ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

First, we are heartily thankful for GOD and for our supervisor,
PROF.Dr. MOHAMED RASHAD for his encouragement, guidance and
support throughout the whole course enabled us to develop our research
ability tremendously.

We would like to acknowledge the institute of aviation engineering and

technology for providing us to realize our research.

We are grateful to all members of all Mechanical Engineering Department

for their support to continue with our project.

Lastly, our greatest and sincere appreciation goes to our fathers, mothers,
brothers and sisters for their continued support.

And thanks to the team spirit,

2
 Institute Of Aviation Engineering & Technology.
Mechanical Power Department.

Cogeneration Project
2010 – 2011

Under Supervisor: Prof.Dr. Mohamed Rashad.

Work Done By:

1_ Ahmed Mohamed kabeel.

2_ Sherif Ibrahim Othman.
3_ Ibrahim Mohamed Hassan.
4_ Mahmoud Saeed Ahmed.
5_ Abd El Rahman Mohamed Mahmoud.
6_ Mostafa Hassan El Sayeed El Bouhy.
7_ Mohamed Nasser Ahmed.
8_ Ahmed Mohamed El Mahdy.
9_ Ahmed Mohamed Abd El khalek .
 Content
[Pick the date]

chapter 1 (introduction)

1.1 Introduction……………………………………………. 5
1.2 Cogeneration Definition………………………………. 6
1.3 Cogeneration Efficiency……………………………… 6
1.4 Why Cogeneration……………………………………. 7
1.5 Cogeneration System Component………………….. 8
1.6 Steam Turbine Cogeneration System………………. 9
1.7 Gas Turbine Cogeneration System………………... 10
1.8 Reciprocating Engine Cogeneration System……... 12
1.9 Cogeneration Technology…………………………... 12
1.10 Types Of Cogeneration……………………………. 12
1.11 Fuel sell……………………………………………… 14
1.12 Heat to Power Ratio………………………………... 14
1.13 Gas Turbine Cycle Design………………………… 16

chapter 2 (compressor).
2.1 Introduction…………………………………………… 26
2.2 Function Of Compressor Types……………….…… 26
2.3 Types Of Compressor……………………………….. 27
2.4 Centrifugal Compressor…………………………….. 27
2.5 Axial Compressor……………………………………. 29
2.6 Flow Through Axial Flow Compressor……………... 31
2.7 Degree Of Reaction………………………………….. 37

COGENERATION _ 2011 1
 Content
[Pick the date]

2.8 Compressor Operation Characteristics……………. 38

2.9 Compressor Surge…………………………………… 39
2.10 Compressor Stall……………………………………. 40
2.11 De Heller Number…………………………………… 41
2.12 Compressor Choke…………………………………. 42
2.13 Compressor Troubleshooting……………………… 43
2.14 Design Calculation…………………………………... 44

chapter 3 (combustion chamber).

3.1 Introduction……………………………………............ 65
3.2 Combustion Term…………………………………….. 67
3.3Combustion Process………………………………….. 67
3.4 Fuel Supply. …………………………………………... 71
3.5 Combustor Design Consideration………………….. 71
3.6 Types Of Combustion Chamber……………………. 74
3.7 Performance Of Combustor…………………………. 78
3.8 Combustor Intensity…………………………………. 78
3.9 Combustor Efficiency…………………………........... 78
3.10 Stability Of Combustor……………………………… 79
3.11Emission Of Combustor……………………………... 79
3.12 Design Calculation. …………………………………… 81

COGENERATION _ 2011 2
 Content
[Pick the date]

chapter 4 (Gas turbine)

4.1 Introduction…………………………………………….. 86
4.2 Turbine Cooling Methods…………………………….. 87
4.3 Gas Turbine Starting and Shutdown………………... 90
4.4 Troubleshooting Guideline…………………………… 97
4.5 Design Calculation…………………………………….. 99

chapter 5 (Waste heat recovery)

5.1Introduction…………………………………………… 115
5.2 Various Sources Of Waste Heat………………….... 116
5.3 Benefits Of Waste Heat Recovery…………………. 117
5.4 Types Of HRSG…………………………………….... 117
5.5 General Component Of HRSG……………………... 120
5.6 Types Of Configuration Of HRSG………………….. 121
5.7 Conduction…………………………………………… 125
5.8 Convection……………………………………………. 126
5.9 Advantages Of Waste Heat Recovery…………….. 127
5.11 Troubleshooting…………………………………….. 127
5.10 Calculation…………………………………………... 130
Appendix

COGENERATION _ 2011 3
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

chapter 1
introduction

COGENERATION _ 2011 4
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Introduction

Object of project

As the cogeneration system is a great system to save energy and improve economy
So the object of project is: To design a cogeneration system in " El-howmdaya"
sugar factory to generate electrical power and steam for industrial process

Back ground
With the conclusion of the twentieth century and despite the many uncertainties
about our energy future it is highly likely that both the role and importance of
electric power will continue change and grow. these changes may have an impact
which surpasses all that has happened to date . it was during the early years of this
century that the concepts and inventions discovered by Humpreydavy , Nikola
tesla and Thomas edison were forged together creating ability for the controlled
production and use of electric power . then the many small industrial "power
houses" which produced steam for mechanical drives as well as for process and
heating discovered the advantages of the advantages of electric motor as a source
of mechanical power .

Wires replaced steam pipes and belted pulley systems , and motors replaced the
steam drive these small power houses quickly adopted cogeneration in order to
produce the more useful electric power and steam , which was still required for
heating and process use .

Cogeneration appeared in 1880.s in U.S.A and Europe , when most industrial

plant generated their own electricity using cool fired boilers and steam turbines
.Then many industries stopped producing their own of electricity because of costs
of electricity decreased it come from power plants .
Cogeneration started again after the high fuel costs in 1973.s

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Cogeneration definition

Cogeneration or Combined Heat and Power (CHP) are defined as the sequential
generation of two different forms of useful energy from a single primary energy
source, typically mechanical energy and thermal energy. Mechanical energy may
be used either to drive an alternator for producing electricity, or rotating
equipment such as motor, compressor, pump or fan for delivering various services.
Thermal energy can be used either for direct process applications or for indirectly
producing steam, hot water, hot air for dryer or chilled water for process cooling.

Cogeneration efficiency

Cogeneration provides a wide range of technologies for application in various

domains of economic activities. The overall efficiency of energy use in
cogeneration mode can be up to 85 per cent and above in some cases.

Example to describe the change in efficiency

Consider the following scenario. A plant requires 24 units of electrical energy and
34 units of steam for its processes. If the electricity requirement is to be met from a
centralized power plant (grid power) and steam from a fuel fired steam boiler, the
total fuel input needed is 100 unit.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

If the same end use of 24 units of electricity and 34 units of heat, by opting for the
cogeneration (bottom), fuel input requirement would be only 68 units compared to
100 units with conventional generation

For the industries in need of energy in different forms such as electricity and
steam, (most widely used form of heat energy), the cogeneration is the right
solution due to its viability from Technical, economical as well as environmental
angle.

WHY COGENERATION ?

COGENERATION _ 2011 7
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Money: because cogeneration produces two usable energy sources from single
fuel, it operates more efficiency than that use many sources of energy.

Cogeneration turns up to 90% of fuel burned into usable energy that compares
with just 52% of fuel burned in local power plant and in your existing heat water
heater.

Environmental: because cogeneration uses less fuel over all less pollutants will be
emitted to the atmosphere.
Conservational: because cogeneration will burn less fuel, the energy resources of
this planet will be conserved.

COGENERATION SYSTEM COMPONENT

The basic components of a cogeneration plant are:

1. Prime mover.
2. Boilers, which generate steam by direct firing.
3. Turbines, which convert thermal energy to shaft power for electricity or
mechanical drives (steam and gas turbines).
4. Internal, external combustion engines, which convert fuel energy to shaft
power for electricity or mechanical drives.
5. Generators, which convert mechanical shaft power in to electric power.
6. Waste heat recovery systems (boilers and heat exchanger).

The most important component in a cogeneration system is the prime mover, which
converts fuel energy to shaft energy. The conversion devices most frequently used
are reciprocating internal combustion engines, combustion gas turbines,
expansion turbines, and boiler steam turbine combinations.

Electrical generators are available in a wide range of sizes, speeds, and control
options. The criteria influencing the selection of alternating current (AC)
generators for cogeneration systems are:
1-Machine efficiency at various loads.
2-Electrical load requirements.
3-phase balance capabilities.
4-Equipment cost.
5-Motor starting current requirements.
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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

A variety of waste heat recovery equipment is available, depending on the quality

and type of waste heat to be utilized. These equipment systems can range from low-
pressure steam distribution systems recovering steam turbine exhaust to
sophisticated heat recovery boilers generating steam from gas turbine exhaust.
Controls for cogeneration systems are necessary for:
1) System output and operating efficiency.
2) Safety.
3) Prime mover automation.
4) Waste heat recovery and disposal.

Control system requirements vary from application to application. Generators

operating in parallel with utility system grids, for example, have control
requirements that are different from those operating in isolation from the utility
grid.

Technical Options for Cogeneration

Cogeneration technologies that have been widely commercialized include
extraction/back pressure steam turbines, gas turbine with heat recovery boiler
(with or without bottoming steam turbine) and reciprocating engines with heat
recovery boiler.

Steam turbine cogeneration systems

The two types of steam turbines most widely used are the backpressure and the
extraction-condensing types (see Figure). The choice between backpressure
turbine and extraction-condensing turbine depends mainly on the quantities of
power and heat, quality of heat, and economic factors. The extraction points of
steam from the turbine could be more than one, depending on the temperature
levels of heat required by the processes.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Another variation of the steam turbine topping cycle cogeneration system is the
extraction-back pressure turbine that can be employed where the end-user needs
thermal energy at two different temperature levels. The full-condensing steam
turbines are usually incorporated at sites where heat rejected from the process is
used to generate power.

The specific advantage of using steam turbines in comparison with the other prime
movers is the option for using a wide variety of conventional as well as alternative
fuels such as coal, natural gas, fuel oil and biomass.

The power generation efficiency of the cycle may be sacrificed to some extent in
order to optimize heat supply. In backpressure cogeneration plants, there is no
need for large cooling towers. Steam turbines are mostly used where the demand
for electricity is greater than one MW up to a few hundreds of MW. Due to the
system inertia, their operation is not suitable for sites with intermittent energy
demand.

Gas turbine cogeneration systems

Gas turbine cogeneration systems can produce all or a part of the energy
requirement of the site, and the energy released at high temperature in the exhaust
stack can be recovered for various heating and cooling applications. Though
natural gas is most commonly used, other fuels such as light fuel oil or diesel can
also be employed. The typical range of gas turbines varies from a fraction of a MW
to around 100 MW.

Gas turbine cogeneration has probably experienced the most rapid development in
the recent years due to the greater availability of natural gas, rapid progress in the
technology, significant reduction in installation costs, and better environmental
performance. Furthermore, the gestation period for developing a project is shorter
and the equipment can be delivered in a modular manner.

Gas turbine has a short start-up time and provides the flexibility of intermittent
operation. Though it has a low heat to power conversion efficiency, more heat can
be recovered at higher temperatures. If the heat output is less than that required by
the user, it is possible to have supplementary natural gas firing by mixing

COGENERATION _ 2011 10
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

additional fuel to the oxygen-rich exhaust gas to boost the thermal output more
efficiently.

Reciprocating engine cogeneration system

Also known as internal combustion (I. C.) engines, these cogeneration systems
have high power generation efficiencies in comparison with other prime movers.
There are two sources of heat for recovery: exhaust gas at high temperature and
engine jacket cooling water system at low temperature.

As heat recovery can be quite efficient for smaller systems, these systems are more
popular with smaller energy consuming facilities, particularly those having a
greater need for electricity than thermal energy and where the quality of heat
required is not high, e.g. low pressure steam or hot water.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Though diesel has been the most common fuel in the past, the prime movers can
also operate with heavy fuel oil or natural gas. These machines are ideal for
intermittent operation and their performance is not as sensitive to the changes in
ambient temperatures as the gas turbines. Though the initial investment on these
machines is low, their operating and maintenance costs are high due to high wear
and tear.

Cogeneration Technology

There are two main types of cogeneration concepts: "Topping Cycle" plants, and
"Bottoming Cycle" plants.
A topping cycleplant generates electricity or mechanical power first. Facilities
that generate electrical power may produce the electricity for their own use, and
then sell any excess power to a utility. There are four types of topping cycle
cogeneration systems.

The first type burns fuel in a gas turbine or diesel engine to produce electrical or
mechanical power. The exhaust provides process heat, or goes to a heat recovery
boiler to create steam to drive a secondary steam turbine. This is a combined-cycle
topping system.

The second type of system burns fuel (any type) to produce high-pressure steam
that then passes through a steam turbine to produce power. The exhaust provides
low-pressure process steam. This is a steam-turbine topping system.

The third type burns a fuel such as natural gas, diesel, wood, gasified coal, or
landfill gas. The hot water from the engine jacket cooling system flows to a heat
recovery boiler, where it is converted to process steam and hot water for space
heating.

The fourth type is a gas-turbine topping system. A natural gas turbine drives a
generator. The exhaust gas goes to a heat recovery boiler that makes process
steam and process heat. A topping cycle cogeneration plant always uses some
additional fuel, beyond what is needed for manufacturing, so there is an operating
cost associated with the power production.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

COGENERATION _ 2011 13
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Bottoming cycle:plants are much less common than topping cycle plants. These
plants exist in heavy industries such as glass or metals manufacturing where very
high temperature furnaces are used. A waste heat recovery boiler recaptures waste
heat from a manufacturing heating process. This waste heat is then used to
produce steam that drives a steam turbine to produce electricity. Since fuel is
burned first in the production process, no extra fuel is required to produce
electricity.

Fuel cell

An emerging technology that has cogeneration possibilities is the fuel cell. A fuel
cell is a device that converts hydrogen to electricity without combustion. Heat is
also produced. Most fuel cells use natural gas (composed mainly of methane) as
the source of hydrogen. The first commercial availability of fuel cell technology
was the phosphoric acid fuel cell, which has been on the market for a few years.
There are about 50 installed and operating in the United States. Other fuel cell
technologies (molten carbonate and solid oxide) are in early stages of
development. Solid oxide fuel cells (SOFCs) may be potential source for
cogeneration, due to the high temperature heat generated by their operation.

Heat-to-power ratio
Heat-to-power ratio is one of the most important technical parameters influencing
the selection of the type of cogeneration system. The heat-to-power ratio of a
facility should match with the characteristics of the cogeneration system to be
installed. It is defined as the ratio of thermal energy to electricity required by the
energy consuming facility. Though it can be expressed in different units such as
Btu/kWh, kcal/kWh, lb./hr.kW, etc., here it is presented on the basis of the same
energy unit (kW).

