1.

INTRODUCTION
Drive:
A combination of prime mover, transmission equipment and mechanical Working load is called a drive
Electric drive:
An Electric Drive can be defined as an electromechanical device for converting electrical energy to mechanical
energy to impart motion to different machines and mechanisms for various kinds of process control.

Some examples of Electric Drives

➢ Driving fans, ventilators, compressors and pumps.
➢ Lifting goods by hoists and cranes.
➢ Imparting motion to conveyors in factories, mines and warehouses
➢ Running excavators & escalators, electric locomotives trains, cars trolley buses, lifts & drum winders
etc.

1.1 Need of Electric Drives, Functional Block diagrams of an electric drives.

Electric motors impact almost every aspect of modern living. Refrigerators, vacuum cleaners, air conditioners,
fans, computer hard drives, automatic car windows, and multitudes of other appliances and devices all use
electric motors to convert electrical energy into useful mechanical energy. In addition to running the
commonplace appliances that we use every day, electric motors are also responsible for a very large portion of
industrial processes. Electric motors are used at some point in the manufacturing process of nearly every
conceivable product that is produced in modern factories. Because of the nearly unlimited number of
applications for electric motors, it is not hard to imagine that there are over 700 million motors of various sizes
in operation across the world. This enormous number of motors and motor drives has a significant impact on the
world because of the amount of power they consume.
The systems that controlled electric motors in the past suffered from very poor performance and were very
inefficient and expensive. In recent decades, the demand for greater performance and precision in electric
motors, combined with the development of better solid-state electronics and cheap microprocessors has led to
the creation of modern ASDs. An ASD is a system that includes an electric motor as well as the system that
drives and controls it. Any adjustable speed drive can be viewed as five separate parts: the power supply, the
power electronic converter, the electric motor, the controller, and the mechanical load.

BLOCK DIAGRAM OF AN ELECTRICAL DRIVES

The basic block diagram for electrical drives used for the motion control is shown in the
following figure1.1

The aggregate of the electric motor, the energy transmitting shaft and the control equipment by which the motor
characteristics are adjusted and their operating conditions with respect to mechanical load varied to suit
practical requirements is called as electric drive.
Drive system=Drive + load
BASIC COMPONENT (or) ELEMENTS OF ELETCRIC DRIVES

Block diagram of electric drive:

Load: usually a machinery to accomplish a given task. Eg-fans, pumps, washing machine etc.
Power modulator: modulators (adjust or converter) power flow from the source to the motion
Motor: actual energy converting machine (electrical to mechanical)
Source: energy requirement for the operation the system.
Control: adjust motor and load characteristics for the optimal mode.

Power modulators:

Power modulators regulate the power flow from source to the motor to enable the motor to develop the torque
speed characteristics required by the load.
The common function of the power modulator is,

➢ They contain and control the source and motor currents with in permissible limits during the
transient operations such as starting, braking, speed reversal etc.
➢ Adjusts the mode of operation of the motor that is motoring, braking are regenerative.

Power modulators may be classified as,

➢ Converters uses power devices to convert uncontrolled valued to controllable output.

➢ Switching circuits switch mode of operation
➢ Variable impedance

Converters

They provide adjustable voltage/current/frequency to control speed, torque output power of the motor.
The various type of converters are,
AC to DC rectifiers
DC to DC choppers
AC to AC choppers
They convert the input electrical energy into the form as required by the motors.
AC to AC –AC voltage controllers (voltage level is controlled)
Cyclo converter (Frequency is controlled)
DC to AC inverters

Switching circuits
Switching circuits are needed to achieve any one of the following.
Changing motor connection to change its quadrant of operation.
Changing motor circuits parameters in discrete steps for automatic starting and braking control.
For operating motors and drives according to a predetermine sequence
To provide inter locking their by preventing maloperation
Disconnect under up normal condition Eg: electromagnetic contactors,
PLC in sequencing and inter locking operation, solid state relays etc.

Variable impedance
Variable resisters are commonly used for AC and DC drives and also needed for dynamic braking of
drives
Semiconductors switch in parallel with a fixed resistance is used where step less variation is needed.
Inductors employed to limit starting current of ac motors.
1.3 Determination of Motor Rating.

