MODULE: 2

RESEARCH PROCESS

Research Proposal:
Meaning of Research Proposal:
A research proposal presents and justifies a
research idea and the practical ways in which it
can be solved. It analyzes and synthesizes the
existing research about a particular topic and
describes the researcher‟s own idea for a new
study, based on the assessment of gaps or
problems in the research literature. It answers
three questions: (1) what the research project is
about, (2) why it is important, and (3) how the
research objectives can be fulfilled utilizing the
research methods. More precisely, a research
proposal is a demonstration of a commitment to
an extensive study.
Major Steps of a Research Proposal:
A research proposal consists of a series of steps
that is logically and systematically connected to
each other. They are as follows:
Introduction: The researcher provides a brief
introduction about what is intended to be studied.
Statement of the Problem: The researcher
describes the problems associated with broad area
of study. Support the problems with appropriate
statistics and also as far as possible with the basis
of existing knowledge base.
Significance of the Study: The researcher throws
light on what significance the research has and its
contemporary relevance to the field of Social Work.
Scope of the Study: Researcher reflects upon the
scope that the study can yield on receipt of
conducting it in the associated areas of social
work practice.
Aim of the Study: Broad aim of the research is
presented.
Objectives of the Study: Specific objectives of the
research need to be presented.
Conceptual / Theoretical Framework: Miles and
Huberman (1994) defined a conceptual framework
as a visual or written product, one that “explains,
either graphically or in narrative form, the main
things to be studied, the key factors, concepts, or
variables and the presumed relationships among
them”. This may also be called the “theoretical
framework” or “idea context” for the study. The
most important thing to understand about the
conceptual framework is that it is primarily a
conception or model of what is out there that you
plan to study, and of what is going on with these
things and why a tentative theory of the
phenomena that you are investigating.
Research Hypothesis: Specify only working
hypothesis. Working hypothesis may be altered in
the light of new knowledge gained as research
progress and alternate / research hypothesis and
null hypothesis can be developed.
Variables under Study: Specify Independent and
Dependent variables used in the study.
Conceptual Definitions:
Specify the scientific definitions based on existing
literature for measuring the variables.
Operational Definitions:
Specify the actual method, tool, or technique
which indicates how the concept will be measured
in the context of the present research.
Inclusion Criteria:
Specify who can be included as unit of study and
with what criteria.
Exclusion Criteria:
Specify who will be excluded from unit of study
and with what criteria.
Pilot Study:
Specify how pilot study was conducted in order to
evaluate feasibility, time, cost, adverse events in
an attempt to predict an appropriate sample size.
Research Method:
Specify whether the study adopts evaluative
research method, participatory research method,
action research method, qualitative research
method, quantitative research method or mixed
research method.
Research Design:
Specify the design adopted under respective
research method chosen for the study.
Universe of the Study:
Specify the unit under study, the geographical
area, population size, strata if any may be
included.
Sample Design and Size:
Specify the sampling design adopted and the size
of the sample.
Sources of Data:
Specify the primary and secondary sources of
data.
Tools for Data Collection:
Specify the tools used for data collection and the
nature of data the tool intends to generate.
Pre-Test:
Specify how the tools developed in order to collect
data was tested and also whether the tested
samples were included or excluded in the data
collection.
Data Collection:
Specify the method used for data collection.
Data Analysis and Interpretation:
Specify the plan for data analysis and the
strategies for interpreting data.
Chapterisation:
Specify how the chapters in the research report
will be arranged.
Time Frame: Specify the time frame involving
various research related activities such as review
of literature, pilot study, tool for data collection,
pre-test, data collection, data analysis and
interpretation, report writing and presentation.