Definition of heat-to-power ratio is thermal energy to electrical energy required by

the industry. Basic heat-to power ratios of the cogeneration system variants are
shown in Table below along with some technical parameters. The steam turbine
based cogeneration system can be considered over a large range of heat-to-power
ratios.

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

COGENERATION _ 2011 15
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Gas turbine cycle calculation

Assumption

Inlet temp T1=300°k.

Inlet pressure P1=1bar.

Inlet turbine temp T3=1200°k.

Efficiency of turbine ηtur=87%.

Efficiency of compressor ηcom=84%.

Mechanical efficiency ηmech=88%.

Efficiency of generator ηgen=96%.

Electrical Power = 30MW.

Excess air λ=400%

Neglect any pressure drop in combustion chamber.

Fuel used is Natural Gas.

COGENERATION _ 2011 16
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

COMPOSTION OF USED NATURAL GAS

Natural gas C.V Volume % Molecular Mass of Weight %

Component weight Each gas
MJ/kg
Methane 50.009 91.5% 16 14.64 83.43%
CH4
Ethane 47.794 6.89% 30 2.067 11.78%
C2H6
Propane 46.357 0.88% 44 0.3872 2.2%
C3H8
Iso-Butan 45.613 0.45% 58 0.261 1.48%
C4H10
N-Butan 45.752 0.1% 58 0.058 0.33%
C4H10
Iso-Bentan 45.241 0.09% 72 0.0648 0.369%
C5H12
N-Bentan 45.357 0.06% 72 0.0432 0.246%
C5H12
N-Hexan 44.752 0.03% 86 0.0258 0.147%
C6H14

COGENERATION _ 2011 17
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Constant pressure specific heat

Cp0IN2 =39.060- 512079T(-1.5) +1072.7T(-2) - 820.4T(-3)

Cp0IO2=37.43+0.020102T(1.5)-178.57T(-1.5)+236.88T(-2)

Cp0IH2O=143.05-183.54T(0.25)+82.751T(0.5)-3.698T

Cp0Ico2=-3.735+30.529T(0.5)-4.1034T+0.0241T(2)

Note that T=

Combustion equation
0.8343CH4+0.1178C2H6+0.022C3H8+0.0148C4H10+0.0033C4H10+
0.00369C5H12+0.00246C5H12+0.00147C6H14+λ(O2+3.76N2)
→aCo2+bH2o+dN2+fO2

∵λ'=(%CH4*(n+ ) 4)+(%C2H6*(n+ ) 2 6)

+(%C3H8*(n+ ) 3 8)+ (%C4H10*(n+ ) 4 10)

+ (%C5H12*(n+ ) 5 10)+(%C6H14*(n+ ) 6 14)

λ'=3.08075

∵ λ=excess air *λ'=4(3.08075)=12.323

To get a-b-d-f:
At carbon
(0.915)+(2*0.0689)+(3*0.0088)+(4*0.0045)+(4*0.001)

+(0.0009*5)+(0.0005*5)+(0.0003*6)=aGet a=1.11

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

At Hydrogen
(0.195*4)+(0.0689*6)+(0.0088*8)+(0.0045*10)

+(0.001*10)+(0.0009*12)+(0.0005*12)+(0.0003*14)=b

Get b=2.1054

At Nitrogen
3.76*2*12.323=2d

Get d=46.33448

At Oxygen
λ*2=f * 2
Get f=λ=12.323

Nt=a+b+d+f=1.11+2.1054+46.33+12.323=61.87288

TO GET CALCULIFIC VALUE

C.V=(%CH4*C.VCH4)+(%C2H6*C.VC2H6)
+(%C3H8*C.VC3H8)+(%C4H10*C.VC4H10)
+(%C4H10*C.VC4H10)+(%C5H12*C.VC5H12)
+(%C5H12*C.VC5H12)+(%C6H14*C.VC6H14)
C.V=(0.8343*50.009)+(0.1178*47.794)+(0. 022*46.357)

+(0.0148*45.613)+(0.0033*45.752)+(0.00369*45.241)

+(0.00246*45.357)+(0.00147*44.752)=49.755MJ/Kg
COGENERATION _ 2011 19
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

To calculate Cpgas ,gas

. . . . . ∗
Cpco2=

Cpco2=52.9534 KJ/kmole.k

. . . . . .
CpH2O =

CpH2O =40.397 KJ/kmole.k

. . . . .
CpN2 =

CpN2 =39.042 KJ/kmole.k

. . . . . .
CpO2=

CpO2= 31.5934 KJ/kmole.k

Cpg =

= .(a*Cpco2+b*CpH2o+d*CpN2+F*CpO2) =
1
(1.11 ∗ 52. ) + (2.105 ∗ 40. )
61.
+ (26.33448 ∗ 39. ) + (12.323 ∗ 31.5934)

Cpg`=37.8539 Kg/kmole. k

M.W)mix=

= .(a*MWco2+b*MWH2o+d*MWN2+f*MWO2)=
COGENERATION _ 2011 20
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

1
(1.11 ∗ ) + (2.105 ∗ ) + (46.3344 ∗ )+
61.
(12.323 ∗ 32)
MW)mix=28.7433 Kg/kmole .k
.
Cpg=
) . .

Rg=
. . . .
Rg=
.

Rg=293.209 J/Kg.k

g =

Cvg=Cpg-Rg =1.31696-0.293209

Cvg=1.02375 KJ/Kg.k. γg = .. = 1.

COGENERATION _ 2011 21
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

Calculations Of Gas Turbine Cycle

ȣ .
rpmax=(
ȣ .

take: rp=11

COGENERATION _ 2011 22
 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

.
.

.
ηc = 0.84 =
T2 k

rp=
Assume no pressure drop in combustion chamber

P2 =P3 =11bar
T3 ȣg
= (rp)^( )
ȣg − 1
1200 .
=( ) .

ηt = 0.87 = .

T4 =768.132°k
W°elec =ηm*ηg*(W°T- W°c)
(W°T-W°c) = 35.51136364*(106)
W°net ={m°g*Cpg*(T3-T4)-m°a*Cpa*(T2-T1)}
m°g = m°a+m°f
W°net = (m°a+m°f)*Cpg*(T3-T4)-m°a*Cpa*(T2-T1)

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 Chapter 1 INTRODUCTION

35.51136*(106) =(m°a+m°f)*(1316.96) *(1200-768.132)

-(m°a)*(1005)*(651.427-300)
-35.511363*(106) =568752.88*(m°a+m°f)*
353184.135*(m°a)→(A)
Balance on combustion chamber

m°a*Cpa*T2 + m°f*(C.V)Ng = m°g*Cpg*T3

m°a*Cpa*T2 + m°f*(C.V)Ng = (m°a+m°f)*Cpg*T3
m°a*(1005)*(651.427)+(m°f)*(49.755)*(106)
=(m°a+m°f)*(1316.96)*(1200)
654684.135*(m°a)+49.755*106*(m°f)
(m°a+m°f)*(1580352) →(B)

From (B)→

Sub in (A)→get:
m°f = 3.01259 Kg/sec
m°a =156.7849 Kg/sec
m°g =159.79749 Kg/sec

COGENERATION _ 2011 24
 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

Chapter 2
Compressor

COGENERATION _ 2011 25
 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

General Compressor Theory

Compressors are mechanical devices used to increase the pressure of air, gas or
vapor and in the process move it from one location to another. The inlet or suction
pressure can range from low sub-atmospheric pressure levels to any pressure level
compatible with piping and vessel strength limits. The ratio of absolute discharge
pressure to absolute suction pressureis the compressor pressure ratio. Stage
compression is limited to the mechanical capabilities of the compressor and,
generally, approaches a C.R of 4 (in centrifugal compressors), to achieve high
pressures multiple stages must be employed.

Introduction

In this chapter we will overview compressor types and their typical applications.
There are two types of compressor:
1) Positive displacement compressors: are constant volume, variable energy
(head) machines that are not affected by gas characteristics.
2) Dynamic compressors: are variable volumes, constant energy (head)
machines that are significantly affected by gas characteristics.

The type of compressor that will be used for a specific application therefore
depends on the flow rate and pressure required and the characteristic of the gas to
be compressed, In general dynamic compressors are the first choice since their
maintenance requirements are the lowest, the next choice are rotary type positive
displacement compressors since they do not contain valves and are gas pulsation
free and the last choice are reciprocating compressors since they are the highest
maintenance compressor type and produce gas pulsations.

Function of compressor

1-Supply enough air to satisfy the requirements of combustion chamber.

2-The compressor must increase the pressure of the mass of air received from the
airinlet duct and then discharge it to the combustion in the required quantity
and pressure.
3-Supply bleeds air for cooling of turbine blades.

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 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

Types of dynamic compressors

1) Centrifugal compressor.
2) Axial compressor.

Centrifugal compressor

The flow through the centrifugal compressor is turned perpendicular to the axis of
rotation.

Figure (2-1) multi stage Centrifugal compressor

Function of the Centrifugal compressors

The centrifugal compressor, like the axial compressor, is a dynamicmachine that
achieves compression by applying inertial forces to the gas(acceleration,
deceleration, turning) by means of rotating impellers, and the centrifugal
compressor is made up of one or more stages. Each stage consisting of an impeller
and a diffuser, the impeller is the rotating element and the diffuser is the stationary
element. Generally gas enters the compressor perpendicular to the axis and turns
in the impeller inlet (eye) to flow through the impeller. The flow through the
impeller then takes place in one or more planes perpendicular to the axis or shaft
of the machine.

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 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

The centrifugal compressor main component

1) Inlet guide vanes.
2) Impeller& rotor.
3) Diffuser.
4) Volutecasing.

Figure (2-2 ) Centrifugal Compressor impeller and blades

Advantages of centrifugal compressor

1)Simplicity of manufacture.
2) Usually operate at speeds greater than 3,000 rpm.
3) Easy design.
4) High pressure ratio per stage.
5) Low cost.

Disadvantages of centrifugal compressor

1) Less developed.
2) Complex diffuser.
3) Large loss at trailing edge.
4) More blades.
5) More boundary layer loss.

COGENERATION _ 2011 28
 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

Axial flow compressor

The air in an axial compressor flows in an axial direction through series of
rotor blades and stationary stator vanes that are concentric with the axis
of rotation.

Figure (2-3) multi stage axial flow compressor

The Axial flow compressor main component
1) Accelerating stator (nozzle or inlet guide blades).
2) A work transfer component between stations(called rotor, runner or impeller).
3) A decelerating stator (diffuser, draft tube or exit guide blades.
Any stage must have at least the rotor; the presence of the inlet accelerating
component or exit decelerating components is not always necessary .The stagnation
temperature remains constant throughout the stator since there is no work feed into
the fluid as shown in figure (2-4).

Figure (2-4) T-S Diagram through compressor

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 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

The stagnation pressure rise occurs wholly in the rotor, but in practice, there will
be some losses in the stator due to fluid friction which will result in a decrease in
stagnation pressure. There are also some losses in the rotor and the stagnation
pressure rise will be less than of an isentropic compression.

Velocity triangles
Air enters the rotor blade with absolute velocity C1 at an angle α1measured from
the axial direction. Air leaves the rotor blade with absolute velocity C2 at an angle
α2. Air passes through the diverging passages formed between the rotor blades. As
work is done on the air in the rotor blades, C2 is larger than C1.
The rotor row has tangential velocity U. combining the two velocity vectors gives
the relative velocity at inlet V1at an angle β1 , V2 is the relative velocity at the rotor
Outlet. It is less than V1, showing diffusion of the relative velocity has taken place
with some static pressure rise across the rotor blades. Turning of the air towards
the axial direction is brought about by the camber of the blades as shown in figure
(2-5).

Euler equations provide the work done on the air:Wc= U (Cu2 – Cu1)

Figure (2-5) Velocity Triangles

COGENERATION _ 2011 30
 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

The axial flow compressor compresses it's working fluid by first accelerating the
fluid and then diffusing it to obtain pressure increase. The fluid is accelerated by a
row of rotating airfoils called rotor and then diffused in a row of stationary blades
(stator), one additional row of fixed blades (inlet guide vanes) are used in
compressor inlet to control the angle of air for first stage and at compressor exit to
diffuses the air and to controls its velocity entering combustion chamber.

Flow through axial compressor

Using multi stage compressor very high efficiencies can be obtained, pressure rise
for one stage become 1:1.4. Gases flowing over the moving airfoil exerts lift and
drag force approximately perpendicular and parallel to the surface of the airfoil
(Figure 2-6).

The resultant of these forces can be resolved into two components:

1. The component parallel to the axis of the compressor represents an equal and
opposite rearward force on the gas causing an increase in pressure.
2. A component in the plane of rotation represents the torque required to drive
the compressor.

From the aerodynamic point of view there are two limiting factors to the
successful operation of the compressor, they are the angle of attack of the airfoil
and the speed of the airfoil relative to the approaching gas (Figure 2-7).

Figure (2-7) Figure (2-6)

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If the angle of attack is too steep, the flow will not follow the concave surface of
the airfoil. This will reduce lift and increase drag, if the angle of attack is too
shallow, the flow will separate from the concave surface of the airfoil and this also
results in increased drag. The airfoils are curved, convex on one side and concave
on the other, with the rotor rotating toward the concave side, the concave side is
called the pressure side of the blade, and the convex side is called the suction side
of the blade.

The chord line of an airfoil is a straight line drawn from the leading edge to the
trailing edge of the airfoil, the camber line is a line drawn halfway between the
two surfaces, and the distance between thecamber line and the chord line is the
camber of the blade and the camber angleθ is the turning angle of the camber
line as shown in figure (2-8).
If the speed of the airfoil relative to the air is too high, a shock will develop as the
air exceeds the speed of sound trying to accelerate as it passes around the airfoil.

Figure (2-8)

This shock will cause turbulent flow and result in an increase in drag. Depending
on the length of the airfoil, this excessive speed could apply only to the tip of the
compressor blade. Manufacturers have overcome this, in part, by decreasing the
length of the airfoil and increasing the width (or chord).

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For single stage operation, the angle of attack depends on the relation of airflow
to speed. It can be shown that the velocity relative to the blade is composed of two
components :

1- The axial component depends on the flow velocity of the air through the
compressor.
2- The tangential component depends on the speed of rotation of the compressor
shown in Figure (2-9).

Figure (2-9)

Therefore, if the flow for a given speed of rotation (rpm) is reduced, the direction
of the air approaching each blade is changed so as to increase the angle of
attack. This results in more lift and pressure rise until the stall angle of attack is
reached.

From the mechanical point of view, blade stresses and blade vibration are limiting
factors. The airfoil must be designed to handle the varying loads due to centrifugal
forces, and the load of compressing air to higher and higher pressure ratios.

These are conflicting requirements. Thin, light blade designs result in low
centrifugal forces, but are limited in their compression-load carrying ability, while
thick, heavy designs have high compression-load carrying capability, but are
limited in the centrifugal forces they can withstand. This reduction in flow area
compensates for the increase in fluid density as it is compressed, permitting a
constant axial velocity.