As per IS/IEC 60034-1 : 2004

Some Definations
1.4 Duty class of motor.

➢ This type drive is operated continuously for a duration which is long enough to reach its steady state
value of temperature.
➢ This duty is characterized by constant motor torque and constant motor loss operation.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC shunt
motors.

Examples:
Paper mill drives, Compressors, Conveyors, Centrifugal pumps and Fans.
➢ In this type drive operation, Time of operation is less than heating time constant and motor is allowed to cool
off to room temperature before it is operated again.
➢ Here the motor can be overloaded until the motor temperature reaches its permissible limit.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC shunt motors,
DC series motors, universal motors.
Examples: Crane drives, Drives for house hold appliances,Turning bridges,Sluice gate drives, Valve drives and
Machine tool drives.
 ➢ In this type drive operation, It consists of a different periods of duty cycles
➢ I.e. a period of rest and a period of running, a period of starting, a period of braking.
➢ Both a running period is not enough to reach its steady state temperature and a rest period is not enough to cool
off the machine to ambient temperature.
➢ In this type drive operation, heating due to starting and braking is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC shunt motors,
universal motors.

Examples: Pressing, Cutting, Drilling machine drives.

 ➢ This is intermittent periodic duty where heating due to starting can‟t be ignored.
➢ It consists of a starting period; a running period, a braking period & a rest period are being too short to reach their
steady state value.
➢ In this type of drive operation, heating due to braking is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by three phase induction motors and DC series motors, DC compound
motors, universal motors.
Examples: Metal cutting, Drilling tool drives, Drives for forklift trucks, Mine hoist etc.
 ➢ This is an intermittent periodic duty where heating during starting & braking can‟t be ignored.
➢ It consists of a starting period, a running period; a braking period & a rest period are being too short to reach their
steady state temperature value.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC shunt motors, DC
series motors, DC compound motors, universal motors.
Examples: Billet mill drive, Manipulator drive, Ingot buggy drive, Screw down mechanism of blooming mill, Several
machine tool drives, Drives for electric suburban trains and Mine hoist.
 ➢ This type of drive operation consists a period of running at constant load and a period of running at no load with
normal voltage to the excitation winding in separately excited machines.
➢ Again the load and no load periods are not enough to reach their respective temperature limits.
➢ This duty is distinguished from intermittent periodic duty by running at no load instead of rest period.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC compound motors,
universal motors.
Examples: Pressing, Cutting, Shearing and Drilling machine drives.
 ➢ It consists a period of starting, a period of running & a period of electrical braking.
➢ Here period of rest is negligible.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors.

