40  503.20  * 40  1.875 *10 4  40 
2

100
 501.90m
4
EPC60  503.20  * 60  1.875 *10 4  60 
2

100
 501.475m
4
EPC80  503.20  *80   80 
2

100
 501.20m
EPC100  501.075
EPC120  501.100
EPC140  501.275
EPC160  501.600

EPT
Station X in m Offset Y EPC Remark
(EPVC+g1x)
4+920 0 503.20 0 503 PVC
+940 20 502.40 +0.075 502.475
+960 40 501.60 +0.30 501.90
+980 60 500.80 +0.675 501.475
5+000 80 500.00 +1.20 501.20
+020 100 4.99.20 +1.875 501.075
+040 120 498.40 +2.70 501.100
+060 140 497.60 +3.675 501.275
+080 160 496.80 +4.80 501.600 PVT

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Example 4: A 5% grade meets a -2% grade at station 1+810 and elevation 1125.00m the
tangents are unequal l1=80m,l2=120m. Compute the elevations at each full station on the curve.

Solution

g1= 5% station PVI = 1+810

g2= -2% -l1 = 0+080

PVI=1+810 ______________

EPVI= 1125 PVC = 1+730

L1=80 + L = 0 + 200

L2= 120 ______________

EPVC = EPVI - g1l1 = 115 - (0.05*80)= 111m

EPVT = 115 - g2l2=115-(0.02*120)= 112.60 m

 g  g1  l1l2  0.02  0.05  80 *120 
e 2    
 L  2  200  2 

 1.68
x 
EPC1  EPVC  g1 X 1   1  e 2
 l1 
2
X 
 111  0.05 X 1   1   1.68   For the left
 80 
2
x 
EPC2  EPVT  g 2 X 2   2  e
 l2 
2
X 
EPC2  112.60   0.02  X 2    2   1.68  For the right
 120 

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Station Xm Elevation on curve Remark
1+730 0 111.000 PVC
+740 10 111.474
+760 30 112.264
+780 50 112.844
+800 70 113.214
+810 80,120 113.32
+820 110 113.388 PVI
+840 90 113.455
+860 70 113.428
+880 50 113.308
+900 30 113.095
+920 10 112.788
PVT1+930 0 112.600 PVT

Example 5: The grade of the back tangent is 3.4%, the grade of the forward tangent is -4.8%,
and the curve length 90 m. Compute the station and elevation of the curve turning point.
EPVC=1087m

  g1 L  0.034 * 90
xm      37.317m
 2
g  g1  0.048  0.034
g12 L
EPCm  EPVC 
2  g 2  g1 

 
2
3.4
100
EPVC  1037  * 90
2  0.048  0.034 
 1087  0.634m  1087.634

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Example 7: A -2.5% grade is connected to a +1.0% grade by means of a 180 m vertical curve.
The P.I. station is 100 + 00 and P.I. elevation is 100.0 m above sea level. What are the station
and elevation of the lowest point on the vertical curve?

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Example 8: Determine the minimum length of a crest vertical curve between a +0.5% grade and
a -1.0% grade for a road with a 100 km/h design speed. The vertical curve must provide 190 m
stopping sight distance and meet the California appearance criteria. Round up to the greatest 20
m interval.

Example 9: Determine the minimum length of a sag vertical curve between a -0.7% grade and a
+0.5% grade for a road with a 110 km/h design speed. The vertical curve must provide 220 m
stopping sight distance and meet the California appearance criteria and the AASHTO comfort
standard. Round up to the next 20 m interval.

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CHAPTER FOUR

EARTHWORK COMPUTATIONS

Introduction
The term earthwork includes all clearing, grubbing, roadway and drainage excavation,
excavation for structures, embankments, borrow, overhaul, machine grading, subgrade
scarifying, rock fill, and all the operations of preparing the subgrade foundation for highway or
runway pavement. The quantity and cost of earthwork are calculated in terms of cubic meters of
excavation in its original position on the basis of cross-section notes from field measurements.
Modern grading operations are carried on by power equipment including power shovels,
scrapers, bulldozers, blade graders, rollers, dragline excavators, motor trucks, tractors, etc.
4.1 Classification of Excavated Material
Excavated material is usually classified as (1) common excavation, (2) loose rock, or (3) solid
rock. Common excavation is largely earth, or earth with detached boulders less than ½ cu yd.
Loose rock usually refers to rock which can be removed with pick and bar, although the use of
power shovels or blasting may be advantageous. Solid rock comprises hard rock in place and
boulders that can be removed only by the use of drilling and blasting equipment.
Shrinkage and Swell Factors
When earth is excavated and hauled to form an embankment, the freshly excavated material
generally increases in volume. However, during the process of building the embankment it is
compacted, so that the final volume is less than when in its original condition. This difference in
volume is usually defined as “shrinkage”. In estimating earthwork quantities, it is necessary to
make allowance for this factor. The amount of shrinkage varies with the soil type and the depth
of the fill. An allowance of 10 to 15 percent is frequently made for high fills and 20 to 25 percent
for shallow fills. The shrinkage may be as high as 40 or 50 percent for some soils. This generally
also allows for shrinkage due to loss of material in the hauling process. When rock is excavated
and placed in the embankment, the material will occupy a larger volume. This increase is called
“swell” and may amount to 30 percent or more.
Percent shrinkage = (1 – (wt. bank measure / wt. compacted)) *100
% sh. = ( 1 – (γB / γC) ) * 100 …………………………………………..(1)

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Percent swell = ( (wt. bank measure / wt. loose measure) – 1 ) * 100
% sw. = ((γB / γL ) - 1 ) * 100 …………………………………………..(2)
Cross-Sections and Templates

In order to determine earth excavation and embankment requirements by manual means, a

section outline of the proposed highway, commonly referred to as a template section, is placed
on the original ground cross-section; the areas in cut and the areas in fill are determined; and the
volumes between the sections are computed. Figure 4.1 shows various conditions that may be
encountered when plotting these template sections. “Cut” and “fill” are the terms that are usually
used for the areas of the sections, and the terms “excavation” and “embankment” generally refer
to volumes.