Budget: Specify the budget involving various
research related activities such as review of
literature, purchase of books, subscription to
journals, pilot study, tool for data collection, pre-
test, data collection, data analysis and
interpretation, report writing and presentation.
These are the major steps of a research proposal
to be submitted for all purposes including
academic, development or before a funding
agencies.
Formulation of Objectives:
Research is an organized investigation of a
problem in which there is an attempt to gain
solution to a problem. In order to obtain right
solution to a right problem, clearly defined
objectives are very important. Clearly defined
objectives enlighten the way in which the
researcher has to proceed.
A research objective is a clear, concise, declarative
statement which provides direction to investigate
the variable. Research objectives focus on the
ways to measure the variables, such as to identify
or describe them. Sometimes objectives are
directed towards identifying the relationship or
difference between two variables.
Research objectives are the results sought by the
researcher at the end of the research process. It
summarizes what is to be achieved by the study.
Objectives should be closely related to the
statement of the problem.
Research objective should confine to the principles
of SMART - Specific, Measureable, Attainable,
Realistic, Time-bound. Research objectives should
also be Relevant, Feasible, Logical, Observable,
Unequivocal and Measurable.
An objective is a purpose that can be reasonably
achieved within the expected timeframe and with
the available resources. Objectives should arrive at
obtaining answers to research question or testing
the research hypothesis.
Formulation of research objectives helps the
research to focus on the study. There are two
types of research objectives. They are as follows.
General Objective: These are broad goals to be
achieved by the research.
Specific Objectives: These are short term and
narrow in focus. General objectives are broken
down to small logically connected parts to form
specific objectives. General objective is met
through accomplishing all the specific objectives.
Specific objectives are more in number. They
specify what research will do in the study, where
and for what purpose.
Objectives need to be brief and concise, it should
have logical sequence. While framing objectives
action verbs need to be used. Some of these words
used are to assess, to identify, to find out, to
determine, to compare, to verify, to describe, to
analyze, to study, to establish, etc.
Hypothesis:
The word hypothesis is a compound of two words
„hypo‟ and „thesis‟ where „hypo‟ means „under‟ and
„thesis ‟ means reason or rational view. Thus,
hypothesis is a below reasoned view. It is a view,
which is not fully reasoned. In social research and
other research, hypothesis is used to mean a
statement about the relationship, which helps to
be investigated. According to F.N. Kerlinger,
“Hypothesis is the most powerful tool man has
invented to achieve dependable knowledge” Once
the problem to be answer is defined, the
researcher formulates theory. Theory formulation
leads to hypothesis formulation. Data collection
and analysis revolve around the hypothesis, when
hypothesis comes to be true, it originates theory.
Hypothesis is an educated guess about a
problem‟s solution. It shows the relation between
two or more variables, which need to be
investigated for the truth. Non-hypothesis can be
defined as logically conjectured relationship
between two or more variables in testable
statements. Hypothesis is always presented in
declarative sentence form. They can be general or
specific.
According to G.A. Lundberg: - “A hypothesis is a
tentative generalization the validity of which
remains to be tested. It may be any hunch,
imaginative idea or intuition whatsoever, which
becomes the basis of action or investigation.”
According to W. Goode and P.K. Hatt: - “A
hypothesis is a proposition, which can be put to
test to determine its validity. It may seem contrary
to, or in accordance with common sense.”
(E.g.) Family planning can reduce the growth of
population. There is no relationship between
working condition and job satisfaction of workers.
Types or research hypothesis:
Null Hypothesis: is one, which indicates a
definitive exact relationship between two variables.
It is so called because this hypothesis usually
reflect „no difference‟ or „no effect‟ situation. It
means that there is no difference between two
populations in aspect of some property and that
