TASK C NUTRITION AND SUPPLEMENTATION

Brett Michael Chinchen

1. Herbivore – Plant eating animals. Example: Eland (Woburn Safari Park)
Carnivore – Meat eating animals, Example: Lion (Edinburgh Zoo)
Omnivore- Eat both meat and plants Example Chimpanzee (Monkey World) When it comes to meat, they
consume a variety of sources in the wild, including small mammals like bushbabies, rodents, and occasionally
other primates such as monkeys. Of all the great apes, chimpanzees resort to cannibalism most often.
Typically, males will kill and eat the infant of another female, usually in their own group but occasionally in
another. When chimps kill adults from other groups in a fight, they generally do not eat the body.

2. Life stages of a tiger and their nutritional requirements

Young adolescent adult pregnant and lactating old.

In the wild tigers typically eat once every two days after feasting on a large mammal. According to the
statistics, a tiger kills about one large animal per week, thus about 50 to 52 animals per year. A wild tiger,
depending on the size of the prey and its reproductive status, may only make a kill once
every 4 – 7 days or so. A large meal every few days is more suitable. There is wide variation in suitable
quantity and frequency of feeds, from 4 to 8 kg per day, to < 60 kg once per week.
Determination of ration amounts is a dynamic process to meet changes in metabolic needs, such as in
seasonal needs, illness, pregnancy, lactation and growth.

Proper body weight to avoid obesity should be maintained by diet alterations. These changes should reflect
not only energy but also vitamin and mineral needs. Young animals may well need more calcium and protein
whereas an old tiger may require more supplements depending on medical conditions and level of frailty.

Meat on the bone or whole carcasses can also be supplemented with a good powdered supplement used in
conjunction with cod liver oil, even for females with cubs. If diets are mixed within the zoo they should be
supplemented to provide 1% calcium (dry matter basis), particularly if bones are not consumed. This is
equivalent to about 7 g Ca/kg meat; a non-phosphorus containing supplement such as CaCO3 (40% Ca)
should be used. For example, 17.5 g of CaCO3 (per kg meat) would be added. If meat is lean and/or well-
trimmed, vitamins A and E may need to be supplemented at recommended levels. Do not supplement with
vitamin A if liver is consumed in any amount. Vitamin E may be necessary in diets based on meats containing
polyunsaturated fats (any non-ruminant), at levels providing 50 A Commercial Feline Diet (adapted from
Animal Spectrum, 5801 Locust St, Lincoln, NE 68516) This commercial feline food has been formulated to be
fed as the sole ration to non-domestic carnivores, principally Felidae. It is a complete and balanced diet forti-
fied with all necessary vitamins and trace minerals, as well as proper levels of calcium and phosphorus.
Ingredients Horsemeat, horsemeat by-products, bone meal,liver, fish meal, soy grits, dried beet pulp, dried
eggs, brewer's dried yeast, salt, D-activated animal sterol (source of vitamin D3), vitamin B12 supplement,
vitamin E supplement, menadione, sodium bisulfite (source of vitamin K activity), riboflavin supplement,
niacin, calcium pantothenate, choline chloride, thiamine, pyridoxine hydrochloride, folic acid, copper oxide,
cobalt carbonate, manganous oxide, ethylene diamine dihydriodide, zinc oxide. Guaranteed Analysis Crude
Protein: 19.0% (min.) Crude Fat: 12.0% (min.) Crude Fiber: 1.5% (max.) Ash: 4.5% (max.) Calcium: 0.6%
(min.) Phosphorus: 0.5% (min.) Moisture: 62.0% (max.) Vitamin A: 7,500 IU/lb. (min.) Vitamin D3: 850 IU/lb.
(min.) Chapter 4: Nutrition, Food Preparation and Feeding 150 IU/kg dry matter.

Note:
Beef is only fed if there is no horse due to the risk of BSE in beef. If beef is fed, legs are normally used.
MEAT AROUND THE SPINE MUST BE AVOIDED - BSE or Bovine Spongiform encephalopathy is a
neurodegenerative disease. Today’s risk of contracting BSE (FSE in fields) is slight to almost zero in the UK
but it makes sense to avoid using cattle meat as a feed to rare carnivores and/or EAZA programme species
such as Amur Tigers and Amur Leopards, but others too. The disease is typically localised in the brain and
spinal cord, so as these are removed during butchering, the cattle meat should be “clean” of BSE, but there is
always the risk of the spinal cord braking and contaminating the meat. It is a low risk currently. – From CZ-
Ed-Info-Management-of-Zoo-Animals.pdf (colchester-zoo.com)