Each cross-section should

show the location or station of
the original ground section
and template section, the
elevation of the proposed grade
at the station, and the areas of
cut and fill for each section.
The computed volume of
excavation and embankment
may also be placed on the
cross-section sheet between
two successive cross-sections.
Figure 4.1 Original ground line and template
sections
Slope Stakes
The final grade line having been established, slope stakes are set at points where the side slopes
of the graded road will intersect the ground surface; they mark the limits of the excavation and
embankment. The slope stakes are driven at points of zero cut or fill, but the numbers written on
them give the vertical distance with reference to the finished grade of the subgrade. On the inner
side of the stakes is marked in meters the “cut” or “fill” as the case may be. Thus, “C1.2”
indicates that the centerline elevation of the roadbed is to be cut 1.2m below the ground at the
slope stake; and “F2.3” indicates that the fill is to be 2.3m above the slope stake.
The stakes are driven with the tops slanting outward and with the sides upon which the cuts or
fills are marked facing the roadway. The station number is marked on the outside of the stake.
The usual equipment for setting slopes consists of a level, rod, tape, notebook, stakes, and keel.

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If a profile map has been established from previous surveys and the final grade line drawn there
on, the centerline cut or fill may be found from the map by subtracting the elevation of grade
from the elevation of ground.
Also, if a cross-section of the ground and finished shape of roadway have been plotted to scale,
the position of the slope stakes could be scaled from the map.
Aside from the elevation of grade, the most satisfactory procedure is to determine all distances
and elevations in the field. The method must necessarily be a “ measure and try” process, but the
work can be done rather easily.
General Method of Procedure: Let ABEPD in Figs. 4.2 and 4.3 represent the cross-sectional
area of highway in fill or cut, for which we have the following general notation applying to both
excavation and embankment:
b = AB = AC + CB = width of roadbed
s = “slope ratio” for the banks AD and BE = ratio of horizontal to vertical (plus for cut,
minus for fill)
d = PC = depth of fill or cut at the center
x1 = horizontal distance from P to slope stake at D
x2 = horizontal distance from P to slope stake at E
y = vertical distance from P to slope stake
h1 = d + y1 = FD = vertical distance from C to D
h2 = d + y2 = GE = vertical distance from C to E

Figure 4.2 Cross section on fill (slope

stakes at E and D)

Figure 4.3 Cross section in cut (slope

stakes at E and D)

The slope stake at point D on the right is correctly established if

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x1 = ½ b + sh1 = ½ b + sd + sy1 ……………………………………..(3)
Likewise, point E on the left is correctly established if
x2= ½ b + sh2 = ½ b + sd + sy2 ……………………………………...(4)
In the foregoing equations, b, d, and s are known, while x and h (or y) are measured and re-
measured in the field until the equations are satisfied (trial-and-error method).
If the ground is level, y1 = y2 = 0; then x1 = x2 = ½ b + sd.
In figure 4.3 it is assumed that rod readings to all points within the cross profile under
consideration can be taken from a single position of the level (which of course is not always
possible). By means of previous differential leveling from the nearest benchmark, the HI (height
of instrument or elevation of line HJK) is established.
If we imagine the bottom of the road to be at grade at point C, the rod reading would be CJ,
which is called “grade rod”. That is
Grade rod = HI – grade elevation
Negative values of grade rod would occur when the HI is below “grade”.
Since the actual reading at the centerline stake (fig. 4.3) is PJ (not CJ), the depth of cut is CP =
CJ – PJ; that is,
d = grade rod – ground rod

Negative values of d indicate fill.

Similarly at the slope stake D,
FD = FK – DK
That is, h1 (or h2) = grade rod – ground rod
Negative values of h indicate fill.
The values of x1 and h1 (or x2 and h2) corresponding to the intersection of two slopes are found
easily after two or three field measurements.
Area of Cross-Section
From the data supplied by slope stake or cross-section notes, the area of cross-section may be
calculated. If the ground is level or regular, simple geometry may be applied; for irregular
ground, two general methods are used; (1) the coordinate graphical method (2) trapezoidal rule
and (3) Simpson’s rule

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 Area by Coordinate Method. With the coordinates of all the corners of a cross-section
known, the end area may be computed by means of the coordinate method.
Let the corners A, B, C, and D of the area ABCD (fig. 4.7) be located by the coordinates
(x1,y1), (x2,y2), (x3,y3), and (x4,y4). Then the area is given by the algebraic sum of four
trapezoids. Thus,
Area = ABba + BCcb – ADda - DCcd
=1/2 [y1(x4 – x2) + y2(x1 - x3) + y3(x2 – x4) + y4(x3 – x1)] …………….(8)

From eqn.(8) we may state the

following rule for area:

Multiply each ordinate by the algebraic

difference between the adjacent abscissas,
find the algebraic sum of the products,
and then take half of this result.