the difference if any is only accidental and
unimportant. The null hypothesis is akin to the
principle that a man is innocent until he is proved
guilty. It constitutes a challenge and the function
of a research to give facts a chance to reflect this
challenge. Ho is null hypothesis.
Example: There is no difference between male and
female in their productivity.
Alternative hypothesis:
It is opposite of the null hypothesis. The
alternative hypothesis is a statement, which
expresses a relationship between two variables or
indicates difference between groups. It is the
statement of acceptance condition for each of the
alternative courses of action or solution to
problem. Where H1= alternative hypothesis.
Example: male worker will have more productivity
than female workers.
Formulation of hypothesis:
Deductive method / approach / logic: The
deductive method is one in which the researcher
develops hypothesis from theory and design a
research strategy to test them. There, hypothesis
formulation is preceded by theory formulation. A
clear theoretical portion is developed prior to data
collection.
Inductive method / approach / logic: The
inductive method is in which the researcher
develops hypothesis from specific observation.
Here, the researcher first collects data and then
develops theory as a result of data analysis. It is
based on the principle of developing theory after
the data have been collected.
Variables:
A concept which can take on different quantitative
values is called a variable. (e.g). age, income,
height, attitude, behavior, etc. If one variable
depends upon or is a consequence of the other
variable, it is termed as dependent variable. The
variable antecedent to the dependent variable is
termed as the Independent variable. (e.g)
Membership in Club or Attitude is dependent
upon Income. So membership in club or attitude
is Dependent Variable and Income is Independent
Variable.
Levels of Measurement:
Stanley Smith Stevens (1946) a Psychologist
developed a widely adopted classification of levels
of measurement. They are:
Nominal Measurement
Ordinal Measurement
Interval Measurement
Ratio Measurement
It unifies both qualitative (nominal) and
quantitative. These measurements can be treated
mathematically.
1. Nominal Measurement:
All qualitative measurement is nominal. Nominal
data do not have the properties of order,
distance or arithmetic origin. The numbers are
assigned to the concepts to be used as labels,
tags or symbols to recognize or identify objects.
Rudimentary mathematical operations can be
performed on such code numbers. At the
 maximum one can count the number and make
any inference accordingly. Chi-Square,
Contingency Correlation can be worked out. It is
a least powerful level of measurement. (e.g). ID
Numbers of Respondents, Yes / No, Like /
Dislike,
(e.g.). How do you spend your most of the leisure
time?
Cinema Hall,
Alcoholic Joints,
Roam With Friends,
Read or Write,
Music or Television.
2. Ordinal Measurement:
It is known as the ranking scale. It possess the
property of an order and do not have distance (the
intervals of the scale is not equal) or arithmetic
origin. By using this scale objects can be ranked
based on certain characteristics or attribute of the
objects. The use of ordinal scale implies statement
such as „greater than‟ or „less than‟ without being
able to state how much greater or lesser or higher
or lower. The possible measure of central tendency
is the Median. Percentile or Quartile Measure is
used for measuring dispersion. Rank Order
Correlations can be applied. Non-Parametric
methods can be applied to measure statistical
significance.
(e.g.) Please rank your priority for specialization
from option given:
1. Community Development,
2. Family & Child welfare,
3. Correctional,
4. Medical Social Work
(e.g). Support Provided by the Primary Care Giver
is?
1. Extremely Helpful
2. Very Helpful
3. Moderately Helpful
4. Not Very Helpful
5. Not Helpful At All
3. Interval Measurement:
In an interval scale the distance or intervals are
equal and it has an order. It does not have an
arithmetic origin (Zero). Interval scales provide
more powerful measurement than ordinal scales.
More powerful statistical measures can be applied
with interval scales. Mean is the appropriate
measures of central tendency, while standard
deviation is the most widely used measure of
dispersion. Product moment correlation
techniques are appropriate and the generally used
tests for statistical significance are the „t‟ test and
„F‟ test.
(e.g). Support Provided by the Primary Care Giver
is?
NOT USEFUL EXTREMELY

