Vehicle Systems and Control

2.4 SUSPENSIONS AND CORNERING

PEFORMANCE

Previously we considered suspension effects of ride, but

suspensions also have an effect on handling.

This is obvious for active suspensions (e.g. reducing roll

motion).

But even passive suspensions have an important effect

on handling performance – through their influence on
body roll, vertical load, camber and steering angles.

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 Vehicle Systems and Control

In the bicycle handling model we mostly limited attention to small slip

angles.

If the front and rear tires experience the full range of slip angles, the balance
between forces at the front and rear axles can change – then understeer and
oversteer effects can change as we vary speed and steer angle in the steady-
state turn.

It’s not only tire properties that come into play as the lateral acceleration
increases – tire forces are influenced by lateral load transfer and steer and
camber effects from the suspension and steering. Here we focus on load
transfer effects and defer detailed discussion of steer and camber effects
until later in the course.

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In steady state, lateral forces are to be in proportion to the vertical load at

each axle, so equal values should occur on the vertical scale. In the neutral
steer case this happens at equal values of 𝛼1 (=  f ) and 𝛼2 (=  r ).

In the linear region, the left pair of plots show understeer (  f   r ) – the
rear wheels (axle total) have a higher cornering stiffness as shown by the
steeper slopw

Note: (1) = front axle, (2) = rear axle

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Terminal understeer occurs when the front axle limits the maximum
acceleration. In this case the rear axle has ‘spare capacity’ and this makes
the vehicle stable at the limit.

On the other hand, terminal oversteer is when the rear axle has limiting
force, the front axle having the extra force capacity. This means a slight
disturbance can lead to a destabilizing yaw moment due to front/rear
balance being lost.

In each case the circle shows the limiting lateral acceleration, and hence the
terminal understeer/oversteer condition.

1 Which cases give terminal understeer? Which give terminal oversteer?

And which of the four cases do you consider will be the most dangerous?

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 Vehicle Systems and Control

To analyze the forces in the suspension, and especially load transfer

distribution between the front and rear axle, we need to understand
suspension roll centers

Roll Center
The Roll Center for a double A-arm suspension is represented by geometric
construction, using the line from the “reaction point” C (also called the
instantaneous center of rotation) to the center of the tyre contact patch.

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In mechanical terms the reaction point is where one half of an independent

suspension exerts its resultant force on the vehicle body, based only on the
link forces.

The roll centre R is the equivalent concept for the axle total – the reaction
point of lateral forces between suspension links and the vehicle body.

R is at the height where a lateral force applied to the body of the vehicle will
introduce no roll effect, … just considering the front or rear suspension.

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 Vehicle Systems and Control

Why is this the location of the roll centre?

Consider one side of the independent suspension. The ‘no body roll’
condition means there is no spring deflection, and equilibrium of the wheel
components is only possible if the tyre force acts through C.

Combining the left and right side tyre forces, they must act through the roll
centre.

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 Vehicle Systems and Control

The roll center is hence the notional reaction point on the body/chassis for
the combined forces in both sets of suspension links (left and right).

Drawing a line between front and rear roll centres gives the roll axis. This
can be thought of as the axis about which the vehicle rolls, but this is not
the true definition.

2 Do you expect increased body roll during cornering for a vehicle with a
higher roll axis?

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Lateral Load Transfer for the vehicle as a whole

cornering direction
G
Ma y

R hG

c O c
1
2 Mg + W 1
2 Mg − W
Mg

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Taking moments at O…

Ma y hG = 2W c

and hence
May hG
W =
2c

One simple consequence is to do with rollover on a horizontal surface.

This is about to occur when load transfer equals half the vehicle weight:
Mg Ma y hG
=
2 2c

c
so ay = = ‘static rollover threshold’
hG

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If the suspension allows significant body roll, an additional moment term

Mgh1 sin   Mgh1 should be included due to the lateral movement of the
mass centre. [Here the car is coming towards us, steering to the left].

G
Ma y
h1
M  = − K 
Mg

R

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Then M  = − K is the roll moment from the suspension springs (opposing
body roll). Because we take moments about the roll-centre the forces in the
linkage forces can be ignored.

3 Show that in this case, the equation for vehicle lateral load transfer is
Ma y hG + Mgh1
modified to : W = .
2c

4 A vehicle has half track c = 0.8m, mass center height 0.55m, and mean
roll center height 0.25m. When cornering with a lateral acceleration of
0.5g, the roll angle is 5º. Find the percentage increase in vehicle lateral
load transfer due to body roll. Comment on the result.

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 Vehicle Systems and Control

The roll rate is defined as the rate of change of body roll angle with respect

to normalized lateral acceleration: R =
a y
Taking moments about the roll axis R in the previous figure
Mgh1 + Ma y h1 − K = 0

Hence Ma y h1 = K − Mgh1 = ( K − Mgh1 ) , so

Ma y h1 Mgh1
= = ay
K − Mgh1 K − Mgh1

Mgh1
and the roll rate is R =
K − Mgh1

5 In the above calculation of moments, why are we allowed to ignore the

effects of forces transmitted by
(i) suspension dampers (ii) suspension links?

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Load Transfer at a Single Axle. Now consider the FBD for the front axle
[It can be solid axle or independent suspension, the roll centre combines the two concepts together]

M  f = + K f 
Fy f

R
hR f

Fy fo O Fy fi
1
2 W f + W f 1
2 W f − W f
Free body diagram focused on the axle components

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The lateral tire forces (from the road onto the tires) are Fyf = Fyfi + Fyfo . As
previously,   0 and Fyf  0 . Taking moments about R

Kf  + Fyf hRf − 2W f c = 0

and hence the (front) axle load transfer is

K f  + Fyf hRf
W f =
2c
We see that lateral forces and body roll both add to load transfer.

Similarly (assuming equal track widths for the front and rear axles)

K r + Fyr hRr
Wr =
2c

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From these equations, we see load transfer can be reduced by increasing

the track width (same as before, when the total vehicle load transfer was
considered).

It can also be reduced by reducing suspension roll stiffness at the axle or

by reducing the roll center height

6 From this we can apparently reduce vehicle load transfer by lowering the
roll axis and reducing spring stiffness – is this really true? If not, where
does the logic go wrong?

K f R + W f hRf
7 Show from the above equations that W f = ay .
2c

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How Suspension Roll Stiffness Influences Understeer/Oversteer

A simple tyre model is used to illustrate the effect:

effect of load transfer on axle force vs slip curve

7000 7000

6800
6000
6600
5000 6400

peak axle force

6200
Force - N

4000
6000
3000
5800

2000 5600

5400
1000
5200

0 5000
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
slip angle - deg percent load transfer

left plot: with equal increases in vertical load – what do you notice?
right plot: the total axle force when load is transferred (total = constant)
Hence: lateral load transfer leads to a loss of total cornering force at the
axle

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8 Explain how increasing the roll stiffness of the front suspension promotes
understeer, and why this effect has little or no importance for straight-line
stability.

Roll-Steer
It is possible that body roll changes the (mean) steer angle at either the front
or rear suspension, or both. The (linear) description of these effects are the
 f  r
roll-steer coefficients and
 

9 Does a positive front roll-steer coefficient induces understeer or

oversteer? What about a positive rear coefficient?

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Other Effects
Similar to the above definition for roll-steer, we may also take account of
roll-camber
 f  r
and
 
and compliance steer coefficients (note the negative sign)
 f  r
− and −
Fyf Fyr

10 Explain in general terms why a positive front compliance-steer

coefficient induces understeer.

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