Figure 4.7 Area by coordinate method

A simpler rule for area follows if we arrange in counterclockwise order the coordinates
(fig. 4.7) in the form of fractions, the initial fraction (beginning at any corner) being
repeated to give a closed boundary. Thus, we have

Multiply along the marked diagonals and add the products (all positive); multiply along
the unmarked diagonals and add the products (all negative). The difference gives the
double area.

 Area by Trapezoidal rule. Assumes that if the uniform interval (b) between the offsets
is small, the boundary can be approximated to straight line between the offsets.

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A1 = ½(h1+h2)*b

A2 = ½(h2+h3)*b

A= b/2[h1+hn+2(h2+h3+……+hn-1)]

 Area by Simpson’s rule. Assumes that instead of being made up of a series of straight
lines the boundary consists of series of parabolic arcs.

A1+A2 = b/3(h1+4h2+h3)
A2+A4 = b/3(h3+4h4+h5)

A= b/3[h1+hn+2(h3+h5+…..+hn-2) +4(h2+h4+….
+hn-1)]… where n is odd number.

4.2 Volume of Earthwork

The volume of earthwork may be found by means of either the average end area or the
prismoidal formula. Although the former is less exact than the latter, it is generally accepted as
the standard earthwork formula, on account of its simplicity.
 Average End Area Formula. The volume of a right prism equals the average area
multiplied by the length. Assuming the average area to be the same as the average end
area,
Volume = V = ½ (A1 + A2)L
In which: A1 and A2 = area of end sections (m2)
L = length of solid (m)
This formula is applied to areas of any shape, but the results are slightly too large. The
error is small if the sections do not change rapidly.
 Prismoidal Formula. A prismoid is a solid whose ends are parallel and whose sides are
plane or wrapped surfaces. Fig. 4.8 represents a typical prismoid.

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Figure 4.8

The volume of a prismoid is:

V = L/6 (A1 + 4Am + A2)

In which L is the distance between the two parallel bases A1 and A2 and Am is a section midway
between the two end bases and parallel to them. Am is not an average of A1 and A2, but each of
its linear dimensions is an average of the corresponding dimensions of A1 and A2.
4.3 Haul and Overhaul
In grading contracts for roads it is usually stipulated that the contractor shall be paid a certain
price per cubic meter for excavating, hauling, and dumping the material, regardless of distance
hauled, provided it does not exceed a specified limit called free haul. The free haul distance may
be as low as 150m and as high as 900m or more.
If there is an overhaul on some of the material, that is, if the distance from excavation to
embankment is beyond the free haul limit, then an extra charge may be allowed.
A mass diagram is helpful in determining the amount of overhaul and the most economical
distribution of the excavated material.
Limit of Economic Haul
When there are long hauls, it may be more economical to waste and borrow materials rather than
pay for the cost of overhauling. Equating the cost of excavation plus overhaul to the cost of
excavation from both the roadway and borrow pit, one can estimate the limit of economic haul
for making the embankment. Thus, let
c = cost of roadway excavation per cubic meter
b = cost of borrow per cubic meter
h = cost of overhaul, on the bases of 1m3 per station
x = economical length of overhaul
Cost to excavate and move 1m3 material from cut to fill

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= c + hx …………………………………………….(a)
Cost to excavate from cut, waste, borrow, and place 1m3 material in fill

=b+c ……….….………………………………..(b)
Equating equations (a) and (b) and solving for x, we have

x = b/h (s + a) …………………………………..(c)
Adding the free haul distance to equation (c), we get the limit of economical haul.
Mass Diagram
A mass diagram is a graphical representation of the amount of earthwork and embankment
involved in a project and the manner in which the earth is to be moved. Its horizontal or x-axis
represents distance and is usually expressed in meters or stations. It is drawn to the same
horizontal scale as the profile. The vertical or y-axis represents the cumulative quantity of
earthwork in cubic meters. The quantity of excavation on the mass diagram is considered
positive, and embankment as negative. Preliminary to drawing the mass curve it is convenient to
tabulate the cumulative volumes of cuts and fills at each station.
The mass diagram allows a highway engineer to determine direction of haul and the quantity of
earth taken from or hauled to any location. It shows “balance points”, the stations between which
the volume of excavation (after adjustment for “shrinkage” or “swell”) and embankment are
equal.

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Figure 4.9 Profile and mass diagram. AC = free-haul distance; HJ – AC = overhaul distance; BB
= free-haul volume; A’A = C’C = overhaul volume; OD = length of balance.
A study of the mass diagram (or curve) shown in figure 4.9 will verify the following statements:
 The ordinate at any point on the mass curve represents the cumulative volume to that point
on the profile.
 Within the limits of a single cut, the curve rises from left to right; within the limits of a single
fill, it falls from left to right.
 Sections where the volume changes from cut to fill correspond to a maximum; sections
where the volume changes from fill to cut correspond to a minimum. Evidently the maximum
and minimum points on the diagram occur at, or near, grade points on the profile.
 Any horizontal line, as AC, cutting off a loop of the mass curve, intersects the curve at two
points between which the cut is equal to the fill (adjusted for shrinkage). Such a line is
called a balance line.
 The loops convex upward indicate that the haul from cut to fill is to be in one direction (to
the right in this case); loops concave upward indicate a reverse direction of haul.
 The final point on a mass diagram for a given project gives the overall net amount of
earthwork for the entire project. This amount, if positive, would indicate a surplus of
excavation material and a need to waste that quantity of material. If the final point on the
mass diagram is a negative amount, it indicates a net shortage of earthwork for the project
and a need to borrow that quantity of earthwork material.
Determination of Overhaul from the Mass Diagram: One of the important uses of the mass
diagram, aside from balancing cuts and fills and indicating the most advantageous distribution of
the same, is to establish definitely the overhaul distance and the portion of the total volume
which is to be regarded as hauled beyond the specified free-haul limit.
Referring to figure 4.9, proceed as follows:
i. Assuming the free-haul distance to be 150m, find by trial a horizontal line intersecting
the curve at points A and C, such that AC = 150m. Then the material above line AC will
be hauled at no extra cost. The amount of this material is given by the ordinate from line
AC to point B and is a measure of the volume in cut from a to b, which makes the fill
from b to c.