Examples:
The main drive of a blooming mill.
 ➢ It consists a period of running in a load with a particular speed and a period of running at different load with different
speed which are not enough to reach their respective steady state temperatures.
➢ Further here is no period of rest.
➢ This type of duty can be accomplished by single phase/ three phase induction motors and DC series motor in
traction.
Examples: All variable speed drives.
Rating
Rating is the set of rated values and operating conditions and Rated Value means a quantity value assigned,
generally by a manufacturer, for a simplified operating condition of a machine.
1.5 Specification of motors
Motor specifications are key to matching load and operating conditions with motor protection and efficiency.
We need information from the motor nameplate throughout the life of the motor. If we ever need to size a VFD,
repair a motor, replace a motor, connect a motor, correct power factor, purchase parts, or do just about anything
with a motor we will need the information on the motor nameplate.
Below is a sample nameplate.
1. Manufacturer - There is no defined design for this field, and it may differ from one manufacturer to the
next. In addition to the name of the manufacturer, it can include the motor model, electrical style or the
purpose. Here we have a Baldor-Reliance Severe Duty XT motor.
2. Hazardous location classes and groups - Key information is required to accurately specify an electric
motor for use in hazardous environments, those areas where fire or explosion hazards may exist due to the
presence of flammable, combustible or ignitable substances. These locations are broken down into classes
and groups based on the autoignition temperature of the hazardous material
3. Frame size (FRAME) - Motor dimension standardization is indicated by the frame size. This number
reflects the same mounting and shaft information between different manufacturers in order to be
consistent. Since NEMA frame size refers to mounting interfaces only, it has no direct bearing on the
motor body diameter.
4. Rated voltage (VOLTS) - This data indicates the voltage at which the motor is designed to operate most
efficiently; however, a motor can still operate effectively at plus or minus a 10 percent tolerance of this
value. For example, a motor with a 460V rating could operate effectively at around 414V to 506V. The
nameplate-defined parameters for the motor - such as power factor, efficiency, torque and current - are at
rated voltage and frequency. When the motor is used at other voltages than the voltage indicated on the
nameplate, its performance will be affected.
5. Rated full-load amps (F.L. AMPS) - Full-load amps represents the amount of current the motor is
designed to draw at the rated load and rated voltage. Motors with a lower F.L.A. with the same amount of
horsepower are considered more efficient to operate.
6. Rated full load speed (R.P.M.) - The rated full load speed is the speed at which full load torque is
delivered for the rated voltage and frequency. The difference between the full load speed and the
synchronous speed is called slip. The motor’s slip is determined by its design. For most induction motors,
generally, the full load speed can be between 96 percent and 99 percent of the synchronous speed.
7. Frequency (HZ) - Hertz is measured in cycles per second. This is the frequency of input power for which
the motor is designed to operate at the rated output power, voltage and speed. To operate successfully, the
motor frequency must match the power system (supply) frequency. If more than one frequency is marked
on the nameplate, then other parameters that will differ at different input frequencies have to be indicated
on the nameplate as well. The most commonly occurring frequency in the United States is 60 Hertz, and
the most common frequency for motors used outside the United States is 50 Hertz.
8. Service factor (SER. F. or S.F.) - The service factor shown on the motor nameplate indicates the amount
of continuous overload the motor can be expected to handle, under nameplate conditions, without
overheating or damaging the motor. When the voltage and frequency are at the same values as shown on
the motor nameplate, the motor may be overloaded up to the horsepower indicated by multiplying the
rated horsepower by the service factor. For example, a motor with a 1.0 service factor cannot be expected
to handle more than its nameplate horsepower on a continuous basis. A motor with a 1.15 service factor
can be expected to safely handle infrequent loads up to 15 percent past its rated horsepower, i.e. a 10 Hp
motor could run at 11.5 Hp. The downside is this could create a hotter motor with a shortened expected
life. NEMA MG1 9.15.1 States: “An induction motor operated at any service factor greater than 1.0 will
have a reduced life expectancy compared to operating at its rated nameplate horsepower.”
9. Efficiency (NEMA NOM. EFF.) - Efficiency is the percentage of the input power that is converted to
work output from the motor shaft. In its simplest form, efficiency is calculated by dividing the motor’s
output power by its input power multiplied by 100. In actual practice, in three-phase induction motors for
example, the industry standards prescribe procedures to determine the various types of losses in the motor
and then sum them to determine the net losses. (The difference is very small, but the purpose of the
 procedure is to ensure that every manufacturer determines and reports the efficiency in a consistent
manner.) The higher the percentage, the more efficiently the motor converts incoming electrical power to
mechanical horsepower. Efficiency is guaranteed by the manufacturer to be within a certain tolerance
band, which varies depending on the design standard, i.e. IEC or NEMA.
10. Bearings (DE and ODE) - Information is usually given for both the drive-end (DE) bearing and the
bearing opposite the drive end (ODE). The difference between these two is the location in the motor. The
drive end bearing is located close to where the drive shaft extends out of the motor. The opposite drive
shaft bearing is on the opposite side of the drive shaft. The numbers indicate the bearing type and size.
11. Certified compliant number (CC) - This number is specific to the manufacturer and appears on all
electric motors that comply with the NEMA Premium efficiency specification. Buying NEMA Premium
labeled electric motors will help purchasers optimize their motor systems’ efficiency, reduce electrical
power consumption and costs and improve system reliability.
12. Serial number (SN) - A unique identifier assigned incrementally or sequentially to a motor to identify it
specifically. For Baldor-Reliance NEMA motors, the serial number formula is a location-year-month-day-
motor code.