AT ALL USEFUL

1 2 3 4 5

3. Ratio Measurement:
Ratio scale is the highest level of measurement.
Ratio scales have a unique zero point. This is
largely used in physical sciences to measure
length, breadth, weight.
Approximately how many hours do you spend on
the Internet daily?
0 2 4 6 8

Methods and Tools of Data Collection:

Observation:
Observation is a method of gathering primary data
physically or mechanically recording events or
aspect of the phenomenon under investigation. It
involves recording of the respondents‟ behavior. It
is the process of recognizing noting people, objects
and occurrence of events rather than asking for
information. It can supplement the information
collected through questionnaire and interview.
Observation is the process of recognizing and
recording behavior of people, objects and events.
Observation is systematic and deliberate study
through eye, of spontaneous occurrence at the
time they occur.
Characteristics of good observations:
Observation should be carefully planned,
systematic and perceptive. Observers should know
what they are looking for and what is irrelevant in
a situation.
It should focus on wholeness of what is observed.
Observers should not only be alert to significant
details, they should also know that the whole is
often greater than the sum of its parts.
It should be objective and bias-free. Observers
should strive to eliminate their influence and
whatever they observed through seeing need to be
reported.
It should separate the facts from the interpretation
of facts. Observers observe the facts and make
their interpretation at a later time. It should be
checked and verified whenever possible by
repetition or by comparison with those of other
competent observers.
It should be carefully and expertly recorded.
Observers use appropriate instruments to
systematize, qualify and preserve the result of
their observations.
Observations are collected in such a way that they
are valid and reliable.
Types of Observation:
Participant Observation: It combines participation
in the lives of the people being studied with
maintenance of a professional distance that allows
adequate observation and recording of data
(Fetterman, 1998).
Non-Participant Observation: It is the observation
with limited interaction with the people observed.
Questionnaire:
A questionnaire is a format list of questions
designed to gather responses from respondent on
a given topic. It is a formalized schedule for data
collection. It is used when opinion rather than
facts are desired.
Questionnaire is a term used for almost any kind
of instrument that has questions or items to which
individuals respond. A questionnaire is a list of
questions to number of persons for them to
answer. It secures standardized results that can
be tabulated created statistically.
Type of Questionnaire:
Structured and Un-structured Questionnaires:
The structured questionnaire contains definite,
concrete and direct questions, whereas un-
structured questionnaire may consist of partially
completed questions or statements. An un-
structured questionnaire is often used as the
interview guide, which is non-directive. The
interviewer possesses only a blueprint of the
enquiries and he is largely free to arrange the form
or statements of the questions.
Closed Form and Open Form: The questions that
call for short or check responses are known as
restricted or closed form type. This provide for
making a yes or no, a short response, or checking
an item from a list of given responses. It restricts
the choice of response for the respondent. He
simply needs to select a response out of supplied
responses and has not to frame his response in
his own way. It is easy to fill out, takes less time,
keeps the respondent on the subject, is relatively
more objective, more acceptable and convenient to
the respondent, and is fairly easy to tabulate and
analyze. The open form, open-end or unrestricted
type questionnaire calls for a free response in the
respondent‟s own words. The respondent frames
and supplies his own response. No clues are
provided. It probably provides for greater depth of
response. The subject reveals his mind, gives his
frame of reference arid possibly the reasons for his
responses. This type of item is sometimes difficult
to interpret, tabulate and summarize in the
research report. When the respondent is allowed
freedom of response his expressions may take any
unique direction which may not find any
uniformity with other responses.
The mixed questionnaire: The mixed questionnaire
consists of both close-end and open-end type
questions. For social research, this method is very
useful. Many questionnaires include both open
and closed type items. Each type has its specific
merits and limitations and the researcher has to
decide which type is more likely to supply the
information he wants.
Fact and Opinion Questionnaires: Questionnaire
are also classified as: (1) Questionnaire of fact,
which requires certain information of facts from
the respondent without any reference to his
opinion or attitude about them, and (2)
Questionnaire of opinion and attitude in which the
informant‟s opinion, attitude or preference
regarding some phenomena is sought.
Pictorial and Verbal Questionnaires: In the
pictorial questionnaire, pictures are used to
promote interest in answering questions. It is used
extensively in studies of social attitudes and
prejudices in children or illiterate persons. In a
pictorial questionnaire, the selected alternative
answers in the form of pictures are given and the
respondent is required to tick the picture
concerned. This questionnaire may be very useful
for collecting data in a developing country like
India, specially from the rural masses who are
mostly illiterate and less knowledgeable. The
serious limitation of this questionnaire is that it is
lengthy in form. Also it is highly expensive. Verbal
questionnaire uses words and numbers only. It is
the usual form meant for literate respondents.

Interview Schedule:
A Schedule is a set of questions with structured
answers to guide an interviewer, observer,
researcher or investigator. It is a plan or guideline
for investigation.
According to Goode and Hatt, Interview Schedule
is a set of questions which are asked by an
interviewer and filled in on the spot in a face to
face interaction with another person.
Types of Interview Schedule:
Observation Schedule: This is a type of schedule
having questions which guide an observer
systematically.
Rating Schedule: It is also a set of questions helps
to guide a social worker to measure the attitude
and behavior of an individual.
Survey Schedule: This type of schedule is
formulated for a surveyor to guide him for his
collection of information from respondents.
Interview Schedule: It is a set of questions with
structured answers to guide an interviewer for his
collection of information from respondents.