Obesity due to lack of activity in captivity is a major problem for zoo carnivores, including tigers. One of the
ways to meet these needs is to devise a weekly diet that would provide commercially prepared diets, bones
and whole or partial carcasses. Care must be taken that animals euthanized with barbiturates are not fed, as
this is the most common type of poisoning in large captive felids. Felids feeding on such carcasses may show
varying signs from mild ataxia to general anesthesia that may last for days. One consideration when feeding is
also psychological well-being providing for instance variety, texture and pleasure when feeding. Improving the
quality of life for zoo animals. Typically, wild tigers gorge themselves on fresh kills. As the carcass is eaten
(after several days), daily food consumption decrease, followed by a few days during which tigers eat
practically nothing. Thus, the average amount of food consumed over the entire period is closer to what a zoo
tiger eats on in total. One would therefore not feed tigers everyday as one wants to recreate more natural
eating.

Adult tigers are fed to maintain body condition, with general maintenance energy requirements = 140 kcal
(body mass in kg).75 (Kleiber 1964). Thus a female averaging 123 kg requires 5170 kcal/day, whereas a 160
kg male requires 6300 kcal. Metabolizable energy (ME) requirements can be met by daily feeding 3.1 and 4.1
kg respectively, of commercial diets containing about 2.00 kcal/kg (as fed basis) daily, with a digestibility
coefficient of 0.84. Most management programs have found that tigers' appetites and body conditions improve
if they are fasted one to two days a week. Either no food is fed on these days or shank or other large bones
are fed. Feeding bones (femur bones, oxtails, rawhide) has an additional function in promoting periodontal
health and provides an opportunity to exhibit more natural feeding behaviors, and presumably is enriching to
the animals (see Chapter 2, Dental). One fast day per week is recommended, which increases the meal sizes
to 3.6 and 4.8 kg for Bengal tiger females and males respectively (Sumatran tigers less; Siberian tigers more).
Diet quantities should be increased 10-20% in animals housed outdoors during winter months, and decreased
by the same amount during summer months when appetite drops. Increase diet to ad libitum during lactation.
3. Main Nutrient Groups to consider when feeding zoo animals include the following:
 Water
 Protein
 Carbohydrates
 Fat
 Fibre
 Vitamins
 Minerals

The aim is to provide a nutritionally balanced diet. A diet is considered to be “nutritionally balanced” when it
provides appropriate levels of known dietary essential nutrients based on current knowledge and information.
A nutritionally balanced diet must be provided in a suitable form and correct proportion based on the most
appropriate physiological model or models for the species. Also to provide a diet that reasonably stimulates
natural feeding behaviours, That the animal consumes consistently.

4. Chosen animal: Tiger – Carnivore. Majority of the diet for large cats will be meat particularly carcasses in
particular horse and pony meat – beef especially beef spine must be avoided see above. For variety birds like
chickens can be provided whereas fish would be avoided as this would not be natural. Tigers possess
specialised digestive systems that efficiently process animal proteins to meet their nutritional needs.

All animals require nutrients and energy in a metabolizable form. The nutrients and energy must be properly
balanced and in the correct form to accommodate particular tastes, digestive systems, and feeding methods.

Diets for exotic and zoo animals have been developed through:

 practical experience

 food habits in the wild

 oral and GI tract morphology

 nutritional research on exotic species in the wild and captivity

 nutrient requirements established for domestic and laboratory animals and people

 anecdotal literature reports (eg, case studies)

 physiologic status of the animal (eg, young, old, pregnant, etc)

 body condition

The ultimate criteria to evaluate the suitability of a diet and the type of food given for a given species are
growth, reproductive success, and longevity.

Different types of tigers given where they are found in the wild will have different diets and this should be
taken into consideration by zoos when emulating the natural environment.
 5. Changes in diet may occur for a number of reasons this include for instance:

 Change in weather conditions / season. For instance, animals may require more food / fat intake in
the winter months. Lack of UV light in winter months may require an animals diet to have more
supplements.

 Change in medical condition. For instance this may mean that the animal needs additional
supplements to their diet. Feeding should be preventative of disease and adverse medical conditions.

 Change in age and size of the animal may mean an increase or decrease dependently in the amount
of food being provided. For instance an animal becoming pregnant will need more food.