Figure (2-10): shows the stators, the stationary blades that are in between each
rotor blade and cause the flow to be diffused (increase in the static pressure,
reduction of the absolute velocity).

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Figure (2-10)
Also the early stages of the stators in figure (2-10) are adjustable, as can be noted
by their circular base; the adjustable stators allow the stator to be positioned to
the correct flow angle leaving the blades as the air mass flow varies with load and
inlet temperature.

In figure (2-10): the length of the blades and the annulus area (the area between
the shaft and shroud) decreases throughout the length of the compressor. The low-
pressure increase per stage also simplifies calculations in the preliminary design
of the compressor by justifying the air as incompressible in its flow through the
stage.

In most preliminary calculations used in the design of a compressor,

the average blade height is used as the blade height for the stage.
As with other types of rotating machinery, an axial compressor can be described
in a cylindrical coordinate system. The z axis is along the axis of rotation, which is
along the running length of the compressor shaft; the radius r is measured outward
from the shaft; and the angle of rotation θ is the angle turned by the blades in
figure (2-11).

Figure (2-11): This coordinate system will be used throughout this discussion of
axial flow compressors.
Figure (2-12): shows the pressure, velocity, and total temperature(enthalpy)
variation for flow through several stages of an axial compressor.

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Figure (2-12) Figure (2-11)

In an axial flow compressor, each stage incrementally boosts the pressure from the
Previous stage. A single stage of compression consists of a set of rotor blades
attached to a rotating disk, followed by stator vanes attached to a stationary ring.

The flow area between the compressor blades is slightly divergent also flows area
between compressor vanes is also divergent, but more so than for the blades. In
general terms, the compressor rotor blades convert mechanical energy into
gaseous energy, This energy conversion greatly increases total pressure.

Most of the increase is in the form of velocity with a small increase in static
pressure due to the divergence of the blade flow paths, the stator vanes slow the
air by means of their divergent duct shape, converting the accelerated velocity to
higher static pressure and the vanes are positioned at an angle such that the
exiting air is directed into the rotor blades of the next stage at the most efficient
angle as shown in figure (2-13).

The compressor also incorporates the inlet guide vanes and the outlet guide
vanes. These vanes, located at the inlet and the outlet of the compressor, are
neither divergent nor convergent. The inlet guide vanes direct air to the first stage
compressor blades at the "best" angle also the outlet guide vanes "straighten" the
air to provide the combustor with the proper airflow direction.

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Figure (2-13)

The efficiency of a compressor is primarily determined by the smoothness of the

airflow. During design, every effort is made to keep the air flowing smoothly
through the compressor to minimize airflow losses due to friction and turbulence.
This task is a difficult one, since the air is forced to flow into ever-higher pressure
zones. Air has the natural tendency to flow toward low-pressure zones.

If air were allowed to flow "backward" into the lower pressure zones, the
efficiency of the compressor would decrease tremendously asthe energy used to
increase the pressure of the air was wasted. To prevent this from occurring, seals
are incorporated at the base of each row of vanes to prevent air leakage. In
addition, the tip clearances of the rotating blades are also kept at a minimum by
the use of coating on the inner surface of the compressor case.

All components used in the flow path of the compressor are shaped in the form of
airfoils to maintain the smoothest airflow possible, the angle at which the air flows
across the airfoils is critical to performance The blades and vanes of the
compressor are positioned at the optimum angles to achieve the most efficient
airflow at the compressor’s maximum rated speed. Any deviation from the
maximum rated speed changes the characteristics of the airflow within the
compressor.

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Degree of Reaction

The degree of reaction in an axial-flow compressor is defined as the ratio of the

change of static head in the rotor to the head generated in the stage. The 50%
reaction stage is widely used, since an adverse pressure rise on either the rotor or
stator blade surfaces is minimized for a given stage pressure rise. When designing
a compressor with this type of balding, the first stage must be preceded by inlet
guide vanes to provide pre-whirl and the correct velocity entrance angle to the
first-stage rotor.

With a high tangential velocity component maintained by each succeeding

stationary row, the magnitude of W1 is decreased thus, higher blade speeds and
axial-velocity components are possible without exceeding the limiting value of
0.70 to 0.75 for the inlet Mach number.

Advantages of a stage with 50% degree of reaction

1-Higher blade speeds result in compressors of smaller diameter and less weight.
2-The equality of static pressure rises in the stationary and moving blades,
resulting in a maximum static pressure rise for the stage. Therefore, a given
pressure ratio can be achieved with a minimum number of stages.

Disadvantages of a stage with 50% degree of reaction

1-The high exit loss resulting from the high axial-velocity component.
2-However, the advantages are of such importance in aircraft applications that
the symmetrical compressor normally is used.

Advantage of a stage with greater than 50% reaction

The degree of reaction is in range 60% to 90%.
1-The low exit loss resulting from lower axial velocity and blade speeds. Because
ofthesmall static pressure rise in the stationary blades.
2-Higher actual efficiencies have been achieved in this stage type than with the
symmetrical stage, because of the reduced exit loss.

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Disadvantages of a stage with greater than 50% reaction

1- Necessary to greater number of stages to achieve a given pressure ratio and
create a heavy compressor.
2- The lower axial velocities and blade speed, necessary to keep within inlet Mach
number limitations, result in large diameters.

Compressor Operation Characteristics

There are mainly two phenomena that can cause a compressor to break down, are
stall and surge. Gas turbines, for example, may encounter severe performance and
durability problems if the compressor is not able to avoid stall and surge.In
preliminary designs there is a need for reliable methods for computing the
compressors stall margin capability. This because it is difficult to correct and
change the compressor stall margin after its basic design has been choosed.
A compressor operates over a large range of flow and speed delivering a stable
head/pressure ratio. During start up the compressor must be designed to operate
in a stable condition at low rotational speeds.
There is an unstable limit of operation known as surging, and it is shown on the
performance map as the surge line as shown in figure (2-14).

Figure (2-14)
The surge point in a compressor occurs when the compressor back pressure is
high and the compressor cannot pump against this high head, causing the flow to
separate and reverse its direction.

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Compressor Surge
Compressor surge is a phenomenon of considerable interest; yet it is not fully
Understood. It is a form of unstable operation and should be avoided.
It is a phenomenon that, unfortunately, occurs frequently, sometimes with
damaging results. Surge has been traditionally defined as the lower limit of stable
operation in a compressor, and it involves the reversal of flow.This reversal of flow
occurs because of some kind of aerodynamic instability within the system also any
decrease in the mass flow rate, an increase in the rotational speed of the impeller,
or both can cause the compressor to surge.

In a typical compressor it is normal that if the mass flow is reduced then the
pressure rise increases. At a certain point in an operating range the pressure rise
is at its maximum, in a further reduction in mass flow will lead to an abrupt and
definite change in flow pattern in the compressor. This change in flow pattern is
known as surge and can cause the flow to start oscillating backwards and
forwards, and after a while the compressor will break down as shown in figure
(2-15) , (2-16) which shows damage for rotor and stator due to surge.

Note that operating at higher efficiency implies operation closer to surge and total
pressure increases occur only in the rotational part of the compressor and the
blades.

Figure (2-15) Rotor Figure (2-16) Stator

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Factors leading to surge

At full load
1-Power Loss.
2-Molecular Weight Changes.
3-Intercooler Failure
4-Rapid Load Changes
5-Compressor Fouling
6-Dirty Compressor.

At part load
1-Start/Stop Cycles.
2-Load Changes.

Some of the consequences of surge are listed below

1-Unstable flow and pressure.
2- Damage to seals, bearings, impellers, stators and shaft.
3-Changes in clearance.
4- Reduction in compressor throughput.
5-Reduction in efficiency.
6- Shortened compressor life.

Compressor Stall
If the mass flow is reduced the axial velocity will, according to the continuity
equation, also decrease. This will increase the air inlet angle and, due to the
difference in air inlet angle and blade inlet angle, create incidence. With an
increasing incidence angle the flow will eventually separate from the surface at the
trailing edge. The separation will grow with a further increase of incidence angle,
and finally cover the whole upper blade.In preliminary designs there is a need for
reliable methods for computing the compressors stall margin capability..This
because it is difficult to correct and change the compressor stall margin after its
basic design has been chose.

Rotating stall (propagating stall) consists of large stall zones covering several
blade passages and propagates in the direction of the rotation and at some fraction

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of rotor speed. The number of stall zones and the propagating rates vary
considerably. Rotating stall is the most prevalent type of stall phenomenon.

The propagation mechanism can be described by considering the blade row to be a

cascade of blades as shown in Figure (2-17). A flow perturbation cause’s blade 2
to reach a stalled condition before the other blades .This retarded flow diverts the
flow around it so that the angle of attack increases on blade 3 and decreases on
blade 1. In this way a stall cell may move along the cascade in the direction of the
lift on the blades.

Figure (2-17)

De Haller number
In most compressor stages both the rotors and the stators are designed to diffuse
the fluid, and hence transform its kinetic energy into an increase in static enthalpy
and static pressure.

The more the fluid is decelerated, the bigger pressure rise, but boundary layer
growth and wall stall is limiting the process. To avoid this, de Haller proposed that
the overall deceleration ratio, i.e. W2/W1 and C2/C3 in a rotor and stator
respectively, should not be ≤ 0.72.

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Compressor Choke
The compressor choke point is when the flow in the compressor reaches Mach 1 at
the blade throat, a point where no more flow can pass through the compressor.

Figure (2-18)

This phenomenon often is known in the industry as stone walling. The more
stages, the higher the pressure ratio, the smaller the operational margin between
surge and choke regions of the compressor, as shown in Figure (2-18).

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Compressor troubleshooting

Symptom Possible causes

Failure to deliver output -Excessive clearance between vanes, lobes.

-worn or broken blades.

Insufficient output or low pressure -Restricted or dirty inlet filter.

-Excessive leakage
-Inadequate speed.
-System demand exceeds capacity.

Compressor overheats -Excessive discharge pressure.

-Worn or broken blades.
-Excessive speed.
-Inadequate cooling.

Compressor knocks -Inadequate lubrication.

-Insufficient head clearance.
-Excessive crosshead clearance.
-Misalignment at coupling.
-Damaged foundation.
-Loose motor rotor/shaft.

High discharge temperature -dirty fins on air cooled compressors.

-Dirty or plugged intercooler.
-Abnormal (high) intercooler pressure.

Cooling water discharge temperature too high -Low level of coolant.

-Dirty water jackets.
-Worn or broken valves.
-Excessive discharge pressure.
-Dirty or corroded intercooler.
-Abnormal intercooler pressure.

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Compressor Design calculation

Case study
Compression ratio rp = 11.
Rotational speed N= 3000 R.P.M.
Mass flow rate m0a = 156.79 kg/sec
Tip speed Ut = 300 m/s……………………………..range (300-350 m/s)
Hup to tip ratio ξ =0.54…......................................range(0.4-0.8)
De Heller number at mean = 0.72.
Efficiency of compressor ηc=0.84.
Polytropic efficiency ηp =0.9.
Solidity = 0.8.
Aspect ratio = 4.
Total inlet temp T01 =302.5°k.
Total inlet pressure P01=1bar.
Pressure ratio per stage πst= 1.2.

Assumption
No inlet guide vanes α1= 90 (c1=ca)
Use free vortex method
Use airfoil of NASA 65- (18) 10.

Design procedure
1-We can get from eq. (1) , and then get rh , rm , Um and Uh .
2- Then we can sub. In eq. (2) and get an eq. in ο and ca.
3- Then we can by sub. In eq. (3) get an eq. in ο and ca, then we can get
ο and ca, after that sub. to get P1 , T1 and ο.
4- Then we can get A , H , V and M at mean , tip and hup.
5-After that draw Um at inlet section and draw ca then we can get w1.
6-∵Deheller no. at mean section (w2/w1) = 0.72 , then we can get w2 and
Draw the triangle at mean section and get cum
7- Sub in eq. (4) we can get cut and cuh.
8-Then we can draw velocity triangles at tip and hup.
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Calculation
At inlet section

Ut = 2* *rt*N .………………………………..(1)

°
rt2= ( ) )
.................(2)
∗ ∗ ∗(

P1 1
= ^( )
−1

^
T1 = T01 – ρ1= ......................(3)

rm = ξ=

Uh = 2* *rh*NUm = 2* *rm*N
°
H1 = A1 =
∗ ∗ ∗

Vm2=Um2 + Ca2 M =
m
∗ ∗

Vt2 = Ut2 + Ca2 M=

t
∗ ∗

Vh2 = Uh2 + Ca2 M =

h
∗ ∗

For free vortex design

Cum* rm = Cut*rt = Cuh*rh................--(4)

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At mean section

De Heller no. = 0.72

Um = 231 m/s. Cum =71.5927 m/s.
W1 = 240.9074 m/s. W2 = 173.4533 m/s.

Ca = 68.3766311 m/s. C2 = 98.99 m/s.

α1 = 90°
α2 = 43.6837°
β1 = 16.4889°
β2 = 23.2166°
β2 -β1 (blade twist) = 6.7277°
R∞m(kinematic degree of reaction) = 0.8807.

m(flow coefficient)= 0.296.

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At Tip section

UT = 300 m/s. Cut = 55.1264 m/s.

W1 = 307.6936 m/s. W2 = 254.2414 m/s.

Ca = 68.3766311 m/s. C2 = 87.831 m/s.

α1 = 90°
α2 = 51.1237°
β1 = 12.8396°
β2 = 15.4093°
β2 -β1 (blade twist) = 2.5697°
R∞t(kinematic degree of reaction)= 0.9081.

t(flow coefficient) = 0.2279.

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At hub section

Uh = 162 m/s.Cuh = 102.0859 m/s.

W1 = 175.839 m/s. W2 = 90.9127 m/s.

C1 = 68.3766311 m/s. C2 = 122.8694 m/s.

α1 = 90°
α2 = 33.841°
β1 = 22.8835°

β2 = 48.5°

β2 -β1 (blade twist) = 20.2094°

R∞h (kinematic degree of reaction) = 0.6849.

h(flow coefficient) = 0.4221.

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At out section

9-Sub. In eq. (5) we can get po2 and from eq. (6) we also can get T02 after that get
T2from eq. (7) and get .
10-Then get A2 and H2 and then rt2 and rh2

P02 = P01*rp ..........--................-..-(5)

.............(6)
n−1 +−1
= ,p ∗
n +
P2 2
= ^( )
−1

T2 = T02 –

ρ2= ..............................(7)
°
A2 =
∗

H2 =
∗ ∗

Get H2= 0.104 m.

rt2 = rm+ = 0.7873 m.

rh2 = rm− = 0.6833.

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At tip section

Ut = 244.2918 m/s. Cut = 67.6974 m/s.

W1= 253.6806 m/s. W2=189.3699 m/s.