13. Alternate ratings or additional application data. In this case, rating information for using the motor on
50 Hz sinewave power (typically outside North America).

14. International protection rating (I.P.) - Often incorrectly interpreted as the ingress protection rating,
international protection rating classifies the degrees of protection provided against the intrusion of solid
objects (including body parts like hands and fingers), dust, accidental contact, and water. The IP allows
for the ingress of objects into the motor, providing they cannot have any detrimental effect upon its
operation. The first digit of the code indicates the level of protection that the enclosure provides against
access to hazardous parts and the ingress of solid foreign objects, and the second digit indicates the
protection of the equipment inside the enclosure against harmful ingress of liquid.

15. Enclosure type (ENCL) - The enclosure, or housing/cooling method, for which the motor is designed.
The enclosure must protect the windings, bearings and other mechanical parts from moisture, chemicals,
mechanical damage and abrasion from grit. NEMA defines the enclosures, but not the abbreviations,
which are common throughout the motor industry. There are more than 20 types of enclosures, some
common types being:

• ODP: Open Drip Proof

• TEFC: Totally Enclosed Fan Cooled
• TENV: Totally Enclosed Non-Ventilated
• TEAO: Totally Enclosed Air Over
• TEWD: Totally Enclosed Wash Down
• TEBC: Totally Enclosed Blower Cooled
• TELC: Totally Enclosed Liquid Cooled
• XPFC: Explosion Proof Fan Cooled
16. Rated horsepower (H.P.) - Horsepower is an expression of the motor’s mechanical output rating, or its ability
to deliver the torque needed for the load at rated speed. This value is based on the motor's full-load torque and
full-load speed ratings and is calculated as follows:

Horsepower (Hp)=[Motor speed (rev/min) × Torque (lb-ft)]÷5,250]

For an electric motor, one horsepower is equivalent to 746 watts of electrical power and is the standard rating in
the United States. NEMA defines certain characteristics or ratings of motors down to 1 milli horsepower for
certain types of motors, and up to 100,000 Hp for synchronous machines. NEMA defines ratings for polyphase
medium induction motors to be from ½ through 500 Hp. If a load's actual horsepower requirement falls between
two standard horsepower ratings, the larger size motor should be selected.

17. Power factor (P.F.) - Power factor is the measure of a particular motor’s requirements for magnetizing
amperage. The formula “watts = amps x volts” must be altered when inductance is introduced to the load to
include anew term called power factor. Thus, the new formula for single phase loads becomes “watts = equal
amps x volts x power factor”. Power factor is an expression of the ratio of active power (W) toapparent power
(VA) expressed as a percentage.

18. Ambient temperature and time rating (RATING) - The motor’s rating is the ambient (room) temperature
surrounding the motor and the time it can operate at that temperature. The maximum ambient temperature at
which a motor can operate is sometimes indicated on the nameplate. If it is not indicated, the maximum is 40°C
for IE2 motors and normally 60°C for IE3 motors. The motor can run and still be within the tolerance of the
insulation class at the maximum rated temperature. Most motors are rated for continuous duty (CONT). NEMA
considers 40°C to be the default maximum ambient, and continuous to be the default time rating at the rated load.
Motors designed for other temperature and time ratings should be by agreement between the manufacturer and
the user.

19. Amps at stated volts - It is common to include amps at stated volts on smaller motors in the United States.
208 volts (V) is a common supply voltage for some applications in the United States, however, it is common for
a manufacturer to indicate the expected current at 208 V as an “alternate” voltage rather than stock different
products with 208 V as the primary rating. A motor with “208 volts” in the voltage field with the 230/460 V
points, then the motor must meet efficiency and NEMA amps and torques also at the208 V point. If the current
value is supplied, it means the motor can run at 208 V without overheating. If the field is blank, the motor is not
suitable to operate at the nameplate power at 208 volts.