 Often the first of the five welfare domains to get a call out when being listed, nutrition (previously
referred to as the “freedom from hunger and thirst” or the “need for a suitable diet” in older welfare
literature), is a basic husbandry staple to keep an animal alive, however a good diet is more than
simply one that keeps an animal alive for any period of time.

 Feeding for “enrichment” and providing a natural diet can be useful to promote natural behaviours,
encourage wild type daily activity and help prevent boredom and physiological imbalance. This then
requires regular changes throughout the year so as to help prevent for instance boredom.

All these changes and or considerations must be kept in mind alongside the anticipation, satisfaction and satiation that
food and water can bring can impact an animal’s cognitive health, mental state, and the positive experiences they
have access to within their lives (positive experiences beyond the “moment on the lips” satisfaction of receiving a
treat; think instead: an old age with reduced joint pain because of living an active life at an appropriate weight, which
supports mobility and muscle tone maintenance) etc.

Tigers often receive bigger, longer, and meatier shank bones than other carnivores. For added fun in the warmer
months, the bones can be offered frozen. It takes a little bit longer to demolish and serves as a cool treat in the hot
weather.

6. Imitating dietary changes in captivity.

As far as possible, dietary changes should be avoided during times of stress or excitement or in times where
an extra contribution of nutrients. Many captive animals are fed diets that are drastically different from their
wild diet. Most captive big cats like tigers are fed a nutritionally supplemented diet consisting almost entirely of
ground meat. While many zoos supplement this diet with bones, the fact remains that large captive felids are
fed diets that require substantially less masticatory effort than those of their wild counterparts. The key
therefore is to try to emulate as best as one can conditions and diet that that mimics those a wild tiger would
experience. This then may take into account seasonal changes as seen above in question 5 for example. It is
worth keeping the following in mind when making any of these changes:

 Varied diet (i.e. pork/chicken/horse)

 Additional supplements where required

 Food is provided at different times

  Food is provided in varying ways

 Food amount is specific to each tiger

 Clean and/or running water is always available

7. Purpose of dietary supplements.

See for example question 2 above and example of a supplement for tigers below.
Vitamin and mineral supplements commonly added to the diet offered to tigers in zoos should not be
necessary, although may be advisable if individuals in rehabilitation are recovering from particularly severe
illness, have not yet recovered a healthy appetite or are juveniles without a mother.
The key role of the powdered supplement is to ensure that food provides a ratio of calcium to phosphorous of
approximately 2:1 for example. See a well-recognised company providing supplements for zoos:
zoo_animal_diets_database | Kiezebrink UK

Exotic feline diets are usually higher than canine diets in fat, protein, and vitamin A. A diet suitable for most cat
species contains 45%–50% protein, 30%–35% fat, 3%–4% crude fiber, 1.2%–1.5% calcium, 1%–1.2%
phosphorus, and 20,000–40,000 IU of vitamin A/kg diet (dry-matter basis).

Example of a supplement
Commercial Feline Diet (adapted from Animal Spectrum, 5801 Locust St, Lincoln, NE 68516) This commercial
feline food has been formulated to be fed as the sole ration to non-domestic carnivores, principally Felidae. It
is a complete and balanced diet fortified with all necessary vitamins and trace minerals, as well as proper
levels of calcium and phosphorus. Ingredients Horsemeat, horsemeat by-products, bone meal,liver, fish meal,
soy grits, dried beet pulp, dried eggs, brewer's dried yeast, salt, D-activated animal sterol (source of vitamin
D3), vitamin B12 supplement, vitamin E supplement, menadione, sodium bisulfite (source of vitamin K
activity), riboflavin supplement, niacin, calcium pantothenate, choline chloride, thiamine, pyridoxine
hydrochloride, folic acid, copper oxide, cobalt carbonate, manganous oxide, ethylene diamine dihydriodide,
zinc oxide. Guaranteed Analysis Crude Protein: 19.0% (min.) Crude Fat: 12.0% (min.) Crude Fiber: 1.5%
(max.) Ash: 4.5% (max.) Calcium: 0.6% (min.) Phosphorus: 0.5% (min.) Moisture: 62.0% (max.) Vitamin A:
7,500 IU/lb. (min.) Vitamin D3: 850 IU/lb. (min.)

8. See question 3 and 7 above. Symptoms of nutrient deficiency in tigers can include most commonly
dehydration this can be confirmed by the following symptoms:
 High body temperature.
 Sunken dull eyes.
 Dry nose and mouth.
 Pinched skin taking long to return to normal.
 Signs of shock including for instance heavy and or laboured breathing.
 Changes in behaviour animal may appear tired and lethargic.