Ca=68.37663 m/s. C2= 96.2201 m/s.
α1 = 90°
α2 = 45.286°
β1 = 15.6368°
β2 = 21.1662°
β2 -β1 (blade twist) = 5.5294°
R∞t(kinematic degree of reaction) = 0.8614.

t(flow coefficient) = 0.2279.

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At hub section

Uh = 217.7082 m/s. Cuh = 75.9637 m/s.

W1= 228.1943 m/s. W2= 157.375 m/s.

Ca = 68.3766311 m/s. C2= 102.2049 m/s.

α1 = 90°

α2 = 41.9911°

β1 = 17.4362°
β2 = 25.7524°
β2 -β1 (blade twist) = 8.3162°
R∞t(kinematic degree of reaction) = 0.8255.

t(flow coefficient) = 0.3141.

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To estimate no of stages

∵πtt = πstz

Z=13.152 stages.

In our design we take 15 stages

Aspect ratio = 4 =(hi/ci).

hi= (Dti-Dhi)/2 = (1.909859-1.03132)/2

Get hi = 0.439267 m.

Then we can get ci = 0.1098169 m.

ho = (Dto-Dhi)/2 = (1.555-1.38597)/2.

Get ho = 0.0846182 m.

Then we can get co = 0.02155455 m.

∵ Solidity = σ= 0.8 =(S/C)

We can get space at inlet and exit section.

Si = 0.0878535 m.

So = 0.01724364 m.

After that we can get no of blades at inlet and exit section.

Zi = (-*Dmi)/Si .

= (-*1.470589)/ (0.0878535)

Zo = (-*Dmo)/So .

= (-*1.470485)/ (0.01724364) = 267.9 blade.

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Diffusion factor:-
At inlet section
Hub section
Dhi= (1 – (w2/w1)) + (cu1 – cu2)/(2*.*w1)= 0.120124 <0 .6

Tip section
Dti= (1 – (w2/w1)) + (cu1 – cu2)/(2*.*w1) = 0.061743. < 0.4

Out section
Hup section
Dho = (1 – (w2/w1)) + (cu1 – cu2)/(2*.*w1) = 0.1022899. <0 .6
Tip section
Dto = (1 – (w2/w1)) + (cu1 – cu2)/(2*.*w1) = 0.08672165.< 0.4

To get angle of attack

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∵ - -
∵at solidity of . = 0.8.

∵angle of attack = βs−β1m .

∴ e can get staggered angle ( βs)= 30.4889 °.
∴

% chord (exit) in <m> Thickness (exit) in <m> % chord (inlet) in Thickness (inlet) in
<m> <m>

0 0 0 0

0.00010777275 0.00000083200563 0.000549084 0.00000423893

0.000161659125 0.000001506663045 0.0008236267 0.000007676201

0.000269431875 0.000003149658619 0.001372711 0.00001604

0.00053886375 0.00000482071543 0.002745422 0.00004321295

0.0010777275 0.00002346212768 0.005490845 0.000119535

0.00161659125 0.00004279117039 0.008236267 0.000218014

0.002155455 0.000065525832 0.01098169 0.00033384337

0.0032331825 0.0001185284705 0.016472535 0.00060388313

0.00431091 0.0001786010013 0.02196338 0.000909942833

0.0053886375 0.0002426503466 0.027454225 0.00123626375

0.006466365 0.000307798974 0.03294507 0.00156818533

0.0075440925 0.0003714711147 0.038435915 0.0018925844

0.00862182 0.0004307461272 0.04392676 0.00219458093

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 Chapter 2 COMPRESSOR

0.0096995475 0.0004813885424 0.049417605 0.0024525973

0.010777275 0.000518602473 0.0549084445 0.0026421946

0.0118550025 0.0005370316133 0.060399295 0.0027308806

0.01293273 0.0005361909858 0.06589014 0.002731805

0.0140104575 0.0005158650452 0.071380985 0.002628247868

0.015088185 0.0004761831186 0.07687183 0.0024260749

0.0161659125 0.000417727179 0.0823626 0.00212825

0.01724364 0.0003426311268 0.08785352 0.001745649

0.0183213675 0.0002537509399 0.093344365 0.001292819455

0.019399095 0.000156653267 0.09883521 0.000800565201

0.0204768225 0.00006265907685 0.104326055 0.0003192377

0.02155455 0 0.1098169 0

Then we can draw cord at inlet and at exit

Cord at inlet

Cord at exit

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We can get total pressure loss coefficient at inlet and exit

= ∆P0 /(0.5* *C^2).
Deflection angle = 6.77
Pressure loss coefficient = 0.004164.
Then we can get incidence angel = 2.

Drawing rotor and stator:

Rotor Stator

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All parameters over the compressor for designed stages

Stage 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
ρ 1.129 1.281 1.452 1.646 1.866 2.115 2.115
T1 300.174 318.198 337.299 357.538 378.9803 401.699 425.775
P1 102740 123100 147500 167670 211850 253910 304350
ca 68.376 68.384 68.368 68.347 68.365 68.387 68.38
Ut 300 291.854 284.691 278.376 272.784 267.852 263.516
rt 0.9549 0.929 0.9062 0.886 0.868 0.853 0.8388
Mt 0.886 0.8383 0.7953 0.7563 0.7207 0.688 0.658
W1t 307.695 299.758 292.785 286.644 281.221 276.444 272.244
W2t 254.241 244.9275 236.691 229.378 222.912 217.166 212.081
C2t 86.831 88.812 89.7139 90.555 91.374 92.137 92.815
w∞t 272.437 263.521 255.646 248.675 242.472 236.979 232.137
R∞t 0.9081 0.9029 0.898 0.893 0.8889 0.884 0.881
Фt 0.2279 0.2343 0.240 0.2455 0.2506 0.255 0.259
βt (1) 12.839 13.187 13.503 13.794 14.059 14.322 14.547
βt (2) 15.409 15.997 16.549 17.072 17.572 18.043 18.473
αt (2) 51.124 50.353 49.646 49.0048 48.434 47.922 47.454
Uh 162 170.148 177.311 183.626 189.218 194.15 198.485
rh 0.5157 0.5416 0.564 0.584 0.6023 0.618 0.6318
Mh 0.5063 0.513 0.516 0.517 0.515 0.5124 0.5076
W1h 175.839 183.376 190.035 195.933 201.189 205.843 209.934
W2h 90.913 99.993 108.339 115.897 122.622 128.627 133.941
C2h 112.869 118.845 115.646 113.055 110.961 109.238 107.788
w∞h 110.957 121.548 130.677 138.598 145.518 151.558 156.825
R∞h 0.6849 0.7144 0.737 0.746 0.7691 0.7806 0.791
Фh 0.422 0.4019 0.385 0.372 0.3613 0.352 0.3445
βh (1) 22.883 21.896 21.085 20.416 19.865 19.404 19.009
βh (2) 43.093 34.368 32.254 30.529 29.141 27.998 27.045
αh (2) 33.814 35.128 36.242 37.196 38.033 38.758 39.375

Where :
ρin m3/kg
T in degree Kelvin.
P in atmospheric.
r in meter.
U,W,C in m/s.

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Stage 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15
ρ 2.7172 3.0795 3.49 3.955 4.4817 4.481 5.608 6.5204
T1 451.284 478.316 506.955 537.298 569.451 603.522 639.627 677.875
P1 364830 437340 524310 628620 753710 903730 1083600 1299400
ca 68.395 68.359 68.379 68.424 68.461 68.463 68.411 68.479
Ut 259.684 256.322 253.338 250.699 248.374 246.332 244.541 242.939
rt 0.8266 0.8159 0.806 0.798 0.791 0.784 0.778 0.773
Mt 0.6306 0.6051 0.581 0.559 0.538 0.519 0.5 0.483
W1t 268.539 265.285 262.404 259.868 257.636 255.669 253.93 252.41
W2t 207.583 203.611 200.1095 197 194.247 191.813 188.73 187.73
C2t 93.456 93.996 94.5373 95.051 95.513 95.9 96.2011 96.572
w∞t 227.839 224.064 220.697 217.711 215.073 212.755 210.724 208.89
R∞t 0.8774 0.874 0.8712 0.868 0.866 0.863 0.862 0.859
Фt 0.263 0.266 0.269 0.273 0.275 0.278 0.279 0.282
βt (1) 14.755 14.933 15.105 15.266 15.41 15.532 15.629 15.741
βt (2) 18.878 19.236 19.578 19.9 20.193 20.45 20.768 20.9
αt (2) 47.041 46.656 46.328 46.043 45.789 45.553 45.327 45.161
Uh 202.318 205.68 208.664 211.303 213.628 215.67 217.461 219.063
rh 0.644 0.654 0.664 0.6762 0.68 0.686 0.692 0.697
Mh 0.501 0.494 0.486 0.478 0.469 0.459 0.449 0.439
W1h 213.566 216.742 219.583 222.106 224.33 226.276 227.968 229.517
W2h 138.619 142.726 146.357 149.581 152.425 154.918 157.093 159.033
C2h 106.585 105.534 104.677 103.967 103.358 102.811 102.298 101.941
w∞h 161.445 165.479 169.036 172.165 174.911 177.32 179.432 181.305
R∞h 0.798 0.8045 0.810 0.8148 0.818 0.822 0.825 0.827
Фh 0.338 0.3324 0.327 0.3238 0.32 0.317 0.314 0.312
βh (1) 18.678 18.384 18.144 17.943 17.769 17.611 17.463 17.359
βh (2) 26.261 25.592 25.042 24.581 24.187 23.842 23.532 23.296
αh (2) 39.918 40.371 40.786 41.157 41.481 41.752 41.97 42.202

Where :
ρin m3/kg
T in degree Kelvin.
P in atmospheric.
r in meter.
U,W,C in m/s.

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After that we can show performance of compressor For

1st stage

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After that we can show performance of compressor For

7th stage

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After that we can show performance of compressor For

15th stage

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chapter 3
combustion chamber

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Introduction

Fig. (3-1) an early combustion chamber

Heat input to the gas turbine brayton cycle is provided by

a combustor. The combustor accepts air from the compressor and delivers it at an
elevated temperature
to the turbine (ideally with no pressure loss). Thus, the combustor is a direct-fired
air heater in which fuel is burned almost stoichiometrically with one third or less
of the compressor discharge air. Combustion products are then mixed with the
remaining air to arrive at a suitable turbine inlet temperature. There are many
types of combustors, but the three major types are
1) Tubular (multiple combustion chamber).
2) tubo-annular.
3) Annular.

Despite the many design differences, all gas turbine combustion chambers have
three features
1) A recirculation zone
2) A burning zone (with a recirculation zone which extends to the dilution
region)
3) A dilution zone.

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The function of the recirculation zone is to evaporate, partly burn, and prepare the
fuel for rapid combustion within the remainder of the burning zone. Ideally, at the
end of the burning zone, all fuel shouldbe burnt so that the function of the dilution
zone is solely to mix the hot gas with the dilution air.

The mixture leaving the chamber should have a temperature and velocity
distribution acceptable to the guide vanes and turbine.

The task of combustion chamber must be accomplished with the minimum loss in
pressure and with the maximum heat release for the limited space available.The
amount of fuel added to the air will depend upon the temperature rise required.

Combustor inlet temperature depends on:-

1- Engine pressure ratio.
2- Load and engine type.
3- The turbine is regenerative or non-regenerative.

The combustor inlet temperatures range from (850°F to1200°F) (454°C to 649°C).
Combustor pressures for a full load operation vary from 45 psia (3.1 Bar) for
small engines to as much as588 psia (40.5 Bar) in complex engines.The variation
in the fuel-to-air ratio between idle and full-load conditions usually does not vary
by more than a factor of three.
The loss of pressure in a combustor is a major problem, since it affects both the
fuel consumption and power output. Total pressure loss is usually in the range of
2–8% of static pressure. This loss is the same as a decrease in compressor
efficiency. The result is increased fuel consumption and lower power output that
affect the size and weight of the engine.
The average inlet temperature to the turbine affects bothfuel consumption and
power output.

To reduce average gas temperature and consequently reduce power output and
efficiency. Thus, the traverse number must have a lower value between 0.05 and
0.15 in the nozzle.

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Combustion Terms
1- Reference velocity: The theoretical velocity for flow of combustor inlet air
through an area equal to the maximum cross section of the combustor casing
For reverse flow combustor (8m/sec)
For straight flow combustor (41m/sec)
2-Profile factor: The ratio between the maximum exit temperature and the average
exit temperature.
3- Traverse number (temperature factor):
(a) The peak gas temperature minus mean gas temperature divided by mean
temperature rise in nozzledesign.
(b) The difference between the highest and the average radial temperature.

4- Equivalence ratio: The ratio of the oxygen content at stoichiometric conditions

and actual conditions.
( / )
Ø=
( / )

5- Lower Heating Value:- The lower heating value of the gas is one in which the
H2O in the products has not condensed. the lower heating value is equal to the
higher heating value minus the latent heat of the condensed water vapor.

COMBUSTION PROCESS
Air from the engine compressor enters the combustion chamber at a velocity up to
500 feet / second (152.4 m/sec), but because at this velocity the air speed is far too
high for combustion, the first thing that the chamber must do is to diffuse it,
(decelerate it and raise its static pressure).

Since the speed of burning kerosene at normal mixture ratios is only a few feet per
second, any fuel lit even in the diffused air stream, which now has a velocity of
about 80 feet per second, would be blown away. A region of low axial velocity has
therefore to be created in the chamber, So that the flame will remain alight
throughout the range of engine operating conditions.

The fuel must be burned with only part of the air entering the chamber, in what is
called a primary combustion zone. This is achieved by means of a flame tube

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(combustion liner) that has various devices for metering the airflow distribution
along the chamber. Approximately 20 % of the air mass flow is taken in by the
snout or entry section .
Immediately downstream of the snout are swirl vanes and a perforated flare,
through which air passes into the primary combustion zone. The swirling air
induces a flow upstream of the center of the flame tube and promotes the desired
recirculation.
The air not picked up by the snout flows into the annular space between the flame
tube and the air casing.

Fig. (3-2) apportioning the airflow

Through the wall of the flame tube body, adjacent to the combustion zone, are a
selected number of secondary holes through which a further 20 % of the main flow
of air passes into the primary zone. the air from the swirl vanes and that from the
secondary air holes interacts and creates a region of low velocity recirculation
.this takes the form of a toroidal vortex, similar to a smoke ring, which has the
effect of stabilizing and anchoring the flame.

Fig. (3-3) Flame stabilizing and general airflow pattern

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It is arranged that the conical fuel spray from the nozzle intersects the
recirculation vortex at its center. This action, together with the general turbulence
in the primary zone, greatly assists in breaking up the fuel and mixing it with the
incoming air.
The temperature of the gases released by combustion is about 1800° to 2000°C.,
which is far too hot for entry to the nozzle guide vanes of the turbine. The air not
used for combustion, which amounts to about 60 % of the total airflow, is therefore
introduced progressively into the flame tube. Approximately a 20% of this is used
to lower the gas temperature in the dilution zone before it enters the turbine and
the 40% is used for cooling the walls of the flame tube.