Interview-Guide:
Interviewing involves asking questions and getting
answers from participants in a study.
Interviewing has a variety of forms including:
individual, face-to-face interviews and face-to-face
group interviewing. The asking and answering of
questions can be mediated by the telephone or
other electronic devices (e.g. computers).
Interviews can be structured, semi-structure or
unstructured, informal interviews or focus
groups.

A series of questions based on the objective of the

study that is developed so as to guide a researcher
in the process of data collection by any of the
methods of interviews is an interview-guide.

Steps and Guidelines in the Construction of

Research Instruments:

An instrument is a mechanism for measuring

phenomena, which is used to gather and record
information for assessment, decision making, and
ultimately understanding. An instrument such as
a questionnaire is typically used to obtain factual
information, support observations, or assess
attitudes and opinions.
The term subjective describes information that
originates within an individual and is reflected by
items that measure attitudes, feelings, opinions,
values, and beliefs. Subjective questions need to
be avoided. Information that is objective attempts
to be free of personal interpretation and is typified
by data that are observable. Objective questions
need to be included.

Step I: Clearly define and individually list all the

specific objectives or research Questions for your
study.
Step II: For each objective or research questions,
list all the associated questions that you want to
answer through your study.
Step III: Take each research question listed in step
II and list the information Required to answer it.
Step IV: Formulate question(s) to obtain this
information.
Wording and Structure of Questions

Questions should be kept short and simple

Avoid double barreled i.e. two questions in one.
Avoid negative questions which are confusing for
respondent to agree or disagree.
Question should not contain Prestige Bias i.e.
causing embarrassment or forcing the respondent
to give false answer in order to look good.
Use indirect questions for sensitive issues i.e. in
indirect questions respondents can relate their
answer to other people.
Avoiding Leading Question: Don‟t lead the
respondent to answer in a certain way.
Keep the questionnaire as short as possible
Make the questions as interesting as possible and
easy to follow
Question Layout and spacing is important as
cluttered Questionnaire is less likely to be
answered.

Reliability:
Reliability is the degree to which an assessment
tool produces stable and consistent results.
Types of Reliability:
Test-retest reliability is a measure of reliability
obtained by administering the same test twice over
a period of time to a group of individuals. The
scores from Time 1 and Time 2 can then be
correlated in order to evaluate the test for stability
over time.
Parallel forms reliability is a measure of reliability
obtained by administering different versions of an
assessment tool (both versions must contain items
that probe the same construct, skill, knowledge
base, etc.) to the same group of individuals. The
scores from the two versions can then be
correlated in order to evaluate the consistency of
results across alternate versions.
Inter-rater reliability is a measure of reliability
used to assess the degree to which different judges
or raters agree in their assessment decisions.
Inter-rater reliability is useful because human
observers will not necessarily interpret answers
the same way; raters may disagree as to how well
certain responses or material demonstrate
knowledge of the construct or skill being
assessed.
Internal consistency reliability is a measure of
reliability used to evaluate the degree to which
different test items that probe the same construct
produce similar results.
Average inter-item correlation is a subtype of
internal consistency reliability. It is obtained by
taking all of the items on a test that probe the
same construct (e.g., reading comprehension),
determining the correlation coefficient for
each pair of items, and finally taking the average
of all of these correlation coefficients. This final
step yields the average inter-item correlation.
Split-half reliability is another subtype of internal
consistency reliability. The process of obtaining
split-half reliability is begun by “splitting in half”
all items of a test that are intended to probe the
same area of knowledge (e.g., World War II) in
order to form two “sets” of items. The entire test is
administered to a group of individuals, the total
score for each “set” is computed, and finally the
split-half reliability is obtained by determining the
correlation between the two total “set” scores.
Validity refers to how well a test measures what it
is purported to measure. For a test to be reliable,
it also needs to be valid.
Types of Validity:
1. Face Validity ascertains that the measure
appears to be assessing the intended construct
under study. The stakeholders can easily assess
face validity. Although this is not a very “scientific”
type of validity, it may be an essential component
in enlisting motivation of stakeholders. If the
stakeholders do not believe the measure is an
accurate assessment of the ability, they may
become disengaged with the task.
2. Construct Validity is used to ensure that the
measure is actually measure what it is intended to
measure (i.e. the construct), and not other
variables. Using a panel of “experts” familiar with
the construct is a way in which this type of validity
can be assessed. The experts can examine the
items and decide what that specific item is
intended to measure. Students can be involved in
this process to obtain their feedback.
3. Criterion-Related Validity is used to predict
future or current performance. It correlates test
results with another criterion of interest.
4. Formative Validity when applied to outcomes
assessment it is used to assess how well a
measure is able to provide information to help
improve the program under study.
5. Sampling Validity (similar to content validity)
ensures that the measure covers the broad range
of areas within the concept under study. Not
everything can be covered, so items need to be
sampled from all of the domains. This may need to
be completed using a panel of “experts” to ensure
that the content area is adequately sampled.
Additionally, a panel can help limit “expert” bias
(i.e. a test reflecting what an individual personally
feels are the most important or relevant areas).
Internal Validity
One of the key ways to understand internal
validity is the recognition that when it is
associated with experimental research it refers
both to how well the study was run (research
design, operational definitions used, how variables
were measured, what was / was not measured,
etc.), and how confidently one can conclude that
the change in the dependent variable was
produced solely by the independent variable and
not by the interferences of extraneous variables.
External Validity
The extent to which a study's results (regardless of
whether the study is descriptive or experimental)
can be generalized or applied to other people or
settings reflects its external validity.