It is crucial therefore to provide access to clean water and a species-appropriate diet that promotes and
maintains full health minimising hunger and thirst.

Water intake should be assessed routinely but especially in animals with compromised renal function, in
lizards or birds prone to gout, and in animals under conditions of high temperature or low humidity in which
evaporative losses can be expected. The salt content of water should be known, because some species are
less tolerant than others. Animals fed dry feeds (pellets, extrusions, hay, etc) require more water than those
fed succulent feeds. Potable water should be available ad lib.

Many animals in the wild consume much of their water in the foods they eat. When low-moisture foods are
consumed (pellets, extrusions, etc), some animals, depending on how water is presented, may not maintain
adequate hydration. Many free-ranging small and tropical lizards receive water from foods and from licking
drops that accumulate after rainfall. When in captivity, they frequently do not drink readily from containers. In
nature, birds of prey do not drink; however, in captivity, they do drink sometimes, depending on the
circumstances, so clean drinking water must be available at all times.

Humidity may be especially important to maintain hydration of many reptiles, especially tropical species. Daily
misting with warm water is an important source of hydration for some lizards that may not be observed
drinking standing water. Eye lesions in semiaquatic turtles (eg, box turtles) and some tortoises may be the
result of low environmental humidity (or possibly upper respiratory tract disease) and not vitamin A deficiency.
 Conjunctivitis may respond better to supportive antibiotic therapy and higher humidity than to supplemental
vitamin A. Dietary histories may be especially important in such cases, because many captive turtles are fed
commercial food, which is mostly cat food high in vitamin A.

Apparently, exotic cats, like domestic cats, are unable to convert carotene to vitamin A, tryptophan to niacin,
and linoleic acid to arachidonic acid.

They also probably cannot synthesize adequate taurine (a taurine deficiency has been reported in leopards)
and would be susceptible to ammonia toxicity if fed an arginine-deficient diet.

Therefore, these nutrients should be considered dietary essentials for all felids – especially tigers.

Potential Deficiencies and Supplementation Carnivores may face risks of certain deficiencies when not
provided with a variety of foods that cover all their nutritional needs. Vitamin A can for example be provided by
feeding large felines liver which is rich in vitamin A.

9. Simply mix the supplements into the animal’s feed. Though this as many pet owners can attest as also
mentioned during our lesson by some of my fellow students can be easier said than done. As the supplement
may affect the smell, taste and texture of the food. Hiding medicine and supplements in the food and trying
then to avoid the animal detecting and then not consuming this addition to their food becomes crucial. Meat
frozen pops can be one way to feed big cats their supplements see for instance: Meat powder pops:
microbiology and palatability of freeze-dried horse meat used in frozen enrichment • AZA Nutrition Advisory
Group (nagonline.net)

The use of nutritional supplements is popular among animal caretakers. Although many keepers and pet
owners use nutritionally complete feeds that require no supplementation, supplements are still often provided.
Especially for old or sick animals.

The nutrient content of the current diet should be established or estimated first to determine whether any
supplement is needed or whether a supplement should be discontinued. Unfortunately, diets are rarely
evaluated first to determine which nutrients (if any) are unbalanced.
A supplement containing at a minimum calcium, vitamin A, iodine, taurine, and some B vitamins should be
added to the meat diet. Feeding a complete mixed diet greatly reduces incidence of nutritional problems in
captive exotic carnivores; however, such a diet regularly causes faecal problems.

If a nutrient is deficient in a diet, a specific supplement in a specific amount should be recommended.

Excessive supplementation of some nutrients (eg, some fat-soluble vitamins, selenium, copper) can be just as
harmful as not enough because of toxicity and nutrient imbalance.

Diets consisting primarily of grain products and cultivated fruits and vegetables may need micronutrient
supplementation; however, supplements vary widely in their composition.

Though these later examples hardly apply to tigers.

Having said that research is showing that tigers may well supplement their diets in the wild with berries and
the like to gain additional nutrients in their diets and assist digestion. We have all seen for example domestic
house cats eating grass to aid digestion and tigers are no different in this regard. See for instance
https://wildlifefaq.com/tiger-diet/

The ideal is to source natural sources of vitamins and not therefore have to resort to supplements for example
as mentioned above Vitamin A can be obtained in feeding tigers liver which is rich in Vitamin A.

Bibliography

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Consortium
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