Fig.(3-3) Flame tube cooling methods

The design of a combustion chamber and the method of adding the fuel may vary
considerably, but the airflow distribution used to effect and maintains combustion
is always very similar to that described.

Velocity is an important factor in primary zone design. A fixed velocity value in the
combustor creates a limited range of mixture strength for which the flame is stable.

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Also, different flame stabilizing arrangements (baffles, jets, or swirl vanes) exhibit
different ranges of burnable mixtures at a given velocity.

The fuel injector:-

The fuel injector injects the fuel into the flow It is important that the fuel is
vaporized before it enters the flame zone. Otherwise, it might not combust properly
.to promote vaporization, the fuel should be atomized .

This means that the fuel is converted into small drops .this increases vaporization
rates .to accomplish this, an atomizer is used. to atomize fuel, it has to be given a
high relative velocity, with respect to the airflow. so-called pressure-assist
atomizers give the fuel a high velocity. on the other hand, air blast atomizers inject
slow-moving fuel into a high-velocity air stream.

Flame stabilization
After the fuel has been injected into the flow, the flow will enter the flame region. it
does this with quite a high velocity. to make sure the flame isn’t blown away, flow
reversal can be applied in the primary zone. This causes the flow to reverse
direction. the best way to reverse the flow, is to swirl it. This is done using
swirlers. the two most important types of swirlers are axial swirlers and radial
swirlers. the most important advantage of flow reversal, is that the flow speed
varies a lot. so there will be a point at which the airflow velocity matches the flame
speed. (The flame speed is the speed, relative to the airflow, at which the flame can
move) this is the point where the flame anchors.

Fig (3-4). Flame stabilization region created by swirl vanes

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Fuel supply
Fuel is supplied to the airstreams by one of two distinct methods. The most
common is the injection of a fine atomized spray into the recalculating airstreams
through spray nozzles.

The second method is based on the pre-vaporization of the fuel before it enters the
combustion zone.In the vaporizing method the fuel is sprayed from feed tubes into
vaporizing tubes which are positioned inside the flame tube. These tubes turn the
fuel through 180 °and as they are heated by combustion, the fuel vaporizes before
passing into the flame tube.

The primary airflow passes down the vaporizing tubes with the fuel and also
through holes in the flame tube entry section which provide ’fans’ of air to sweep
the flame rearwards.cooling and dilution air ismetered into the flame tube in a
manner similar to the atomizer flame tube.

Fig. (3-5) a vaporizer combustion chamber

Combustor design consideration

Cross sectional area
The combustor cross section can be determined bydividing the volumetric flow at
the combustor inlet by a reference velocity which has been selected as being
appropriate for the particular turbine conditions on thebasis of proven
performance in a similar engine.

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Another basis for selecting acombustor cross section comes from correlations of
thermal loading per unit cross section. Thermal loading is proportional to the
primary zone air flow because fuel and air mixtures are near stoichiometric in all
combustors.

Length

Combustor length must be sufficient to provide for flame stabilization, combustion,

and mixing with dilution air. The typical value of the length-to-diameter ratio for
liners ranges from (3 to 6). Ratios for casing range from (2 to 4).

Wobbe number
Wobbe Number is an indicator of the characteristics and
Stability of the combustion process. Increasing the Wobbe Number can cause the
flame to burn closer to the liner.
decreasing the Wobbe Number can cause pulsations in the combustor.

Wobbe number = BTU/cubic foot / √SG

Fuel gas Upper index Lower index Upper index Lower index
Kcal/Sm3 Kcal/Sm3 MJ/Sm3 MJ/Sm3
Hydrogen 11,528 9,715 48.23 40.56
Methane 12,735 11,452 53.28 47.91
Ethane 16,298 14,931 68.19 62.47
Natural gas 12,837 11,597 53.71 48.52
Propane 19,376 17,817 81.07 74.54
Propylene 18,413 17,180 77.04 71.88
N-butane 22,066 20,336 92.32 85.08
Iso-butane 21,980 20,247 91.96 83.90
Butylenes-1 21,142 19,728 88.46 82.54
Lbg 20,755 19,106 86.84 79.94
Acetylene 14,655 14,141 61.32 59.16
Carbon 3,060 3,060 12.80 12.80
monoxide

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1 Joule = 2.3901×10−4 kcal.

1000 BTU/scf = 37.3 MJ/Sm3

Volumetric heat release rate

The heat-release rate is proportional to the fuel-to-air ratio and the combustor
pressure, and it is a function of combustor capacity.

Linear holes
Liner area to casing area and liner hold area to casing area are important to
the performance of combustors. For example, the pressure loss coefficient has a
minimum value in the range of 0.6 of the liner area/casing area ratio with a
temperature ratioof4:1.In practice it has been found that the diameter of holes in
the primary zone should be no larger than 0.1 of the liner diameter. Tubular lines
with about 10 rings of eight holes each give good efficiency. As discussed before,
swirl vanes with holes yield better combustor performance. In the dilution zone,
sizing of the holes can be used to provide a desired temperature profile.

Reliability of combustors

The heat from combustion, pressure fluctuation,and vibration in the compressor

may cause cracks in the liner and nozzle. Also, there are corrosion and distortion
problems. The edges of the holes in the liner are of great concern because the
holes act as stress concentrators for any mechanical vibrations and, on rapid
temperature fluctuations, high-temperature gradients are formed in the region of
the hole edge, giving rise to a corresponding thermal fatigue.

It is necessary to modify the edge of the hole in various ways to reduce these stress
concentrations. Some methods of modification are priming, plunging, and standard
radiusing and polishing methods.

In the Dry Low NOx Combustors, especially in the lean pre-mix chambers,
pressure fluctuations can set up very high vibrations, which lead to major failures.

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Types of combustion chamber

There are three main types of combustion chamber in use for gas turbine engines.

1) Multiple chambers.
2) The tubo-annular chamber.
3) The annular chamber.

Multiple combustion chambers

This type of combustion chamber is used on centrifugal compressor engines and

the earlier types of axial flow compressor engines. It is a direct development of the
early type of Whittle combustion chamber.

The major difference is that the Whittle chamber had a reverse flow. But, as this
created a considerable pressure loss, the straight-through multiple chambers was
developed by Joseph Lucas Limited.

Fig. (3-6) An early whittle combustion chamber.

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Fig. (3-7) Multiple combustion chambers.

The chambers are disposed around the engine, and compressor delivery air is
directed by ducts to pass into the individual chambers. each chamber has an inner
flame tube around which there is an air casing. the air passes through the flame
tube snout and also between the tube and the outer casing .the separate flame
tubes are all interconnected. this allows each tube to operate at the same
pressureand also allows combustion to propagate around the flame tubes during
engine starting.

Tubo-annular combustion chamber

Tubo-annular combustors are the most common type of combustors used in gas
turbines. The industrial gas turbines designed by U.S. companies use the tubo-
annular. The advantage to these types of combustors are the ease of maintenance.
They also have a better temperature distribution than the side single-can
combustor and can be of the straight-through or reverse-flow design. As with the
single-can combustor, most of these combustors are of the reverse-flow design in
industrial turbines. The tubo-annular combustor also requires more cooling air
flow than a single or annular combustor because the surface area of the tubo –
annular combustor is much greater.

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Fig.(3-8) Turbo-annular combustion chamber.

Annular combustion chamber

This type of combustion chamber consists of a single flame tube, completely
annular in form, which is contained in an inner and outer casing. the airflow
through the flame tube is similar to that Already described, the chamber being
open at the front to the compressor and at the rear to the turbine nozzles.

The main advantage of the annular chamber is that, for the same power output, the
length of the chamber is only 75 % of that of atubo-annular system of the same
diameter, resulting in considerable Saving of weight and production cost.

In comparison with a turbo-annular combustion system, the wall area of a

comparable annular chamber is much less; consequently theamount of cooling air
required toprevent the burning of the flame tube wall is less, by approximately 15
%, this reduction in cooling air raises the combustion efficiency to virtually
eliminate un burnt Fuel, and oxidizes the carbon monoxide to non-toxic carbon
dioxide, thus reducing air pollution.

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Fig. (6-4) annular combustion chamber

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Combustion chamber performance

A combustion chamber must be capable of allowing fuel to burn efficiently over a
wide range of operating conditions without incurring a large pressure loss. In
addition, if flame extinction occurs, then it must be possible to relight. In
performing these functions, the flame tube and spray nozzle atomizer component
must be mechanically reliable.

The gas turbine engine operates on a constant pressure cycle; therefore any loss of
pressure during the process of combustion must be kept to a minimum. In
providing adequate turbulence and mixing, a total pressure loss varying from
about 3 to 8 % of the air pressure at entry to the chamber is incurred.

Combustion intensity
The heat released by a combustion chamber or any other heat generating unit is
dependent on the volume of the combustion area. Thus, to obtain the required high
power output, a comparatively small and compact gas turbine combustion
chamber must release heat at exceptionally high rates
ℎ
Combustion intensity =
∗ 3

Combustion efficiency
The efficiency of combustion inside a gas turbine combustion chamber may be
found from measurements of (temperature, velocity and chemical analysis of
combustion products) along the space of the chamber.

Factors affecting combustion efficiency

It was found that the combustion efficiency is affected by the different operating
conditions as follows:
1) increases with pressure and temperature level.
2) Increases with increasing rate of mixing of air and fuel in the primary zone.
3) Decreases with mass flow rate of air.
4) Viscosity and degree of atomization of fuel used are greatly affecting the
combustion efficiency.

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∆ℎactual ( ˙ + ˙ )ℎ3 − ˙ ℎ2
η comb =
∆ℎ ˙ ( )

where:
ηcomb= efficiency.

m˙a = mass flow of gas.

m˙f = mass flow of fuel.

h3 = enthalpy of gas leaving combustor.

h2 = enthalpy of gas entering combustor.

LHV = fuel heating value.

Combustion stability

Combustion stability means smooth burning and the ability of the flame to remain
alight over a wide operating range.

For any particular type of combustion chamber there is both a rich and weak limit
to the air/fuel ratio, beyond which the flame is extinguished.

The range of air/fuel ratio between the rich and weak limits is reduced with an
increase of air velocity, and if the air mass flow is increased beyond a certain
value, flame extinction occurs. the operating range defined By the stability loop
must obviously cover the air/fuel ratios and mass flow of the combustion chamber.

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Emissions

The unwanted pollutants which are found in the exhaust gases are created within
the combustion chamber. there are four main pollutants which are legislatively
controlled
1)Unburnt hydrocarbons (unburnt fuel).
2)Smoke (carbon particles).
3)Carbon monoxide.
4)Oxides of nitrogen.

The principal conditions which affect the formation of pollutants are pressure,
temperature and time. In the fuel rich regions of the primary zone, the
hydrocarbons are converted into carbon monoxide and smoke, fresh dilution air
can be used to oxidize the carbon monoxide and smoke into non-toxic carbon
dioxide within the dilution zone.

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Calculation of combustion chamber

Flame length

Many definitions and techniques for measuring flame lengths are found in the
literature and so single definition is accepted as preferred.
Therefore, care must be exercised in comparing results of different investigators
and in the application of correlation formula.

Factors affecting flame length

1-Relative importance of initial jet momentum flux and buoyant forces acting on
the flame, (Frf).
2-Stoichiometry (fs) .
3-Ratio of nozzle fluid to ambient gas density ( / ∞).
4-Initial jet diameter (dj).

Determination the flame length

combustion chamber (8) injectors

a) Firstly determine the mass flow rate of the fuel of one injector.

m.f(for one injector) =

.
= = 0.376575 /

b) In this step we determine of fs.

(A/F)a= 52.04312

Excess air λ=400%

Fs=
( )

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(A/F)s= 52.04312 4 = 13.

Fs = = 0.
.

c) Determine the heat release rate

.
H.R.R = m f * C.V

H.R.R = 149891.913

d) Determine the combustor volume

combustion intensity =
∗

assume combustion intensity = 1.5*104

volume of combustor = 9.9927 m3
volume of combustor equal to volume of gas

ρgas=

ρgas = 15.9914 kg/sec

m·a = cd*A* 2 ∗ ∗ ∆pa

where
Cd is discharge coefficient =0.8
is compressibility factor =1

∆pa = 34094.154
∆ −∆ = 12
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∆ = 1234094.154 = 12.34

m·f = cf*A* 2 ∗ ∗ ∆Pf

Df = 0.02991 m
Pf = ρf * R * T Pf = 23 bar
Patm = ρ * R * T
ρf = 16.1 kg/m3
e) Determine of the nozzle exit velocity

Ve=m.f/(ρeπdj2/4)
Ve=33.515m/sec
f) Determine the flame Froude number

Frf=vefs1.5/((ρf/ρ∞)0.25((Tf-T∞)/T∞)g×dj).5)
Tf = 2275 °k Ta = 300 °k ρa = 5.8651 kg/m3

Frf = 0.35727
g) Determine the dimensionless flame length
.
. ∗Frf
L* =
2 0.2
. Frf

L* = 8.9281 m
h) calculatedj* to determine actual flame length

dj * = dj * ( )

dj* = 0.0493 m
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i) calculate actual flame length

∗∗ ∗
Lf =

Lf = 6.173 mwe can get

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Chapter 4
Gas turbine

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Introduction
1) The turbine function is to extracts energy and pressure from the hot gases to drive
the fan, the compressor and other accessories.

2) There are two Basic types of turbine used in gas turbine engine:

-Radial flow turbine

-Axial flow turbine

Types of Turbine
Radial Turbine:
Components:

1) Volute casing
2) Nozzle (Stator)
3) Impeller
4) Blade
5) The radial turbine can
handle high pressure
ratios with low mass
flows most efficiently.

Axial Flow Turbine:

The flow enters the nozzle blades and exits the rotor blades in the axial direction.

Components:

1) Nozzle (Stator).

2) Rotor.

3) It handles high mass flow

4) rates most efficiently.

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Turbine Cooling

1) The turbine inlet temperatures of gas turbines have increased considerably over
the past years and will continue to do so.
2) This trend has been made possible by advancement in materials and the use of
advanced turbine blade cooling techniques.
3) The turbine firing temperature increased, leading to high turbine efficiencies.

The air is introduced in such a way as to provide jet impingement cooling of

the inside surface of the very hot leading edge. The spent air leaves through
slots or holes in the blade surface (to provide some film cooling) or in the
trailing edge.
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There is the problem of choosing an aerodynamic design which requires the

least amount of cooling air for a given cooling performance.