Population and Sampling:

Population:
A “population” consists of all the subjects
concerned with a study. A population comprises
all the possible cases (persons, objects, events)
that constitute a known whole. (e.g.). All 1000
children with learning problem in Idukki District.
Sampling:
Sampling is the process of selecting a group of
subjects for a study in such a way that the
individuals represent the larger group from which
they were selected. This representative portion of a
population is called a sample. L. R. Gay suggests
that 10% of samples for a large population and
20% of samples for a small population may be
chosen as minimum samples. (e.g.) 100 Children
with learning problem.

Census:

It refers to a count or a study of all of the elements

in the population. (e.g). The Census Survey of
India.

Sampling Theory:
Sampling theory is a study of relationships
existing between a population and samples drawn
from the population. Sampling theory is applicable
only to random samples. For this purpose the
population or a universe may be defined as an
aggregate of items possessing a common trait or
traits. In other words, a universe is the complete
group of items about which knowledge is sought.
The universe may be finite or infinite.

In finite universe the population is definite and the

number of items is fixed or existent. But when the
number of items is uncertain and infinite, the
universe is said to be an infinite universe or
hypothetical. Similarly, the universe may be
hypothetical or existent.
The term sample refers to that part of the universe
which is selected for the purpose of investigation.
The theory of sampling studies the relationships
that exist between the universe and the sample or
samples drawn from it.

Sampling Types:

a. Probability Sampling:

Every individual in the population is known and

each has a certain probability of being selected. A
random process decides the sample based on each
individual‟s probability. A probability sampling
scheme is one in which every unit in the
population has a chance of being selected in the
sample, and this probability can be accurately
determined.

a). Simple Random Sampling

Applicable when population is small,
homogeneous and readily available
All subsets of the frame are given an equal
probability. Each element of the frame thus has an
equal probability of selection.
It provides for greatest number of possible
samples. This is done by assigning a number to
each unit in the sampling frame.
A table of random number or lottery system is
used to determine which units are to be selected.
Estimates are easy to calculate.

b). Systematic Sampling

Systematic sampling relies on arranging the target

population according to some ordering scheme
and then selecting elements at regular intervals
through that ordered list.
Systematic sampling involves a random start and
then proceeds with the selection of every kth
element from then onwards. In this case,
k=(population size/sample size).
It is important that the starting point is not
automatically the first in the list, but is instead
randomly chosen from within the first to the kth
element in the list.
A simple example would be to select every 10th
name from the telephone directory.