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ii. Consider now the volume above the balance line OD. A study of the mass curve and the
corresponding profile shows that the cut from o to b will make the fill from b to d. But
since part of this solidity, the part above the balance line AC, is included in the free-haul
limit, the other part between lines OD and AC – which is measured by the ordinate A’A –
is subject to overhaul unless wastage and borrow take place. That is, some or all of the
volume from o to a may be “overhauled” to make the fill from c to d.
The average length of haul of the solidity from o to a to make the fill from c to d is the distance
between the centers of gravity of cut o to a and fill c to d. The gravity lines are found as follows:
Bisect AA’ at M and draw a horizontal line intersecting the mass curve at H and J. These points
H and J are assumed to be vertically below the desired centers of gravity. Therefore the average
haul is given by the length of line HJ, and the overhaul is this distance HJ less the free haul
distance AC. The overhaul distance (in stations) multiplied by the net volume gives the station-
volumes of overhaul.
It should be note that the foregoing graphical method of determining the center of gravity of the
masses in cut and fill is inaccurate when there is abruptness in the mass curve. In such cases, a
more accurate method is to divide the volume in parts and take moments about a vertical line of
reference just as is done in finding the center of gravity of a system of forces.
The mass diagram may be used to indicate the most economical procedure for disposing of
excavated material, what part of it should be moved forward or backward, and whether
borrowing and wasting are advisable. Thus if the balance line OD is continued horizontally to
point X, it will be seen that the cuts and fills from o to f are balanced, but the solidity represented
by the ordinate at G is excess cut (from f to g) which may be carried forward, backward, or
wasted. If the project ends at point g or if there are no fills immediately ahead, then this
excavated material should be carried backward to help make the fill from b to c (it being
downhill and within the free-haul limit), while an equivalent amount of volume from the cut o to
a would be wasted, thus reducing the station-volume of overhaul.

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CHAPTER FIVE
HIGHWAY DRAINAGE

Introduction
Provision of sufficient drainage is an important factor in the location and geometric design of
highways. Drainage facilities on any highway or street should adequately provide for the flow of
water away from the surface of the pavement to properly designed channels. Inadequate drainage
will eventually result in serious damage to the highway structure. In addition, traffic may be
slowed by accumulated water on the pavement, and accidents may occur as a result of
hydroplaning and loss of visibility from splash and spray. The highway engineer is concerned
primarily with two sources of water. The first, surface water is that which occurs as rain or snow.
Some of this is absorbed into the soil, and the remainder remains on the surface of the ground
and should be removed from the highway pavement. Drainage for this source of water is referred
to as surface drainage. The second source, ground water, is that which flows in underground
streams. This may become important in highway cuts or at locations where a high water table
exists near the pavement structure. Drainage for this source is referred to as subsurface drainage.
Requirements of highway drainage system:
 Surface water from carriageway and shoulder should effectively be drained;

 Surface water from adjoining land should be prevented from entering the roadway;

 Flow of surface water across the road and shoulders and along slopes shouldn’t cause
formation of cross ruts or erosion;

 Seepage and other sources of underground water should be drained off by the subsurface
drainage system;

 In water logged areas special precautions should be taken.

Factors to be considered in drainage design

 Size of the area to be drained;

 Expected maximum rainfall;

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 Slope of the surrounding terrain / possible rate of runoff;

 Characteristics of the soil (incl.: permeability, tendency to erode);

 Presence of springs or other underground water;

 General elevation of the ground water level;

 Minimum depth of cover required to protect pipes from traffic loads.

In this chapter, we present the fundamental design principles for surface and subsurface drainage
facilities.
5.1 Surface drainage
Surface drainage encompasses all means by which surface water is removed from the pavement
and right of way of the highway or street. A properly designed highway surface drainage system
should effectively intercept all surface and watershed runoff and direct this water into adequately
designed channels and gutters for eventual discharge into the natural waterways. Water seeping
through cracks in the highway riding surface and shoulder areas into underlying layers of the
pavement may result in serious damage to the highway pavement. The major source of water for
this type of intrusion is surface runoff. An adequately designed surface drainage system will
therefore minimize this type of damage. The surface drainage system for rural highways should
include sufficient transverse and longitudinal slopes on both the pavement and shoulder to ensure
positive runoff and longitudinal channels (ditches), culverts, and bridges to provide for the
discharge of the surface water to the natural waterways. Storm drains and inlets are also provided
on the median of divided highways in rural areas. In urban areas, the surface drainage system
also includes enough longitudinal and transverse slopes, but the longitudinal drains are usually
underground pipe drains designed to carry both surface runoff and ground water. Curbs and
gutters also may be used in urban and rural areas to control street runoff, although they are more
frequently used in urban areas.
Transverse Slopes
The main objective for providing slopes in the transverse direction is to facilitate the removal of
surface water from the pavement surface in the shortest possible time. This is achieved by
crowning the surface at the center of the pavement, thereby providing cross slopes on either side
of the centerline or providing a slope in one direction across the pavement width. . Shoulders,