Types of cooling techniques

The only method used successfully in production engines has been internal,
forced convection, air cooling with (1.5-2%) of the air mass flow used for
coolingper blade row. The blade temperature can be reduced by between 200
and 300 °c. Using current alloys, this permits turbine inlet temperatures of
more than 1650°K to be used

Convection Cooling

1) This form of cooling is achieved by designing the cooling air to flow inside
the turbine blade or vane, and remove heat through the walls.
2) Usually, the air flow is radial, making multiple passes through a serpentine
passage from the hub to the blade tip.
3) Convection cooling is the most widely used cooling concept in present-day
gas turbines.

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Film cooling
1) This type of cooling is achieved by allowing the working air to form an
insulating layer between the hot gas stream and the walls of the blade.
2) This film of cooling air protects an airfoil in the same way combustor liners
are protected from hot gases at very high temperatures.

The coolant temperature, Tcr, will usually be the compressor delivery temperature,
and will increase significantly as pressure ratio is raised to reduce specific fuel
consumption. Some industrial turbines pass the cooling flow through a water-
cooled heat-exchanger to reduce Tcr and hence the blade relative temperature.
Bleeding air from earlier stages reduces the work input required to pressurize the
cooling air, with beneficial effects on the net output

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To determine the best type to cooling our turbine we get it from the fowling curve:

Gas turbine starting and shutdown

1) Gas turbines must have a source of power to provide the initial compression
needed for ignition.
2) This power source is used to rotate the large mass of the compressor, and
bring it up to the speed necessary to supply combustion air to the combustor.
3) The starting system engages the compressor shaft at the beginning of the
start-up.

Starting systems
1) Once ignition has been obtained, this system is disengaged from the
compressor shaft. A variety of devices can be used to provide the initial
rotation of the main compressor, including:
2) Pneumatic starters using compressed air or gas
3) Electric motors
4) Small diesel engines
5) Steam turbine expanders
Of these, pneumatic starters and electric motors are the most common.

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Pneumatic Starters
1)High-pressure air or gas can be expanded in a small turbine (called a starter
motor) to drive the main gas turbine compressor up to ignition conditions.
2)The user has the option of using air or gas depending on the most convenient
source.
The exhaust of the starter motor is normally vented to the atmosphere.
1) The starter transmits power to the front end of the gas turbine rotor by
means of an overrunning clutch.

Pneumatic Starter System Diagram

(Courtesy Solar Turbines)

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The Fig: Illustrate a pneumatic starter system and Installation. In this case a
dual starter configuration is used.

Electric starters

1) Electric starters consist of an AC motor and a variable frequency drive as

shown in Fig., but otherwise operate in the same fashion as a pneumatic
starter.
2) The variable frequency drive enables the motor speed to be controlled while
still maintaining motor efficiency.

Turning gear
1) On larger gas turbines, especially of the heavy-duty type, the rotors are quite
heavy and they develop sag or bow when they cool down after shutdown.
2) If a rotor becomes bowed, the rotor may lock and prevent startup or it may
result in high vibration until the bow slowly disappears.
3) To prevent this, a special turning motor is provided to slowly turn the shaft for
a number of hours after shutdown.
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4) This is sometimes a hydraulic ratchet or a slow turning electric motor.

5) The motor and the turbine shaft have corresponding gears.
6) The turning motor gear can be engaged or disengaged (normal turbine
operation) with the shaft.

Gas Turbine Start-Up Procedure

 The basic steps in starting a gas turbine are:
 Preparation for startup
 Start initiation
 Crank and light off
 Warm-up
 Loading
 They are usually managed by the control system and the operator
often has no role except to watch the process.

Start Initiation
1) A gas turbine is normally in one of two modes of operation: remote or
local.
2) The mode of operation is set either by a switch on the control panel or a
selection box on a computer screen.
3) When in remote, a higher level process control system has the ability to
initiate a start. When in local, the start can only be initiated from the
control panel.
4) During the startup sequence, a number of operating conditions must be
met as determined by various pressure, temperature and status switches.
5) Timers are used to ensure these conditions occur in the expected time
period, or else the startup will be aborted.
6) Pre-lubrication occurs. Depending on the design of the lube oil system,
the backup pump will start, and if adequate pressure is achieved within a
certain time period, the pre-lube pump will start and the pre-lube timer
resets to ensure adequate pressure.

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Crank and light off

1) Once these steps have been completed, the starter begins to rotate the gas
turbine rotor.
2) The first portion of this process purges the gas turbine for several minutes in
case explosive vapors are still present.
3) The rotor then coasts down to a speed appropriate for light off.
4) Fuel is then admitted to the combustion chambers; the igniters are energized
and light off occur.
5) This results in a rapid increase in speed. The overrunning clutch disengages
the starter, which then shuts down, and the igniters are de-energized.

Startup of a Typical Gas Turbine

Warm-up
1) Once idle speed is reached, the engine is allowed to warm up.
2) For backup power generation, especially for small gas turbines, this may be
very short. When time is not as critical, it is best to permit the engine to
warm up slowly.
3) Heavy-duty gas turbines take longer to start and warm up than aero-
derivatives.
4) On start initiation, the bleed valve(s) will be open and the inlet and variable
guide vanes will be in their closed position.
5) The bleed valves will close either at a certain speed or over a specified
range of speeds.
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6) The guide vanes will open to their optimum position over a range of speeds
as designated by a specified schedule (based on a control program that
relates guide vane position to turbine speed).

Loading

1) After the warm-up is finished, the fuel flow is increased and the load is
applied.
2) For a generator, this will require synchronizing the speed, phase and
voltage, and then closing the breaker.
3) If the gas turbine drives a compressor, the compressor will have been
pressurized prior to the purge crank, and the suction and discharge valves
will have been opened.
4) The compressor is started in the unloaded position, with the recycle valve
open.
5) Loading is accomplished by slowly closing in on the recycle valve.
6) The actual operating point will be determined by the control system.
7) The acceleration and deceleration of the gas turbine is limited to a certain
rate.
8) Sudden increases in speed will cause rapid increases in turbine temperature
that could easily be above the limit.
9) A rapid decrease in speed could cause combustion to be interrupted and any
relighting, without going through the required start-up procedure, would be
catastrophic.

Normal shutdown

1) An operator most often initiates shutdown of a gas turbine although some

systems do have an automatic shutdown when the gas turbine is no
longer required. To a large extent, a shutdown is the reverse procedure
of a startup.
2) The first step in a normal shutdown is to reduce speed to idle so the gas
turbine can cool down.

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3) In this step opening the breaker that connects the generator to the power
system or opening the recycle valve of the compressor unloads the power
turbine, for example.
4) The gas turbine cools down as much as possible to minimize the negative
thermal effects.
5) During this time, the engine can easily be restarted, according to the
specified procedure.
6) When the cool down timer times out, the fuel valve is closed this
extinguishes combustion.
7) The rotor speed decreases until the rotor stops.
8) As the speed drops, the main lube oil pump (if driven off the rotor) will
lose pressure.
9) At a specified point, usually based on oil pressure, the post lube pump
starts up and continues to lubricate and cool the bearings for a specified
time period.
10) The enclosure or building fans shut off.
11) On some gas turbines, the turning gear activates once the rotor stops.

Fast Shutdown
1) In certain situations a fast shutdown will be initiated.
2) This occurs when a protective device detects an abnormal condition such as
high vibration, or when an operator initiates an emergency stop.
3) In this case, the cool down period is eliminated and the fuel valve is closed
immediately.
4) The rest of the shutdown sequence is the same as for a normal shutdown.
5) This type of shutdown increases the wear on the gas turbine because of the
rapid cool down it entails and is reserved for emergency conditions only.

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Troubleshooting guideline
1) Low oil pressure alarm.

2) High oil temperature alarm.

3) Ignition failure.

4) High exhaust temperature.

5) The engine fails to reach the self sustain speed.

6) Fail to load the engine.

Low oil pressure alarm

1) Check the pressure instrumentation (gauge or transmitter).

2) The pressure regulator need adjusting.

3) The lube oil filter need replacement due to high differential pressure.

4) There is blockage in main lube oil header.

5) There is major leak in the lube oil line.

6) The lube oil pump is not pumping due to (cavitations- failure- pump gear
box failure).

High oil temperature alarm

1) Check the temp. Instrumentation (gauge- RTD).
2) Oil cooler is not operating.
3) Oil cooler is not clean.
4) The temp. Control valve is internal leaking (by-passing the cooler).
5) Problem in one or more lube oil bearing.
6) The lube oil needs to be replaced due to aging.

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Ignition failure (fail to ignite - flame failure)

1) The fuel pressure is not enough.
2) The igniter is bad or not cleaned.
3) The flame detector is not working.
4) Bad fuel metering valve.

The engine fails to reach the self sustain speed

1) The fuel pressure is not enough.
2) The fuel metering valve is not working good.
3) The speed pick-up is not working.
4) The starter motor is not engaged or is weak.
5) The clutch of the starter is not working good (slipping – disengaged).
6) The gas turbine itself is not good.
7) The air bleed valve or the IGV in not-correct position.

Fail to load the engine

1) Not enough fuel pressure
2) Fuel metering valve is not good
3) Air bleed valve or IGV is not working good
4) Air intake filter is not clean
5) Bad engine performance

High engine temperature (Exhaust temp.)

1) Sudden increase in fuel pressure
2) One tip or more of thermocouples are bad
3) Bad fuel metering valve
4) Bad fuel contents (liquids in the fuel)
5) Bad air intake filters
6) Bad engine combustors or injectors

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Calculation
input parameters:
p01=11 bar , T01=1200K
πtt=11 ηp =0.9
m⁰g=159.79kg/s cpg =1316.96j/kg.k
ᴕg=1.2864 N=3000rpm

Assumed parameters:
Um =340m/s. (limited due to stress considerations)

Rm = 0.5 . (for most efficient design the expansion is evenly ,divided between the
stator and rotor rows).

Ψm =3 (best stages efficient , reduced friction losses, Øm=0.8 reduce axial thrust)

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Design procedure
In our design procedure we depend on the “Elementary Theory of Axial Flow
Turbine”.

Here is the T-S diagram of the reaction stage.

The design steps are as follow:

.Step 1:Mean diameter design ,The aim of this design is to calculate:

The number of stage, First we calculate temperature drop per stage:

Ψ=
ΔTos =131.67k

Then : Number of stages= NO of stages =3 stage

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 Pressure ratio per stage

πst =πtt / πst= 2.224

1)First we calculate the blade speed

Ut = 2* *rt*N
Where:
1. Rm = mean radius in meter.
2. N = rotational speed in rev/s.
3. Um =blade speed in m/s.

2)Second we calculate axial flow speed

Ø=
Where:
1. Ca= axial flow speed.
2. Um =blade speed in m/s.
3. Ø= flow coefficient.

3) we calculate stage loading coefficient.

Ψ=
where:
1. Ψ=stage loading coefficient.
2.U =blade speed.
4)we calculate radius:

Where:
1.r=radius of blade.
2.U=blade speed.
3.N=speed of rotation.
r=
π
5) Calculation of the temperature.
Thus T01=1200K.

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where:
1.C1=flow speed.
2.Cp=specific heat.

T1=T01-
T02=T01- ΔTos
T2=T02-
T03=T02- ΔTos
T3=T03-

6) Calculation of the pressure

P1=P01 )^(γ/γ-1)
P2=P1 )^(γ/γ-1)ηp
P3=P03 )^(γ/γ-1)
7)Calculation of the density.

Where:

1. ρ1=density of gas
2.P1= pressure
3.R=universal gas constant.

ρ 1= ρ2 = ρ3 =

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8) Calculation of the area

⁰
A1 =
ρ ∗
⁰
A2 =
ρ ∗
9) Calculation the height of blade

H1 =
H2 =
Hm= 0.5*(H1+ H2)
10) Calculation the radius of blade

Rt = rm+ Rh = rm +
11) Calculation of the degree of reaction (Λ).

Λ=
12) Calculation of the whirl Mach number (Mw).

Mc1 =
ȣ∗ ∗

Mc2 =
ȣ∗ ∗

Mc3 =
ȣ∗ ∗

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Mw2 =
ȣ∗ ∗

Mw3 =
ȣ∗ ∗

Free vortex design

Ca = const cam = cat = ca
cui*ri = const cum*rm = cuh*rh = cut*rt
U\r = const Um\ rm= Uh\ rh= Ut\ rt
For First stage

Um/rm = Ut/rt = Uh/rh

Ca1m = Ca1h= Ca1t
Ca2m = Ca2h = Ca2t
Cu1m*rm = Cu1h*rh = Cu1t*rt
Cu2m*rm = Cu2h*rh = Cu2t*rt

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Choice of blade profile :

NASA-65-418 from
“Fluid mechanics, thermodynamics of turbo machinery”

Chord (c) 100 mm

Aspect ratio (S/C) 0.387

Baled bitch 0.0387

Then number of blades 175 blades

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Calculation Results
Table 1 temperatures and pressures

Table 2 temperatures and pressures

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Table 3 density and degree of reaction

Table 4 velocities and angles

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Table 5 angles

Table 6 mach number

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Velocity Triangles
Mean section
First Stage (mean section)

Hup section

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Tip section

second Stage :
mean section

:
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Hup section

Tip section

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Third Stage
mean section

Hub section

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Tip section

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chapter 5
Waste heat recovery boiler

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Introduction

Waste heat is the heat which is generated in a process by way of fuel combustion
or chemical reaction, and then “dumped” into the environment and not reused
even though it could still be reused for some useful and economic purposes.

HRSGs consist of Four major components: the Evaporator, Super heater,

Economizer and Water preheater. The different components are put together to
meet the operating requirements of the unit. See the attached illustration of a
Modular HRSG General Arrangement.

Modular HRSGs can be categorized by a number of ways such as direction of

exhaust gases flow or number of pressure levels. Based on the flow of exhaust
gases, HRSGs are categorized into vertical and horizontal types. In horizontal type
HRSGs, exhaust gas flows horizontally over vertical tubes whereas in vertical type
HRSGs exhaust gas flow vertically over horizontal tubes. Based on pressure levels,
HRSGs can be categorized into single pressure and multi pressure. Single pressure
HRSGs have only one steam drum and steam is generated at single pressure level
whereas multi pressure HRSGs employ two (double pressure) or three (triple
pressure) steam drums. As such triple pressure HRSGs consist of three sections: an
LP (low pressure) section, a reheat/IP (intermediate pressure) section, and an HP
(high pressure) section. Each section has a steam drum and an evaporator section
where water is converted to steam. This steam then passes through super heaters
to raise the temperature and pressure past the saturation point.

The Waste Heat Recovery Boilers are provided with Economizers which improve
their thermal output and efficiency. The Heat Recovery Steam Generator are
ordinarily water tube boilers in which the hot exhaust gases from gas turbines,
pass over a number of parallel tubes containing water. The water is vaporized in

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the tubes and collected in a steam drum from which it is drawn out for use as
heating or processing steam.