c). Stratified Random Sampling

Where population embraces a number of distinct

categories, the frame can be organized into
separate "strata." Each stratum is then sampled
as an independent sub-population, out of which
individual elements can be randomly selected.
Every unit in a stratum has same chance of being
selected.
Using same sampling fraction for all strata
ensures proportionate or disproportionate
representation in the sample.
Adequate representation of minority subgroups of
interest can be ensured by stratification and
varying sampling fraction between strata as
required.
Finally, since each stratum is treated as an
independent population, different sampling
approaches can be applied to different strata.

d). Cluster Sampling

Cluster sampling is an example of 'two-stage

sampling'.
First stage a sample of areas is chosen;
Second stage a sample of respondents within
those areas is selected.
Population divided into clusters of homogeneous
units, usually based on geographical contiguity.
Sampling units are groups rather than
individuals.
A sample of such clusters is then selected.
All units from the selected clusters are studied.

There are two types of cluster sampling methods.

One-stage sampling: All of the elements within

selected clusters are included in the sample.
Two-stage sampling: A subset of elements within
selected cluster are randomly selected for
inclusion in the sample.
e). Multi-Stage Sampling

Complex form of cluster sampling in which two or

more levels of units are embedded one in the
other.
First stage, random number of districts chosen in
all states.
Followed by random number of talukas, villages.
Then third stage units will be houses.
All ultimate units (houses, for instance) selected at
last step are surveyed.
This technique is essentially the process of taking
random samples of preceding random samples.
It is an effective strategy because it banks on
multiple randomizations.
Multistage sampling used frequently when a
complete list of all members of the population not
exists and is inappropriate.
B. Non-Probability Sampling:

The population is not entirely known, thus

individual probabilities cannot be known.
Common sense or ease is used to choose the
sample, but efforts are made to avoid bias and
keep the sample representative.

Any sampling method where some elements of

population have no chance of selection (these are
sometimes referred to as 'out of coverage' /
'undercovered'), or where the probability of
selection cannot be accurately determined. It
involves the selection of elements based on
,assumptions regarding the population of interest,
which forms the criteria for selection. The
selection of elements is non-random.
a). Convenience Sampling:

Sometimes known as grab or opportunity

sampling or accidental or haphazard sampling.
A type of non-probability sampling which involves
the sample being drawn from that part of the
population which is close to hand. That is, readily
available and convenient.
The researcher using such a sample cannot
scientifically make generalizations about the total
population from this sample because it would not
be representative enough.
b). Judgemental or Purposive Sampling:

The researcher chooses the sample based on who

they think would be appropriate for the study.
This is used primarily when there are a limited
number of people that have expertise in the area
being researched.
c). Quota Sampling:

The population is first segmented into mutually

exclusive sub-groups, just as in stratified
sampling.
Then judgments are used to select subjects or
units from each segment based on a specified
proportion.
In quota sampling the selection of the sample is
non-random.
The problem is that these samples may be biased
because not everyone gets a chance of selection.
This random element is its greatest weakness.

Sources and Types of Data:

Primary Data
Primary data are information collected from
sources such as personal interviews,
questionnaires or surveys with a specific intention
and on a specific subject, and observation and
discussion by the researcher him or herself, in
which the information is then assessed by that
person. It can be a lengthy process but does
provide first-hand information.
Secondary Data:
Secondary data is information that is already
available somewhere, whether it be in journals, on
the internet, in a company's records or, on a larger
scale, in corporate or governmental archives.
Secondary data allows for comparison between the
earlier and current data that is used to measure
the effects of change or whatever that is being
researched.
Quantitative Data:
Quantitative data are anything that can be
expressed as a number, or quantified. Examples of
quantitative data are scores on achievement tests,
number of hours of study, or weight of a subject.
These data may be represented by ordinal, interval
or ratio scales and lend themselves to most
statistical manipulation. Quantitative data can be
analyzed statistically, and thus more rigorous
assessments of the data are possible.
Qualitative Data:
Qualitative data cannot be expressed as a number.
Data that represent nominal scales such as
gender, socio-economic status, religious
preference are usually considered to be qualitative
data.