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however, are usually sloped to drain away from the pavement, except on highways with raised
narrow medians. The need for high cross slopes to facilitate drainage is somewhat in conflict
with the need for relatively flat cross slopes for driver comfort. Selection of a suitable cross slope
is therefore usually a compromise between the two requirements. It has been determined that
cross slopes of 2 percent or less do not significantly affect driver comfort, particularly with
respect to the driver’s effort in steering
Longitudinal Slopes
A minimum gradient in the longitudinal direction of the highway is required to obtain adequate
slope in the longitudinal channels, particularly at cut sections. Slopes in longitudinal channels
should generally not be less than 0.2 percent for highways in very flat terrain. Although zero
percent grades may be used on uncurbed pavements with adequate cross slopes, a minimum of
0.5 percent is recommended for curbed pavements. This may be reduced to 0.3 percent on
suitably crowned high-type pavements constructed on firm ground.
Longitudinal Channels
Longitudinal channels (ditches) are constructed along the sides of the highway to collect the
surface water that runs off from the pavement surface, subsurface drains, and other areas of the
highway right of way. When the highway pavement is located at a lower level than the adjacent
ground, such as in cuts, water is prevented from flowing onto the pavement by constructing a
longitudinal drain (intercepting drain) at the top of the cut to intercept the water. The water
collected by the longitudinal ditches is then transported to a drainage channel and next to a
natural waterway or retention pond.
Curbs and Gutters
Curbs and gutters can be used to control drainage in addition to other functions, which include
preventing the encroachment of vehicles on adjacent areas and delineating pavement edges.
Curbs and gutters are used more frequently in urban areas, particularly in residential areas, where
they are used in conjunction with storm sewer systems to control street runoff. When it is
necessary to provide relatively long continuous sections of curbs in urban areas, the inlets to the
storm sewers must be adequately designed for both size and spacing so that the impounding of
large amounts of water on the pavement surface is prevented.

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Determination of Runoffs
The amount of runoff for any combination of intensity and duration depends on the type of
surface. For example, runoff will be much higher on rocky or bare impervious slopes, roofs, and
pavements than on plowed land or heavy forest. The highway engineer is therefore interested in
determining the proportion of rainfall that remains as runoff. This determination is not easy,
since the runoff rate for any given area during a single rainfall is not usually constant. Several
methods for estimating runoff are available. Two commonly used methods are presented.
Rational Method
The rational method is based on the premise that the rate of runoff for any storm depends on the
average storm intensity, the size of the drainage area, and the type of drainage area surface. Note
that for any given storm, the rainfall intensity is not usually constant over a large area, nor during
the entire storm’s duration. The rational formula therefore uses the theory that, for a rainfall of
average intensity (I) falling over an impervious area of size (A), the maximum rate of runoff at
the outlet to the drainage area (Q) occurs when the whole drainage area is contributing to the
runoff and this runoff rate is constant. This requires that the storm duration be at least equal to
the time of concentration, which is the time required for the runoff to flow from the farthest point
of the drainage area to the outlet. This condition is not always satisfied in practice, particularly in
large drainage areas. It is therefore customary for the rational formula to be used for relatively
small drainage areas not greater than 200 acres. The rational formula is given as:

Q  0.278  CIA
Qd = 2Q
C1 A1  C 2 A2  
C
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• Q= runoff (m3/sec)
• C=coefficient, representing ratio of runoff to rainfall
• I= intensity of rainfall (mm/hr) for a duration equal to the time of concentration

A= catchment area tributary to the design location (km2) [If A is in ha, 1 ha = 100 km2]
Rainfall Intensity
Runoff is obtained by considering expected sever storm.
 Return period of 5, 10, 20, 25, 50, and 100 years
• Quantity of runoff depends on intensity and duration.
• Duration= Time of Concentration
 The time required for water from the remotest place to reach a specific point on the drainage
system.
 =T1+T2
• T1= over land flow time
• T2= time of flow in the longitudinal drain

Figure 5.1 Intensity duration frequency diagram for region A1 and A4

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Design of Open Channels

An important design consideration is that the flow velocity in the channel should not be so low
as to cause deposits of transported material nor so high as to cause erosion of the channel. The
velocity that will satisfy this condition usually depends on the shape and size of the channel, the
type of lining in the channel, the quantity of water being transported, and the type of material
suspended in the water. The most appropriate channel gradient range to produce the required
velocity is between 1 percent and 5 percent. For most types of linings, sedimentation is usually a
problem when slopes are less than 1 percent, and excessive erosion of the lining will occur when
slopes are higher than 5 percent.
Attention also should be paid to the point at which the channel discharges into the natural
waterway. For example, if the drainage channel at the point of discharge is at a much higher
elevation than the natural waterway, then the water should be discharged through a spillway or
chute to prevent erosion.
Design Principles
The hydraulic design of a drainage ditch for a given storm entails the determination of the
minimum cross-sectional area of the ditch that will accommodate the flow due to that storm and
prevent water from overflowing the sides of the ditch. The most commonly used formula for this
purpose is Manning’s formula, which assumes uniform steady flow in the channel and gives the
mean velocity in the channel as

1 2 / 3 1/ 2 Q V  A
V  R S
n
where:
• V= mean velocity (m/sec)
• R= hydraulic radius (m)= Area/wetted perimeter
• S=slope of the channel (m/m)
• n=Manning’s roughness coefficient

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Figure Trapezoidal channel capacity charts

