MACHINING OPERATIONS

AND MACHINE TOOLS

1. Machining and Part Geometry

2. Turning and Related Operations
3. Drilling and Related Operations
4. Milling
5. Machining Centers and Turning Centers
6. Other Machining Operations
7. Machining Operations for Special Geometries
8. High Speed Machining

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 Machining

▪ Material removal process in which a sharp cutting

tool is used to mechanically cut away material so that
the desired part geometry remains
▪ Most common application: metal parts
▪ Most versatile of all manufacturing processes for
producing a variety of part shapes and geometric
features with high precision and accuracy
▪ Casting can also produce a variety of shapes,
but in general is not as accurate as machining

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 Classification of Machined Parts

Rotational - (a) cylindrical or disk-like shape

Nonrotational - (b) block-like and plate-like

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 Machining Operations and Part
Geometry

▪ Each machining operation produces a characteristic

part geometry due to two factors:
1. Relative motions between tool and work part
• Generating – part geometry determined by feed
trajectory of cutting tool
2. Shape of the cutting tool
• Forming – part geometry is created by the
shape of the cutting tool

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 Generating Shape

(a) Straight turning,

(b) taper turning,
(c) contour turning,
(d) plain milling,
(e) profile milling

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 Forming to Create Shape

(a) Form turning, (b) drilling, and (c) broaching

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 Forming and Generating

Combination of forming and generating to create shape: (a)

thread cutting on a lathe, and (b) slot milling

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 Turning

▪ Single point cutting tool removes material from a

rotating workpiece to generate a cylindrical shape
▪ Performed on a machine tool called a lathe
▪ Variations of turning performed on a lathe
▪ Facing
▪ Contour turning
▪ Chamfering
▪ Cutoff
▪ Threading

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 Turning Operation

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 Turning Operation

Close-up view of a turning

operation on steel using a
titanium-nitride-coated carbide
cutting insert (photo courtesy
of Kennametal Inc.)

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 Operations Related to Turning

(a) Facing, (b) taper turning, (c) contour turning

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 More Operations Related to
Turning
(d) Form turning, (e) chamfering, (f) cutoff

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 More Operations Related to
Turning
(g) Threading, (h) boring, (i) drilling

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 Engine Lathe

Diagram of an
engine lathe showing
its principal
components and
motions

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 Methods of Holding Workpiece
in a Lathe
(a) Holding the work between centers, (b) chuck, (c) collet, and (d)
face plate

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 Other Production Turning
Machines

▪ Turret lathe
▪ Chucking machine
▪ Bar machine
▪ Automatic screw machine
▪ Multiple spindle bar machine

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 Turret Lathe

▪ Tailstock replaced by “turret” that holds up to six tools

▪ Tools rapidly brought into action by indexing the
turret
▪ Tool post replaced by four-sided turret to index
four tools
▪ Applications: high production work that requires a
sequence of cuts on the part

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 Chucking Machine

▪ Uses chuck in its spindle to hold work part

▪ No tailstock, so parts cannot be mounted between
centers
▪ Cutting tool actions controlled automatically
▪ Operator’s job: to load and unload parts
▪ Applications: short, light-weight parts

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 Bar Machine

▪ Similar to chucking machine except collet replaces

chuck, permitting long bar stock to be fed through
headstock
▪ At the end of the machining cycle, a cutoff
operation separates the new part
▪ Highly automated
▪ Computer numerical control
▪ Applications: high production of rotational parts

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 Automatic Screw Machine

▪ Same as automatic bar machine but smaller

▪ Applications: high production of screws and similar
small hardware items

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 Multiple-Spindle Bar Machines

▪ More than one spindle, so multiple parts machined

simultaneously by multiple tools
▪ Example: six spindle automatic bar machine works
on six parts at a time
▪ After each machining cycle, spindles (including
collets and workbars) are indexed (rotated) to next
position

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 Six Spindle Bar Machine

(a) Part; (b) sequence of operations: (1) feed stock to stop, (2) turn
main diameter, (3) form second diameter and spotface, (4) drill, (5)
chamfer, and (6) cutoff

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 Boring

▪ Difference between boring and turning:

▪ Boring is performed on the inside diameter of an
existing hole
▪ Turning is performed on the outside diameter of
an existing cylinder
▪ In effect, boring is an internal turning operation
▪ Boring machines
▪ Horizontal or vertical - refers to the orientation of
the axis of rotation of machine spindle

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 Vertical Boring Mill

Applications: Large,
heavy work parts
that have low L/D
ratio

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 Drilling

Creates a round hole in a work

part
▪ Compare to boring which can
only enlarge an existing hole
▪ Cutting tool called a drill or
drill bit
▪ Machine tool: drill press

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 Through Hole vs. Blind Hole

(a) Through hole - drill exits opposite side of work and

(b) blind hole – drill does not exit opposite side

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 Operations Related to Drilling

(a) Reaming, (b) tapping, (c) counterboring

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 More Operations Related to
Drilling
(d) Countersinking, (e) center drilling, (f) spot facing

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 Drill Press

Upright drill press

stands on the floor
▪ Bench drill is similar
but smaller and
mounted on a table or
bench

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 Radial
Drill Press

Large drill press for

large parts (photo
courtesy of Willis
Machinery and Tools)

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 Work Holding for Drill Presses

▪ Work part in drilling can be clamped in any of the

following work holders:
▪ Vise - general purpose work holder with two jaws
▪ Fixture – work holding device that is usually
custom-designed for the particular work part
▪ Drill jig – similar to fixture but also provides a
means of guiding the tool during drilling

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 Milling

▪ Machining operation in which work is fed past a

rotating tool with multiple cutting edges
▪ Axis of tool rotation is perpendicular to feed
direction
▪ Cutting tool called a milling cutter
▪ Cutting edges called teeth
▪ Machine tool called a milling machine
▪ Interrupted cutting operation
▪ Basic milling operation creates a planar surface
▪ Other geometries possible
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 Two Forms of Milling

(a) Peripheral milling and (b) face milling

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 Peripheral Milling vs.
Face Milling

▪ Peripheral milling
▪ Cutter axis parallel to surface being machined
▪ Cutting edges on outside periphery of cutter
▪ Face milling
▪ Cutter axis perpendicular to surface being milled
▪ Cutting edges on both the end and outside
periphery of the cutter

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 Types of Peripheral Milling

(a) Slab milling, (b) slotting, (c) side milling, (e) straddle
milling, and (e) form milling

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 Types of Face Milling

(a) Conventional face milling, (b) partial face milling, and (c)
end milling

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 Types of Face Milling

(d) Profile milling, (e) pocket milling, and (f) surface

contouring

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 Face Milling

High speed face

milling operation
using indexable
inserts (photo
courtesy of
Kennametal Inc.)

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 Knee-And-Column Milling
Machines
(a) Horizontal and (b) vertical knee-and-column milling machines

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 Machining Center

▪ Highly automated machine tool that can perform

multiple machining operations under CNC control in
one setup with minimal human attention
▪ Typical operations are milling and drilling
▪ Three, four, or five axes
▪ Other features:
▪ Automatic tool-changing
▪ Pallet shuttles
▪ Automatic workpart positioning

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 CNC Universal Machining Center

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 CNC Universal Machining Center

(Photo
courtesy of
Cincinnati
Milacron)

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 CNC Turning Center

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 CNC Turning Center - Industrial
Robot to Load and Unload Parts

(Photo
courtesy
of
Cincinnati
Milacron)

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 Mill-Turn Center

▪ Highly automated machine tool that can perform

turning, milling, and drilling operations in one setup
▪ General configuration of a turning center
▪ Can position a cylindrical work part at a specified
angle so a rotating cutting tool (e.g., milling cutter)
can machine features into outside surface of part
▪ Conventional turning center cannot stop work
part at a defined angular position and does not
include rotating tool spindles

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 Operation of Mill-Turn Center

(a) Part and (b) sequence of operations : (1) turn second

diameter, (2) mill flat, (3) drill hole, and (4) cutoff

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 Shaping and Planing

Similar operations, both use a single point cutting tool

moved linearly relative to the work part

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 Shaping and Planing

▪ A straight, flat surface is created in both operations

▪ Interrupted cutting operation
▪ Subjects tool to impact loading when entering
work
▪ Typical tooling: single-point high-speed-steel
tools
▪ Low cutting speeds due to start-and-stop motion