20. Insulation class (CLASS) - Insulation classes are expressions of the thermal tolerance of the motor winding,
or the winding’s ability to survive a given operating temperature for a given life. The classes are designated in
order of thermal capabilities by the letters A, B, F and H. The higher the designated code letter, the greater the
heat capability. For example, based on a 40°C ambient temperature, class B insulation is suitable for 80°C rise by
resistance, class F suitable for 105°C rise by resistance, and class H is suitable for 125°C rise by resistance. Use
of class F or class H insulation can increase the service factor or the ability to withstand high ambient temperature
conditions. Class A and B systems are now rarely, if ever, used in industrial motors. It should be noted that a
 higher insulation class does not necessarily mean that the motor operates at that higher temperature. It is common
for industrial motors to have Class F systems but operate at or near Class B rise at rated load at 1.0 service factor.

21. Phase (PH.) - Phase is the indication of the type of power supply for which the motor is designed. The two
main categories are single phase and three phase. Single phase means that only one voltage waveform is applied
to the motor, while three-phase motors have three wires delivering voltage waveforms, each supplying peak
voltage and current at different times. A three-phase motor is more efficient and economical, and most large
industrial motors and applications rely on three-phase power.

22. Design letter (DES.) - The letter indicates the torque/speed characteristics of the motor. The turning force
which a motor develops is known as torque. The amount of torque necessary to start a load (starting torque) is
usually different from the torque required to keep the load moving (full load torque). Loads that have high
breakaway friction or that require extra torque for acceleration should have a motor specified to have high starting
torque. NEMA specifies design letters to indicate the torque, slip and starting characteristics of three phase
induction motors.

Design A:

• Maximum five percent slip

• High to medium starting current
• Normal locked rotor torque
• Normal breakdown torque
• Suited for a broad variety of applications, such as fans and pumps

Design B:

• Maximum five percent slip

• Low starting current
• High locked rotor torque
• Normal starting torque
• Normal breakdown torque
• Suited for a broad variety of applications - common in HVAC application with fans, blowers and pumps

Design C:

• Maximum five percent slip

• Low starting current
• High locked rotor torque
• Normal breakdown torque
• Suited for equipment with high inertia starts, such as positive displacement pumps

Design D:
• Maximum five to 13 percent slip
• Low starting current
• Very high locked rotor torque
• Suited for equipment with very high inertia starts, such as cranes, hoists, etc.

Design letters are not defined for motors larger than 500 Hp at 1800 RPM. It should be noted that thedesign letters
are not applicable to, and typically not indicated for, motors that are designed forvariable speed application only
and not suitable for across-the-line starting.

23. Rotor inertia - Rotor inertia data is typically included for variable speed applications. Inertia is an object’s
resistance to a change in speed. In an electro mechanical system, both the motor’s rotor and load have inertia, and
how similar (or different) their inertias are will affect the performance of the system. The ratio of the load inertia
to the rotor inertia is an important aspect of motor sizing.

24. T-code - Motors for use in hazardous environments are assigned a temperature code (T-code) which describes
the maximum temperature of surfaces subject to contact with hazardous materials. The temperature value defined
by the T-code applies under all conditions of motor operation including burnt out, overload and locked rotor
current. The T-code for a given motor must be less than the auto ignition temperature (AIT) of the hazardous gas
or mixture in the environment where the motor operates. This is to ensure that the hazardous materials do not
spontaneously ignite when it contacts the motor surfaces and enclosure during operation.

25. Safety and efficiency certification marks - These marks including agency markings, memberships and
testing certifications.
26. Locked rotor code (CODE) - NEMA defines locked rotor [kilovolt-ampere (kVA) per horsepower (Hp)]
with a series of code letters (A to V). Generally, the farther the code letter is from A, the higher the inrush
current per Hp. A replacement motor with a higher code letter may require different upstream electrical
equipment, such as a larger motor starter. When AC motors are started with full voltage (across-the-line
starting), they draw line amperage 300 percent to 600 percent greater than their full load running current.
The magnitude of the inrush current (also called locked rotor amps or LRA) is determined by motor
horsepower and design characteristics.