Figure: Design chart for open channel ditch

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5.2 Subsurface Drainage

Subsurface drainage systems are provided within the pavement structure to drain water in one or
more of the following forms: Water that has permeated through cracks and joints in the
pavement to the underlying strata or water that has moved upward through the underlying soil
strata as a result of capillary action. Generally water that exists in the natural ground below the
water table, usually referred to as ground water.
The subsurface drainage system must be an integral part of the total drainage system, since the
subsurface drains must operate in consonance with the surface drainage system to obtain an
efficient overall drainage system.
The design of subsurface drainage should be carried out as an integral part of the complete
design of the highway, since inadequate subsurface drainage also may have detrimental effects
on the stability of slopes and pavement performance. However, certain design elements of the
highway such as geometry and material properties are required for the design of the sub-drainage
system. Thus, the procedure usually adopted for sub-drainage design is first to determine the
geometric and structural requirements of the highway based on standard design practice, and
then to subject these to a subsurface drainage analysis to determine the sub-drainage
requirements. In some cases, the sub-drainage requirements determined from this analysis will
require some changes in the original design. It is extremely difficult, if not impossible; to
develop standard solutions for solving sub-drainage problems because of the many different
situations that engineer come across in practice. Therefore, basic methods of analysis are given
that can be used as tools to identify solutions for sub-drainage problems. The experience gained
from field and laboratory observations for a particular location, coupled with good engineering
judgment, should always be used in conjunction with the design tools provided. Before
presenting the design tools, discussions of the effects on the highway of an inadequate sub
drainage system and the different sub drainage systems are first presented.
Effect of Inadequate Sub-drainage
Inadequate sub-drainage on a highway will result in the accumulation of uncontrolled subsurface
water within the pavement structure and/or right of way, which can result in poor performance of
the highway or outright failure of sections of the highway. The effects of inadequate sub-
drainage fall into two classes: poor pavement performance and instability of slopes.
Pavement Performance

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If the pavement structure and subgrade are saturated with underground water, the pavement’s
ability to resist traffic load is considerably reduced, resulting in one or more of several problems,
which can lead to premature destruction of the pavement if remedial actions are not taken in
time. In Portland cement concrete pavement, for example, inadequate sub-drainage can result in
excessive repeated deflections of the pavement, which will eventually lead to cracking. When
asphaltic concrete pavements are subjected to excessive uncontrolled subsurface water due to
inadequate sub-drainage, very high pore pressures are developed within the untreated base and
sub-base layers, resulting in a reduction of the pavement strength and thereby its ability to resist
traffic load. Another common effect of poor pavement performance due to inadequate sub-
drainage is frost action. As described later, this phenomenon requires that the base and/or sub-
base material be a frost-susceptible soil and that an adequate amount of subsurface water is
present in the pavement structure. Under these conditions, during the active freezing period,
subsurface water will move upward by capillary action toward the freezing zone and
subsequently freeze to form lenses of ice. Continuous growth of the ice lenses due to the
capillary action of the subsurface water can result in considerable heaving of the overlying
pavement. This eventually leads to serious pavement damage, particularly if differential frost
heaving occurs. Frost action also has a detrimental effect on pavement performance during the
spring thaw period. During this period, the ice lenses formed during the active freeze period
gradually thaw from the top down, resulting in the saturation of the subgrade soil, which results
in a substantial reduction of pavement strength.
Slope Stability
The presence of subsurface water in an embankment or cut can cause an increase of the stress to
be resisted and a reduction of the shear strength of the soil forming the embankment or cut. This
can lead to a condition where the stress to be resisted is greater than the strength of the soil,
resulting in sections of the slope crumbling down or a complete failure of the slope.
Highway Sub-drainage Systems
Subsurface drainage systems are usually classified into five general categories:
• Longitudinal drains
• Transverse drains
• Horizontal drains
• Drainage blankets

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• Well systems
Longitudinal Drains
Subsurface longitudinal drains usually consist of pipes laid in trenches within the pavement
structure and parallel to the center line of the highway. These drains can be used to lower the
water table below the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 16.29, or to remove any water that
is seeping into the pavement structure, as shown in Figure 16.30. In some cases, when the water
table is very high and the highway is very wide, it may be necessary to use more than two rows
of longitudinal drains to achieve the required reduction of the water table below the pavement
structure.

Figure 5.6 Longitudinal drains

Transverse Drains
Transverse drains are placed below the pavement, usually in a direction perpendicular to the
center line, although they may be skewed to form a herringbone configuration. An example of
the use of transverse drains is shown in Figure 16.32 where they are used to drain ground water
that has infiltrated through the joints of the pavement. One disadvantage of transverse drains is
that they can cause unevenness of the pavement when used in areas susceptible to frost action,
where general frost heaving occurs. The unevenness is due to the general heaving of the whole
pavement, except at the transverse drains.