Various sources of waste heat

1) Exhaust heat recovery from Reciprocating Engine driven Generation system

used for Captive Power.
2) Cogeneration and Independent Power Production:
- Heavy fuel fired.
- Gas fired.
- Diesel fired.
3) Exhaust heat recovery from Gas Turbine exhaust.
4) Hot Waste Gases from:
- Scrap melting steel furnaces.
- Cement kilns.
- Industrial furnaces.
- Incinerators.
- Process waste Gases.

Sources of Waste Heat

HOEE : Heavy Oil Engine Exhaust
LOEE : Light Oil Engine Exhaust
GEE : Gas Engine Exhaust
EJH : Engine Jacket Heat
GTE : Gas Turbine Exhaust
IEG : Incinerator Exit Gases
CPKG : Cement Plant Kiln Gases
SPF : Steel Plant Furnaces
HGP : Hot Gases From Process
GFG : Glass Furnace Gases
FGFH : Flue Gases From Fired Heaters
AC : Air Compressors
HPC : High Pressure Condensate

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Fire tube boiler

WATER TUBE VERSUS FIRE TUBE BOILERS

Table 2.1 shows a few aspects of fire tube and water tube waste heat boilers.
Generally water tube boilers are suitable for large gas flows exceeding millions of
pounds per hour and can handle high steam pressures and temperatures.
Fire tube boilers are suitable for low steam pressures, generally below (500psig).

TABLE 2.1 A Comparison of Fire Tube and Water Tube Boilers

Variable Fire tube boiler Water tube boiler

Gas flow Small—less than 50,000 lb/h 50,000 to millions of Ib/h

Gas inlet temperature Low to adiabatic combustion Low to adiabatic combustion

Gas pressure High—even as high as 2000 psig Generally less than 2 psig

Firing Possible Possible

Type of heating surface Bare tube Bare and finned tubes

Superheater location At inlet or exit of boiler Anywhere in the gas path using screen section

Water inventory High Low

Heat flux-steam side Generally low Can be high with finned tubes

Multiple steam pressure No Yes

Soot blower location Inlet or exit of boiler No Anywhere inside boiler Surfaces Yes
Multiple modules

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Table 2.2shows the effect of pressure on tube thickness in both types of boilers,
and one can see why fire tube boilers are not suggested for high steam pressure
applications.

TABLE 2.2 Tube Thickness vs. Steam Pressure—ASME Sec

Tube thicknessa External Internal pressure
pressure
(in.) (psig)
(psig)

0.105 575 1147

0.120 686 1339

0.135 800 1533

0.150 921 1730

0.180 1172 2137

a2 in. OD, SA 178a and SA 192 carbon steel tubes at 700_F.

be used for a particular case is determined by the experience of the manufacturer.

Sometimes a combination offire and water tube boilers is used to suit special
needs.

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GENERAL COMPONENT OF HRSG

1) Super heater.
2) Economizer
3) Evaporator.

1) Super heater section.

The Super heater Section of the HRSG is used to dry the saturated vapour being
separated in the steam drum. In some units it may only be heated to little above the
saturation point where in other units it may be superheated to a significant
temperature for additional energy storage. The Super heater Section is normally
located in the hotter gas stream, in front of the evaporator.

2) Evaporator section.

The most important component would, of course, be the Evaporator Section, since
without this coil (or coils), the unit would not be an HRSG. Throughout our
discussion, we will refer to a main heat transfer component as a "section". When
the section is broken into more than one segment, i.e., such as for a change in tube
size, material, extended surface, location, etc., we will refer to the segments as
coils. So an evaporator section may consist of one or more coils. In these coils, the
effluent (water), passing through the tubes is heated to the saturation point for the
pressure it is flowing.

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3) Economizer section.
The Economizer Section, sometimes called a preheater or preheat coil, is used to
preheat the feed water being introduced to the system to replace the steam(vapor)
being removed from the system via the super heater or steam outlet and the water
loss through blow down. It is normally located in the colder gas downstream of the
evaporator.

Since the evaporator inlet and outlet temperatures are both close to the saturation
temperature for the system pressure, the amount of heat that may be removed from
the flue gas is limited due to the approach to the evaporator, known as the pinch
which is discussed later, whereas the economizer inlet temperature is low,
allowing the flue gas temperature to be taken lower.

Types and configurations of HRSGs

The evaporator section type is very important since it generally defines the overall
configuration of the HRSG unit. For this discussion, we will use the word "type" to
refer to the general configuration of the evaporator. Even though there are many
types, or configurations of HRSGs we will define five general types for our
discussion.

1) D-Frame evaporator layout.

2) O-Frame evaporator layout.
3) A-Frame evaporator layout.
4) I-Frame evaporator layout.

1) D-Frame evaporator layout

This configuration is very popular for HRSG units recovering heat from small gas
turbines and diesel engines. It is a very compact design and can be shipped totally
assembled. It is limited, however, since the bent tube arrangement quickly causes
the module to exceed shipping limitations for units having a large gas flow.

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2) O-Frame evaporator layout

This configuration has probably been used for more years than any of the others. It
has the advantage of the upper header being configured as the steam separation
drum. Or, the upper header can be connected to the steam drum by risers, allowing
more than one O-Frame evaporator to be connected to the same steam drum,
resulting in shipable modules being able to handle very large gas flows.

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3) A-Frame evaporator layout

This configuration is simply a variation of the O-Frame Evaporator. It was
popular for services with a large amount of ash, since the center area between the
lower drums could be configured as a hopper to collect and remove solid particles.

4) I-Frame evaporator layout

In the past twenty years, this configuration has become the most popular of all the
Evaporator designs. This type module can be built in multiple axial modules or in
multiple lateral modules, allowing it to be designed to accept any gas flow. There
are numerous variations of this design where tube bundles may contain one, two,
or three rows of tubes per header. It is also, normally, more economical to
manufacture, ship and field construct. The tube bundles may be shipped to field
installed in the modules, or as loose bundles which are installed into a field
erected shell.

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5) Horizontal tube evaporator layout:

The horizontal tube evaporator is used, not only for heat recovery from Gas
Turbine exhaust, but for recovery from flue gases in Refinery and Petrochemical
furnaces also. It has similar size limitations due to shipping restrictions similar to
the O-frame modules. It is generally a less expensive unit to manufacture than the
other configurations, but if it is a natural circulation design with large tubes, such
as in some CO Boilers, or very long tubes, special consideration needs to be given
to assure all tubes are provided with sufficient effluent. These considerations will
be discussed

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CONDUCTION
In conduction heat transfer, thermal energy is transferred by the direct interaction
between adjacent molecules without their physical movement.

Exhibit 2.1 shows conduction through a solid cube, In this case heat flow is
assumed tobe in x-direction only. At each layer, as the heat flows to the next layer,
the energy
level will be less than the preceding layer and a temperature gradient dt/dx is
developed with the heat flow.
Under steady state conditions, the temperature profile does not vary with time and
the amount of heat transferred per unit cross sectional area (Q/A) is proportional
to the temperature gradient dt/dx:
Q/A = k d t
dx
(k) is a constant of proportionality, called thermal conductivity. Thermal
conductivity
describes how well the material conducts heat: the higher the thermal conductivity,
the greater the relative ability of the material to transfer heat.

Thermal conductivity is dependent on the composition of the material. The sign in

equation (2.1) indicates that heat flows in the direction of decrease of temperature
with distance.
Thermal conductivity is the controlling factor in sizing and selecting refractory
and insulation material for furnaces. It is also used in the selection of material of
tubes used in heat exchangers.

Appendices (Al, A2, and A3 )give the thermal conductivity of solids, liquids and
gases/vapors used in industry.
The integrated form of Equation 2.1 can be written as:
KA
Q= t
L

Where

L: The Length/depth through which heat is being transferred

 t : The temperature difference between the hot and cold surface.

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Note that the negative sign in equation (2.2) is removed because of the above
definition of (t).
Given the temperature existing on the hot and cold faces, the heat flow can be
computed from Equation (2.2).

Is the conductance, (R), is the resistance to heat KA

L

CONVECTION

Transfer of heat to and from a fluid in motion is called convection. When the fluid
motion is affected by virtue of temperature difference inside the fluid (buoyancy
effect) the convection is said to be natural or free. In natural convection the hot
lavers of fluid rise upwards and cool layers flow downward.
This upward and downward motion of fluid transfers heat from the low areas to
the upper areas. In practical heat transfer applications, heat is normally
transferred by forced convection which may take the form of mechanical agitation
(e.g. stirring) or by circulating the hot and cold fluids at rapid rates on the
opposite sides of heat transfer surfaces (e.g pumping or blowing). In both types of
convection, due to the bulk movement of fluids, the rate of heat transfer is higher
than by conduction alone.
Exhibit 2.4 shows the example of a hot fluid flowing inside a pipe to heat another
fluid flowing outside the pipe. The heat transfer from the fluid to the solid can be
expressed in terms of a heat transfer coefficient, h , defined by the following
equation:
Q  hAT
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Replacing the resistances by their reciprocals:

= ho Ao  to Q  hi Ai ti
hi and ho are the inner and outer heat transfer coefficients respectively.
These coefficients depend on fluid properties, pipe diameter, and whether the fluid
is flowing within the pipe or surrounding the pipe.

Advantages of Waste Heat Recovery:

The waste heat recovery process has no visible disadvantage on Ecology or

Economy. In the contrary, these systems have many benefits which could be direct
or indirect.
• Direct benefits: The recovery process will add to the efficiency of the process and
thus decrease the costs of fuel and energy consumption needed for that process.
• Indirect benefits
1. Reduction in Pollution: Thermal and air pollution will dramatically decrease
since less flue gases of high temperature are emitted from the plant since most of
the energy is recycled.
2. Reduction in the equipment sizes: As Fuel consumption reduces so the control
and security equipment for handling the fuel decreases. Also, filtering equipment
for the gas is no longer needed in large sizes.
3. Reduction in auxiliary energy consumption: Reduction in equipment sizes means
another reduction in the energy fed to those systems like pumps, filters, fans,...etc.

HRSG System troubleshooting

Although many systems have been designed and operated at a high level of
reliability, problems related to water-side reliability have occurred. Common
problems include:
 Economizer deposition (and resultant corrosion), economizer stress
corrosion cracking, and fatigue cracking.
 Steam blanketing and deposition, particularly in the high pressure section.
 Boiler tube component cracking.
 Superheater overheating, corrosion, stress corrosion cracking, and fatigue
cracking.
 Erosion/corrosion of low and, to some extent, of intermediate pressure
systems.

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Many of these problems can be interrelated. A review of 60 recent industry-wide

economizer problems, some including failures, indicated that 40% were due to
fireside corrosion, 35% were due to fatigue or stress corrosion cracking, 15% were
due to deposition, and 10% were due to oxygen pitting.

High pressure sections can experience failures in several areas. This is due to a
combination of contaminated feedwater and circulation-based problems that can
result from higher heat flux in selected areas. One of the primary problems
experienced in superheaters has also been due to overheating due to variations in
flue gas heat flux. This is more frequently seen in systems that cycle frequently and
have duct burners. Temperature and velocity profiles should establish the heat flux
in the unit and should be runperiodically.
As always, manufacturer's start-up recommendations must be closely followed to
help minimizeoverheating.
A recent survey of approximately 140 recent superheater problems indicated that
10% were due to pitting attack, 10% were due to fireside corrosion, 5% were due
to erosion/corrosion, 40% were due to overheating, and 35% failed from cracking.
The overheating, creep cracking, and other problem areas can be interrelated.

Carryover of solids into the superheater is another major problem. Deposition due
to carryover can lead to long-term overheating and subsequent failure. In addition,
failures can occur due to cracking. Adequate control of boiler water level,
especially during start-ups, and periodic testing of steam purity using ASTM
sampling nozzles can help prevent failures. If direct feedwater attemperation is
used, adequate continuous monitoring downstream of the injection is needed to
ensure good quality water. If caustic is used for feedwater pH adjustment or if
chlorides are present in the feedwater, stress corrosion cracking can result.

HRSG High Pressure Failures

In New England, the plant experienced two tube failures associated with the high
pressure section. A steam generating tube between the lower header and the
evaporator drum failed. Metallurgical analysis indicated the problem was internal
metal wastage. Visual examination of the tube showed parallel, longitudinal
deposits along the 10 o'clock and 2 o'clock surfaces. Inorganic analyses of the
deposits in the area above and surrounding the failure confirmed the phenomenon
of "steam blanketing." Steam blanketing originates when there is insufficient fluid
flow to maintain adequate cooling. It is more common in horizontal or sloped tubes

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and is identifiable by the line of boiler water salts which are evaporated at the
steam and water interface. Corrosion can occur under the deposits by providing a
mechanism for concentration of normally soluble species under the deposit and at
or above the liquid/ vapor interface. Steam blanketing was determined to be the
root cause of the tube failures (a circulation-related problem).

It was possible to reduce the corrosive effect of the steam blanketing by making
several chemical changes. Initially, the boiler was treated using standard
coordinated pH/phosphate guidelines. This treatment was continued, but the
phosphate levels were reduced to lower the total solids available for deposition.
Subsequent visual and metallurgical analysis of tube sections in the immediate area
showed continued steam blanketing and some deposition, but much less evidence
of the associated under-deposit corrosion.

Erosion/Corrosion

One problem that has recently surfaced in many HRSGs is two phase
(steam/water) generating tube erosion/corrosion. Erosion/corrosion can be defined
as the increase in rate of attack on a metal because of movement between the fluid
and the metal surface. This problem has led to tube metal loss and failures in both
the low pressure and intermediate pressure sections. In addition, baffle plates,
cyclone separators, and related equipment have also experienced erosion/corrosion
and required replacement. There are many factors that impact susceptibility of the
HRSG system to erosion/corrosion. Some key parameters include geometry of the
system, velocity of the steam/water mixture, metallurgy, and chemistry.
BetzDearborn has investigated numerous cases of erosion/corrosion - but that
information is beyond the scope of this paper. Much technology is known and one
fact is clear: each system must be evaluated individually since the above variables
are interrelated and specific design and operational differences exist.

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5.7 Design steps

5.7.1 Design process:

This section will provide the preliminary design for an waste heat recovery steam
generator (HRSG).

1-Choosing Type of evaporator: [O-Frame evaporator layout]

2-Choosing the Arrangement of coils:

Obviously, the best place to put the highest temperature coil, the superheater,
would be in the hottest part of the gas stream. where it would take the least amount
of surface to exchange the heat, and would allow a stepped heat recovery for
maximum heat exchange. The curve below shows this relationship between the
heat given up and the three primary coils found in an HRSG

In viewing this generalized sketch showing the relationship between the heat
absorbed and the heat given up, it is easy to see the area referred to as the "pinch"
at the evaporator outlet. By laying a straight edge on the heat given up line and
rotating it while holding it at the pinch, it is also, easy to see that, at a very high
inlet temperature, there may be a critical approach temperature occur at the
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economizer inlet, and going the other way, at a lower inlet temperature, this may
occur at the superheater outlet.