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 Shaper

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 Planer

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 Broaching

A multiple tooth cutting tool is moved linearly

relative to work in direction of tool axis

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 Broaching

▪ Advantages:
▪ Good surface finish
▪ Close tolerances
▪ Variety of work shapes possible
▪ Cutting tool called a broach
▪ Owing to complicated and usually custom-shaped
geometry, tooling is expensive

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 Broaching

(a) External and (b) internal broaching (cross-hatching

indicates surface broached)

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 Sawing

▪ Cuts narrow slit in work by a tool consisting of a

series of narrowly spaced teeth
▪ Tool called a saw blade
▪ Typical functions:
▪ Separate a work part into two pieces
▪ Cut off unwanted portions of part
▪ Cut outline of flat part

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 Sawing

(a) Power hacksaw, (b) band saw (vertical), and (c) circular saw

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 Machining Operations for
Special Geometries

Screw threads

Gear teeth

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 Cutting Screw Threads

▪ Methods for producing external threads

▪ Single-point thread cutting
▪ Threading die
▪ Thread chasing using self-opening threading dies
▪ Thread milling
▪ Methods for producing internal threads
▪ Tapping - using a solid tap
▪ Collapsible taps - cutting teeth retract for quick
removal from hole

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 Cutting External Screw Threads

(left) Single-point thread cutting and (right) threading die

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 Thread Milling Using a
Form-Milling Cutter

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 Principal Operations for
Machining Gear Teeth

▪ Form milling - use of a form milling cutter

▪ Gear hobbing - also milling but using a special cutter
called a hob
▪ Gear shaping - two forms
▪ Single-point tool to gradually shape each gear
tooth spacing
▪ Cutter has general shape of the gear but with
cutting teeth on one side
▪ Gear broaching - for internal and external gears

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 Form Milling of Gear Teeth

Form milling cutter has

teeth with the shape of the
spaces between teeth on
the gear
▪ Gear blank is indexed
between each pass to
establish correct size of
the gear tooth

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 Gear
Hobbing
Hob has a slight helix and its
rotation is coordinated with
much slower rotation of the
gear blank
▪ Special milling machines
(called hobbing machines)
accomplish the relative
speed and feed motions
between cutter and gear
blank

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 Gear Shaping

To start the process,

cutter is gradually fed
into gear blank
Then, cutter and blank
are slowly rotated after
each stroke to maintain
tooth spacing
▪ Performed on
special machines
called gear shapers

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 Gear Broaching

▪ Applicable for both external gears and internal gears

(teeth on inside of gear)
▪ Cost of tooling (broach) is high due to its complex
geometry
▪ For internal gears, broach consists of a series of
gear-shaped cutting teeth of increasing size to form
the gear teeth in successive steps as broach is drawn
through starting hole
▪ For external gears, broach is tubular with inward-
facing cutting teeth

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 High Speed Machining (HSM)

▪ Cutting at speeds significantly higher than those used

in conventional machining operations
▪ Persistent trend throughout history of machining is
higher and higher cutting speeds
▪ Interest in HSM is due to potential for faster
production rates, shorter lead times, and reduced
costs

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 High Speed Machining

Indexable tools (face mills)

Work material Conventional speed High speed

m/min ft/min m/min ft/min

Aluminum 600+ 2000+ 3600+ 12,000+

Cast iron, soft 360 1200 1200 4000

Cast iron, ductile 250 800 900 3000

Steel, alloy 210 700 360 1200

Source: Kennametal Inc.

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 Requirements for High Speed
Machining

▪ Special bearings designed for high rpm

▪ High feed rate capability (e.g., 50 m/min)
▪ CNC motion controls with “look-ahead” features to
avoid “undershooting” or “overshooting” tool path
▪ Balanced cutting tools, toolholders, and spindles
▪ Coolant delivery that provides higher pressures
▪ Chip control and removal systems to cope with much
larger metal removal rates

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 High Speed Machining
Applications

▪ Aircraft industry, machining of large airframe

components from large aluminum blocks
▪ Much metal removal, mostly by milling
▪ Multiple machining operations on aluminum to
produce automotive, computer, and medical parts
▪ Quick tool changes and tool path control important
▪ Die and mold industry
▪ Fabricating complex geometries from hard
materials
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