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Figure 5.7 Transverse drains on superelevated curves

Horizontal Drains
Horizontal drains are used to relieve pore pressures at slopes of cuts and embankments on the
highway. They usually consist of small diameter, perforated pipes inserted into the slopes of the
cut or fill. The subsurface water is collected by the pipes and is then discharged at the face of the
slope through paved spillways to longitudinal ditches.
Drainage Blankets
A drainage blanket is a layer of material that has a very high coefficient of permeability, usually
greater than 30 ft /day, and is laid beneath or within the pavement structure such that its width
and length in the flow direction are much greater than its thickness. The coefficient of
permeability is the constant of proportionality of the relationship between the flow velocity and
the hydraulic gradient between two points in the material. Drainage blankets can be used to
facilitate the flow of subsurface water away from the pavement, as well as to facilitate the flow
of ground water that has seeped through cracks into the pavement structure or subsurface water

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from artesian sources. A drainage blanket also can be used in conjunction with longitudinal
drains to improve the stability of cut slopes by controlling the flow of water on the slopes,
thereby preventing the formation of a slip surface. However, drainage blankets must be properly
designed to be effective.
Well Systems
A well system consists of a series of vertical wells, drilled into the ground, into which ground
water flows, thereby reducing the water table and releasing the pore pressure. When used as a
temporary measure for construction, the water collected in the wells is continuously pumped out,
or else it may be left to overflow. A more common construction, however, includes a drainage
layer either at the top or bottom of the wells to facilitate the flow of water collected.

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CHAPTER SIX
INTERSECTION AND INTERCHANGES
Types of Intersection
Intersections are inevitable parts of any street system. A road or street intersection can be defined
as the general area where two or more roads join or cross, including the roadway and roadside
facilities for traffic movement within it (AASHTO, 2001). An intersection needs to be designed
considering the efficiency, safety, speed, cost of operation, and capacity that it can offer to users.
In general, there are three types of intersections:
(1) At-grade intersection
(2) Grade separated without ramps, and
(3) Interchanges
The common intersection is at-grade intersection where two or more highways join. The
approaches are referred to as intersection legs. When it becomes necessary to accommodate high
volume of traffic through intersections, intersections that are separated by grade are used, and
these are generally referred to as interchanges. When two highways or streets cross each other at
a different grade, with no connections, the arrangement is referred to as a grade separation.
Details of the geometric design of at-grade intersections and interchanges are given in A policy
on Geometric Design of Highways and Streets published by the American Association of State
Highway and Transportation Officials (AASHTO, 2001).

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Figure 6-1 Examples of At-Grade Intersections

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Figure 6-2 Types of Interchanges

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Design Consideration and Objectives

The objective of intersection design is to reduce the severity of potential conflicts between
vehicles (including pedestrians) while providing maximum convenience and ease of movement
to vehicles. Four basic elements are generally considered in the design of at-grade intersections.
a. Human factor, such as driving habits and decision and reaction times
b. Traffic considerations, such as capacities and turning movements, vehicle speeds, and
size and distribution of vehicles
c. Physical elements, such as characteristics and use of abutting property, sight distance,
and geometric features
d. Economic factors, such as costs and benefits and energy consumption
The design and type of interchanges is influenced by many factors, such as highway
classification, character and composition of traffic, design speed, and degree of access control.
Interchanges are high-cost facilities, and because of the wide variety of site conditions, traffic
volumes, and interchange layouts, the warrants that justify an interchange may differ at each
location. AASHTO (2001) provides details regarding grade separations and interchanges. The
main important thing when considering interchanges is clearly the economic justification.
Conflict area at Intersection
Fig. 5.3 shows vehicle streams and the merging, diverging, and crossing maneuvers for a simple
four-leg intersection, and for a more complicated staggered intersection. Such diagrams are
useful because the number and type of conflicts may indicate the accident potential of an
intersection. In the case of a regular two-lane, four-leg intersection there are 16 potential
crossings conflict points, 8 merging and 8 diverging conflict points. The staggered T-intersection
shown in the figure serves about the same function as the four-leg intersection, and consists of
only six potential crossing conflict points, three diverging and three merging conflict points.

Figure 6-3 Vehicle Streams and the Merging, Diverging,and Crossing Maneuvers

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Type of Intersection Control

There are at least six principal ways of controlling traffic at intersections, depending on the type
of intersection and the volume of traffic in each of the vehicle streams. In an ascending order of
control exercised at the intersection, these include no control, channelization, yield or stop signs,
roundabouts and traffic signals. The FHWA, 2000 provides guidelines for adopting any
particular type of intersection control, in the form of warrants.
Stop signs
Stop signs are warranted at intersections under the following conditions:
I. Intersection of less important road with a main road, where application of the
normal right-of-way rule is unduly hazardous
II. Intersection of a county road, city street, or township road with a state highway
III. Street entering a through highway or street
IV. Unsignalized intersection in a signalized area
V. Unsignalized intersection where a combination of high speed, restricted view and
serious accident record indicates a need for control by the stop sign
Multiway (fourway or all-way) stops can be used as a safety measure at some locations where the
volume on the intersecting roads is approximately equal and following conditions exist:
I. An accident problem, as indicated by five or more reported accidents in a 12 months
period, which may be corrected by a multiway stop installation

II. (a) The total vehicular volume entering the intersection from all approaches averages
at least 500 vehicles per hour for any 8 hours of an average day, and (b) the combined
vehicular and pedestrian volume from the minor street or highway averages at least
200 units per hour for the same 8 hours, with an average delay to minor street
vehicular traffic of at least 30 seconds per vehicle during the maximum hour, but (c)
when the 85th percentile approach speed of the major street traffic exceeds 40mph, the
minimum vehicular volume warrant is 70% of the foregoing requirements.

III. Where traffic signals are warranted, the multiway stop control can be used as an
interim measure while arrangements are being made for installation of the signal.