3- Preparing the schematic

We prepare the flow schematic. This flow schematic gives us a preliminary picture
of how the HRSG will look. Also, we can use the sketch to perform the preliminary
heat balance.

We will assume a single pressure HRSG with Evaporator & Economizer

4-Heat Balance

A-Evaporator Pinch Design: The evaporator pinch, or approach

temperature, is what limits the amount of heat that can be recovered in most HRSG
designs. (50o F ).

B- Economizer water approach: It is very important and should be selected

with care. If too close an approach is used in the design, vaporization may occur in
the coil during off design cases which may cause severe upsets in the unit.
A normal design approach temperature is (20 °F) ; This approach gives significant
safety factor for load swings.

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C- Blow down requirements: The boiler blow down requirement is set by the
condition of the feed water. Primarily it is used to control solids build up in the
steam separation drum. Allowance should be used in design. For normal modern
facilities,( 2%) allowance should be sufficient.

D- Feed water temperature: Take at (40oc).

Gas Properties : Volume %
Nitrogen, N2 72.55
Oxygen, O2 12.34
Carbon Dioxide, CO2 3.72
Water, H2O 10.52
Argon, Ar 0.87
Sulphur Dioxide, SO2 0.0
Carbon Monoxide, CO 0.0

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Temperature of feed water inlet ( Ta )

Temperature of feed water outlet (Tb)

Temperature of steam exit from drum C at [X=1]

Temperature of flue turbine gases inlet to the evaporator (T4)

Temperature of flue inlet to the economizer (T5)

Temperature of flue gas stack (T6)

Assumptions:

The following data represent the examined case study:

Outer diameter (Do)=30 mm---------------Range (28-38)

Inner diameter (Di)=24mm

Thickness (  x )= 3mm

Thermal conductivity of tube (Ktube)= 44.68 W/mok

Velocity of water Through (Vw(Econ&Evap))=1.7 m/s--------- Range (1.5 - 2)m/s

Velocity of water Through Evaporator Vg(Evap)=20 m/s----- Range (10 - 22)m/s

Velocity of water Through Economizer Vg(Econ)=10 m/s----- Range (7 - 13)m/s

Length of tube per pass= 8

Pressure of boiler = 16 bar

Boiler Efficiency (ηB)= 0.8

Temperature of flue gas stack (T6) = 240oC

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ST S L
All tubes bank is Staggered Arrangement  2
D D

& V∞ (for Evap) =20 m/s V∞ (for Econ) =10 m/s

Surface temperature Ts = Tsat + 5oC =206oC

Balance on HRSG

mw (hc-ha) = mgCpg (T4-T6)* ηB get mw=16.68 kg/s

Energy Balance on Economizer:

mw (hb-ha) = mgCpg(T5-T6) get T5= 346.7 oC

QEcon= 14378.16 KJ/s = 14.37816 MJ/s

Energy Balance on Evaporator:

mw hfg = mg Cpg (T4-T5)

QEvao= 32245.776 KJ/s.

The number of tube per pass for Evap is given by:

mw =  wVw A n get n (no. of tube)= 16 tube/pass

Where:
Twevap i  Twevap o
 av@ = 863.49 kg/m3
2

As increase the number of tubes to prevent leakage:

Add 2 tube due to loss (n)=18 tube/pass

get Vw act = 1.5 m/s

The number of tube per pass for Econ is given by:-

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mw =  wVw A n get n (no. of tube)= 23 tube/pass

,Where:
Tweconi  Twecono
 av@ = 943.4 kg/m3
2

As increase the number of tubes to prevent leakage:-

Add 2 tube due to loss (n)=25 tube/pass

get Vw act = 1.56 m/s

Using Forced Convection

1st calculation (hi) inside Economizer

The Reynolds' number is given by:-

lVl D
Re = l = 17.736*106

Twi  Two
Get all Prop@ = 40  201.37  120.7o C  393.7o k
2 2

f = 943.3 kg/m3
µf = 231 * 10-6N. s/m2
Kf = 686 * 10-3 w/m.k
Pr = 1.43

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The Reynolds number is given by:

 Vw * Di
Re =
f

Re = 152888.10
The Nusselt number is given by:
Nu = 0.023 Re4/5Prn
n = 0.4 If T5>Tf
n = 0.3 Ts< Tf
n = 0.4 So Ts> Tf
Nu = 372.7
The convection heat transfer coeffecien is given by:
Nu * K f
hi =
Di

w/m2.k hi = 10653.05 SD

2nd calculation of ho outside Economizer: V∞

ST
Assume  tube bank  staggered

 S L ST  D
* pitch of tube bank    2
 Do Do  S1

get C1=0.482 &m= 0.556from data sheet

, Then get ST& SL

S D  S L 2  ( ST / 2)2 = 0.067

Vmax= ST
. V∞ If SD> ST  D
ST  D 2

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ST
Vmax = If not
2 ( S T  D)

( ST  Do )
Since , S D  = 0.045
2

ST
So ;Vmax= V get Vmax for Econ = 20 m/s
2( S D  Do ) ∞ Econ

Ts  T TwiEcon  Two Econ

get prop at airTf = , T∞ = = 40  201.37  120.7o C
2 2 2

206  120.7
So ,Tf = = 163.35oc = 436.35ok
2

g= 0.4697 kg/m3

µg = 151.13 * 10-7N.s/m2
Kg = 42.93 * 10-3 w/m.k
Pr = 0.827
The Reynol's number is given by:
 g Vmax  Econ Do
Re = µg
get Re = 18647.522

The Nusselt number is given by:

Nu = 1.13 C1Remmax Pr1/3 get Nu = 133.598

The convection beat transfer is given by:

NU * k g
h o= Do = 191.18 w/m2.k

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For Economizer:-
The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by:- [ Internal energy]
1 Do / Di Do Ln( Do / Di ) 1 D
    Rf o  o Rfi
uoEcon hi 2ktube hoEcon Di
For cost Iron
for treated boiler feed water R"fi = 0.0002
for flue gases R"fo = 0.002
346.7 T9i
Get UoEcon= 130.32 w/m2ok
T9o
QEcono=Uo Econ*A*  LMTD * F 240 o
201.37oc
; Two
  o
  40 c
C  LMTD  i o 
o  Twi
= 171.21
 Ln i 
  o 

F(correction factor)=1 assumed

The length of the tube * is given by:-
Qecon = Uo Econ II Do L * N * Z * LMTD
L * Z = 273.5
 when L/Z = 8
Z = 6 passes L = 48 m
* width  w = Lpath = 48 m

,Since ; P = 1.5 Do= 0.045 m

,High= P * Z = 0.270 m
,Depth  P * N = 1.125 m

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For Evaporator

Assume forced boiling convection:-

To Calculate hi
q/ ) total = q/ ) forced + q/ ) boiling equation (1)

a) Forced convection:-

Properties at tbulk = tsat – 50C

=196.3 0C = 469.30K tbulk

 = 868.05 kg/m3

µ= 136 * 10-6 N.s/m2

= 667* 10-3 W/m.k

= 0.92 Pr

The Reynolds’s number is given by:

Re =


Re = 291052.05 > 10.000

 Turbulent fully developed

The Nusselt number is given by:

Pr0.4 Re0.8 Nu = 0.019

Nu = 431.96

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The convection heat transfer coefficient:

ℎ
Nu =

hi = 12004.88 w/m2.k

3rd calculation of ho outside Evaporator:

 tube bank  staggered

 S L ST 
* pitch of tube bank    2
 Do Do 
get C1=0.482 &m= 0.556from data sheet
SD
, Then get ST& SL
V∞
S D  S L  ( ST / 2) = 0.067
2 2
ST

Vmax= ST
. V∞ If SD> ST  D
ST  D 2
D
ST S1
Vmax = If not
2 ( S T  D)

( ST  Do )
Since , S D  = 0.045
2

ST
So ;Vmax= V get Vmax for Evap = 40 m/s
2( S D  Do ) ∞ Evap

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Ts  T
get prop at airTf = ,
2

Twi Evap  Two Evap 201.37  201.37

T∞ = =  201.37 o C
2 2

206  201.37
Tf = = 203.7 oC = 476.69 ok
2

g= 0.733 kg/m3

µg = 260.98 * 10-7N.s/m2
Kg = 39.102 * 10-3 w/m.k
Pr = 0.686
The Reynolds’s number is given by:
 g Vmax  Evap Do
Re = µg
get Re = 33703.7 > 2000

The Nusselt number is given by:

Nu = 1.13 C1Remmax Pr1/3 get Nu = 158.11

The convection beat transfer is given by:

NU * k g
h o= Do = 206.0789 w/m2.k

The overall heat transfer coefficient is given by:- [ Internal energy]

1 Do / Di Do Ln( Do / Di ) 1 D
    Rfo  o Rfi
uoEvap hi Evap 2ktube hoEvap Di
For cost Iron

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for treated boiler feed water R"fi = 0.0002

for flue gases R"fo = 0.002
500oc
2o
Get Uo= 139.3 w/m k
Tgi

346.7oc

=Uo*  LMTD * F  Q 
 A  Forced Tgo o

i
  201oc 201oc
 
=213.9 C  LMTD  i o 
o 
 Twi
Ln i  Two
  o 

F(correction factor)=1 assumed

Q
Get   = 29799.718 W/mok
 A  Forced

b) boiling convection:-
3
 C l * Te 
1/2
 g .(  l   v ) 
q/A) boiling = l * h fg    s 
 L   Csf * h fg *Pr 

Tsat = 20loc = 474.3ok all properities at

µl = 132.5 * 10-6 N.s/m2
hfg = 1931.5 * 103 J/kgok.
I = 862.8 kg/m3
v = 8.13 kg/m3
1 = 37.3 * 10-3 N/m
Cp1 = 3.5 * 103 J/kgok
Pr = 0.905
for cost Iron (practies) Csf = 0.013
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 Chapter 5 WASTE HEAT RECOVERY BOILER

= 117608.05 w/m2.k  Q 
 A boiling

Q Q Q

=  +    
 A  Forced  A  boiling  A  total

 QEvap 
= 147407.768W/m2.k  
 A  total
*Since ; Qevaporator = 32245.776 * 103J/s
A=218.75 m2 = π D L N Z
L
* Since ;length per pass   = 8
Z  

A 218.75
L*Z =  D N  *0.03*18  128.946

o

L = 32 m * the length of tube .

Z = 4 pass * pass of tube
* width  w = Lpath = 32 m

,Since ; P = 1.5 Do= 0.045 m

,High= P * Z = 0.18m

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Design of stack
Assumption:
Fuel type Methane {CH4}
Excess Air Factor:   400%
1
Fuel to air ratio=  0.019
52
Ambient Temperature = 30oC
(U): is the wind speed (6.3) m/s---------------Range (6-7) m/s
Uo=3 m/s ----------------------------------------Range (2-3) m/s
Zo= 10 m/s
Range of diameter of the stack (2.5 - 4) m/s
hs (height of stack)= 70 m ----------------------Range (50-75) m

INPUT DATA
Pressure exit from turbine = 1bar
Gas constant Rg= 293.209 kJ/kg oK
Mass flow rate of gases from turbine m.g= 159.7 Kg/s
Temperature of stack = 240 oC

The effective stack height, H, is defined as the height at which the plume
stops rising and turns to follow the wind direction.
H= h + h
We will use Holland’s formula to estimate this plume rise.

h = 63 m ---------------------------------Range (50-75) m
H < 250 for Environmental

Vs D   3 (Ts  Ta )  
h  1.5   2.68*10 PD 
U   T s 
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Where:

(h): is the plume rise in m

(Vs): is the stack exit velocity in m/s

(D): is the stack inside diameter in m

(U): is the wind speed in m/s

(P): is the pressure in millibars

(Ts): is the stack gas temperature in K

(Ta): is atmospheric temperature in K.

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Wind Speed Profile

Now, in the air dispersion model, we will also need to estimate the wind velocity at
the stack exit. To do so, we will use the wind speed profile

The wind speed undergoes substantial changes with height near the ground level
due to the boundary layer effect. The wind speed profile assumes an exponential
change with height, with the exponent being a function of the atmospheric stability
class:
p
u  z
  
u0  z 0 

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Calculations:
p
u  z
  
u0  z 0 

Uo=3 m/s Range (2-3) m/s

Zo= 10 m/s
U=6.3 m/s Assumed
P= 0.25 From tables

The value of the wind profile exponent (p) depends on the atmospheric
stability class and on the topographical effects:

Stability Class Urban Areas Rural Areas

A 0.15 0.07

B 0.15 0.07

C 0.20 0.10

D 0.25 0.15

E 0.40 0.35

F 0.60 0.55

p
u  z
  
u0  z 0 

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Get Z =H =194.5 m

H  hs  h
hs = 70 m ---------------------------Assumed
194.5  70  h

m h  124.5
 2
,
A ( D ) m. g   gVstack A
4
5
Pg 1*10
g    0.737 kg/m3
RgT4 293.209*(190  273)

 275.897 
V
So ;  stack    Eq 1

2
D

Vs D   (Ts  Ta )  
   Eq  2 
3
h  1.5   2.68*10 PD
U   Ts 
Tgi  Tgo 240  190
, Ts=   215 oC
2 2

From Eq (1) & Eq (2)

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 275.897    3 (215  30)  

131.48   1.5   2.68*10 *1000* D 
 D *6.3    215  

Get D(diameter of stack) = 2.794 m

,
Since ; Range of diameter (2.5 - 4) m.

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 Appendix

APPENDIX A
Nomenclature

A Area m2
A/F Air-to-Fuel ratio
cp Constant pressure specific heat KJ/Kg.k
cv Constant volume specific heat KJ/Kg.k
d Diameter m
r Radius m
g Gravitational acceleration m/s2
L Length m
M Mass kg/s
γ Ratio of specific heat (cp / cv )
n Polytropic index
R Gas constant KJ/kg.k
R` Universal gas constant 8314 KJ/Kmol k.
N Rotational speed r.p.m or r.p.s
P Pressure pascal
0
T Temperature k
ca Axial velocity m/s
cu Whirl velocity m/s
W Relative velocity m/s
U Peripheral speed m/s
R∞ Kinematic degree of reaction
∅ Flow coefficient
ρ Density kg/m3
M Mach number

COGENERATION - 2011 I
 Appendix

References

Gas turbine engineering hand book

Meherwan p .Boyce , Ph .D.,P.E

Best practices manual cogeneration.

Compressor hand book principals and practice.

Axial flow compressor mean line design.

Heat and mass transfer data sheet.

Advanced gas turbine cycle.

HORLOCK, J. H. 2003

Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators Design,

Applications, and Calculations
V. Ganapathy ABCO Industries Abilene, Texas, U.S.A.

COGENERATION - 2011 II
 Appendix

COGENERATION - 2011 III

 Appendix

COGENERATION - 2011 IV