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Yield Signs
Yield signs are established as follows:
i. On a minor road at the entrance to an intersection when it is necessary to assign the right-
of-way to the major road, but where a stop is not necessary at all times, and where the
safe approach speed on the minor road exceeds 10mph.
ii. On the entrance ramp to an expressway, where an adequate acceleration lane is provided
iii. Where there is a separate or channelized right-turn lane without an adequate acceleration
lane
iv. At any intersection where a problem can be possibly corrected by a yield sign installation
v. Within an intersection with a divided highway, where a stop sign is present at the
entrance to the first roadway, and further control is necessary at the entrance to the
second roadway. Median width between roadways must exceed 30 ft.
Intersection Channelization
Channelization is the separation or regulation of conflicting traffic movements into definite paths
of travel by traffic islands or pavement markings to facilitate the safe and orderly movements of
both vehicles and pedestrians. Proper channelization increases capacity, improves safety,
provides maximum convenience, and increases driver confidence. Channelization is frequently
used along with stop or yield signs or at signalized intersections.
Some basic principles to help design channelized intersection are as follows:
i. Motorists should be provided with channel lines that are easy to follow.

ii. Sudden and sharp reverse curves should be avoided.

iii. Areas of vehicle conflict should be reduced as much as possible.

iv. Traffic streams that cross without merging and weaving should intersect at or near right
angles.

v. Islands should be carefully selected and be as few as possible.

vi. Over channelization should be avoided, as it has proved to be counterproductive.

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Figure 6-4 Typical Examples of Channelized Intersections (AASHTO, 2001)

Rotaries and Roundabouts
Rotaries and roundabout are channelized intersections comprising a central circle surrounded by
a one-way roadway. The basic difference between rotaries and roundabouts is that rotaries are
generally signalized, whereas roundabouts are not. Naturally, in the case of roundabouts,
entering traffic yields to traffic within.
Roundabouts generally have good safety records and traffic does not have to stop when traffic
volumes are low. A well-designed roundabout should deflect the path of vehicles passing

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through an intersection by the use of a sufficiently large central island, properly designed
approach islands, and staggering the alignment of entries and exits.
Uncontrolled Intersections
Where an intersection has no control device, the operator of a vehicle approaching an
intersection must be able to perceive a hazard in sufficient time to alter the vehicle’s speed,
before reaching the intersection. The time needed to start decelerating is the driver’s perception
and reaction time and may be assumed to be 2.0 sec. In addition, the driver needs to begin
braking some distance from the intersection. This distance from the intersection, where a driver
can first see a vehicle approaching on the intersecting road, is that which is traversed during 2.0
seconds for perception and reaction, plus an additional 1.0 second to actuate braking or to
accelerate to regulate speed. By referring to Fig. 5.5, the sight triangle is determined by the
minimum distances along the road. For instance, if highway A has a speed limit of 50 mph and
highway B has one of 30 mph, it would require an unobstructed sight triangle, with legs
extending at least 220 ft and 130 ft, respectively, from the intersection, based merely on the
average distance traveled in 3 seconds.

Fig. 6.5 Sight Triangle (AASHTO 2001)

These minimum distances will permit a vehicle on either road to change speeds before reaching
the intersection, but this fact by itself does not imply that the intersection is safe.
There can be potential danger to vehicle operators on such intersections, especially when
successions of vehicles are approaching the intersection, when time is sufficient to avoid only a

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single vehicle. Because the distance covered in 3 seconds ranges from 70% of the safe stopping
distance at 20 mph to only 36% at 70 mph, the use of sight triangles for design purposes must be
approached with caution.
A safer design for such intersections should allow drivers on both highways to see the
intersection and traffic in sufficient time to stop the vehicle before reaching the intersection. The
safe stopping distances in this case are the same as those used for designing any other section of
highway.

6.1 Interchanges
Interchanges are combinations of ramps and grade separations designed as a system of
interconnecting roadways to separate the turning and through movements at the junction of two
or more roads. They provide the greatest efficiency, safety and capacity for handling large
volumes of traffic in these situations. Interchange design is a special form of intersection design.
The traffic interchange is the best solution available to the problems encountered in intersections
at grade, as it separates the major crossing movements and enables maximum traffic volumes to
operate uninterrupted on at least the freeway. Crossing conflicts are eliminated and turning
conflicts are minimized depending on the type and degree of development of the interchange,
and on the degree of access limitation imposed. Interchanges can be provided between freeways,
between freeways and arterial roads, and between arterial roads.
The general principles of design are similar but standards for clearance, curvature, sight distance
and visibility depend on the standard and the design speed of the roadway to which the element
of the interchange connects. Each interchange is an individual problem and even standard types
require customization to suit a particular site. Consistency of form assists in driver understanding
and the design must be considered in conjunction with the design of adjacent interchanges. An
interchange or series of interchanges on a route through an area may affect large adjacent areas
or even the entire community. Interchanges should therefore be located and designed so that they
will provide the best possible traffic service consistent with community interests. To this end all
interchanges should provide for flexibility of operation and be subject to reasonably easy
modification if required by future traffic patterns. When interchanges are required at relatively
close spacing, the weaving maneuvers between the interchanges may limit capacity. Weaving
occurs when an entry ramp is followed by an exit ramp within a distance of about 1.5km.
Weaving involves lane changing as well as merging and diverging. Longer distances between the

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entry and exit ramp results in freeway capacity being limited by merge and diverge capacity. The
influence of lane changing is not the limiting factor as more opportunities to change lanes arise
on longer stretches of road. Weaving may be reduced or eliminated by special design features.
Freeway capacity may be modeled by use of the Highway Capacity Manual (either using manual
calculation or HCS 2000 software). Microscopic simulation software such as Paramics or
Aimsun may also be used to assess freeway operating conditions under different traffic loadings
and geometric layout options.

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