Tooling design for ecm

V.K. Jain* and P.C. Pandey**

This paper critically reviews existing analytical models, ie Tooling design in ecm
classical ecm theory, the cos 0 method, the analogue
Tool design in ecru is mainly concerned with the prediction
method, the finite difference technique, the complex
of anode (work) shape obtainable from a tool while
variable technique, a perturbation method and nomo,
operating under specified conditions of machining.
graphic and empirical approaches to metal removal in
Conversely 64'6s'7°, it also deals with the computation of
ecm. A review of the progress to date made in the fields
the tool shape which under specified conditions would
of application of the finite elements technique to several
produce a work piece having a prescribed shape and
electrochemical operations, ie ecm, ec drilling, boring, accu racy 99'z=s.
wire cutting etc is also presented. An introduction to the
application of three dimensional finite element analysis
C o m p u t a t i o n o f anode shape
to ecm problems is included. The paper suggests areas
where future work could improve the accuracy of The workshape obtainable from a given tool in ecm
exis'ting models pertaining to ecru tool design under ideal conditions can be computed from the corres-
ponding equilibrium gap. However, these results are
influenced by a large number of parameters such as the
Electrochemical machining (ecm), described 1'2's as the presence of an anodic film a6'42-4a, electrolyte flow rate 3a,
process of accelerated, controlled anodic corrosion, is work material microstructure, intergranular attack s°'s~,
achieved by a high velocity electrolyte flowing between change in valency 33 of the work material during cutting,
the anode and cathode (Fig 1). The electrolyte serves type of electrolye s2-e°A26 and the role of additives 4a'49,
multifarious purposes, including removing the heat current density, electrolyte throwing =2s power, electrolyte
generated during machining 4, allowing a high rate of pressure distribution, stray current attack and
metal dissolution, removing the reaction products etc. passivity s2'sa's9. In some cases, the exact influence of
Rate and direction of anodic dissolution in the process these parameters is not clear. Fig 1 shows the ec hole
depend on the applied voltage, electrolyte conductivity, sinking operation with the interelectode gap (lEG)
current density, anode material, electrolyte flow divided into four different regions. Most of the work 67-s7
velocity, presence of anodic film'etc. available in the literature pertains to the front and side
Over the years, ecm has found applications in a gaps (zones 2 and 4) only, whereas scanty or no infor-
number of practical machining operations such as mation is available about the mode of material removal in
turning 6-9'116, trepanning, broaching l°'12s, grinding HA2'I21 the transient 7L~z'l°° and stagnation regions 87'ss (zones 3
fine hole drilling ~3, die sinking ~, cavity sinking ls'~6 , and 1 ).
piercing 17'is and deburring tg'sg, and is being used widely in
the aeronautics, nuclear 3°, biomedical a and space industries 22.
Some typicalexamples of ecru applications are: machining of
turbine blades 3z made of high temperature and high L-
strength alloys 21'2a-2s, copying of internal and external Electrolyte

surfaces, cutting of curvilinear slots ~4'26,machining of

intricate patterns s'2°ns, production of long curved pro-
t /

files 27, machining of gears2s'29, production of integrally

bladed nozzle-rings for use in diesel locomotives a~ and
machining of thin (80/Jm) large diameter diaphragms.
The process has several advantages to offer, eg machin-
ability of the work material is independent 32'33'37-40 of /
Sol i;,
its mechanical properties, production of stress and burr
free surfaces, comparatively good surface finish 34-36,
better corrosion resistance of the parts produced, absence
of swarf or chip disposal problems, low overall machining
times, and working accuracy independent of the operator's / aQ ~ ,
skill 36. // / ~"/ /~_// / ~)~.-~_~
Many research data have been published, but the
potential of ecm as a production process has not been Transition I--
explored fully due to practical difficulties faced in the
design of tools, the complex nature 71'72 of the process Stagnation
of metal removal and the difficulties encountered in
prediction of the anode shape. This paper attempts to
highlight some of the problems of tooling design in
ecm and the prediction of anode shape.
*Mechanical Engineering Department, MNR Engineering College, Fig I Schematic diagram of ecd with outward mode of
Allahabad 211004, India and
**Professor, Department of Mechanical and Industrial Engineering, electrolyte flow. Zone 1 (stagnation), zone 2 (front) zone 3
University of Roorkee, Roorkee-247 672, India (transition) and zone 4 (side)

P R E C I S I O N E N G I N EE R I N G 0141-6359/80/040195-12 $02.00 © 1980 IPC Business Press 195

 For the case of machining with plane parallel elec- In Equation (4), Hopenfield and Cole2° assume a value of n
trodes, the local metal removal s9 and the equilibrium gap =° of 1.5 for the case of uniform void distribution; for non-
are given by Equations (1) and (2) respectively: uniform distribution, especially when bubbles are
El c t
concentrated near the cathode, a value of n of 2.0 has
rn = (1) been suggested~6'63'69'sl. Experimentally, the void
F fraction (~v can be evaluated4'20'Ts'Sz'93 from:
EvEK~
Ye F F F Pm cos 0 (2) C~v- 1 + ~ (5)
Equation (2) is valid in zones 2 and 4 only and when non- where
passivating electrolytes are used. For a passivating electro-
= Qg/QI and
lyte, E v is as follows
Ev = A v - A Ev (3) / c Rg (273+T+A T)
Og - ZFP
The overpotential 4,/X Ev, in Equation (3) consists of
reversible, concentration and chemical overpotentials and The temperature rise4 z~Tof the electrolyte in ecm is due to
can sometimes be high 1° (up to about 5V). chemical reaction in the bulk of the electrolyte, the
Equation (2) above is based on the assumption that reversible heat of reaction and the viscous heat generated
electrolyte conductivity K remains constant during the within the electrolyte• However, the major factor that
operation• However, K has been known to be a contributes to temperature rise is the Joule heating:
function of electrolyte temperature, void fraction,
distribution of voids within the l E G ~6'63'69'sl , electrolyte dT E2v K
concentration, efficiency of electrolyte filtrationS6 etc. dx - V Pe C e y2 Ac K (6)
For the computation of K, Tipton ~ proposed the which, when solved, yields
following equation which accounts for the effects of 1
electrolyte temperature and hydrogen liberation: A T = ( T - T o ) = -d [Exp {(A c Ko o~x) ( 1-O~v)n} -1] (7)
The electrolyte temperature at any point within the l E G
K = K o (1 + a AT)(1 - OZv)n (4) depends upon the length of the flow path, x. Equations (2),

Nomenclature
A Cross sectional area T Temperature
A v Applied voltage t Machining time
t
Interelectrode gaps (See Fig 1) tc Time to change the tool
Bg,a ,as ,a s
Constant V Electrolyte flow velocity
bb Bare length of the electrode v Volume
bc,Bl -Bs Constants x Distance along electrolyte flow direction
Ce Specific heat of the electrolyte W Width
Cm Machine tool-rate Y Interelectrode gap
Ct Cost of drilling tool Z Valency
Dm Unitary matrix AE v Overpotential
E Electrochemical equivalent Po Volumetric concentric concentration of hydrogen
Ev Effective voltage p Density
F Faraday's constant 0 Angle of inclination between feed direction and
FF Front feed rate normal to the tool surface
Ic Current Temperature coefficient of electrolyte conductivity
!
Function o~v Void fraction
lEG I nterelectrode gap v,v' Correction factors
J Current density e Amplitude of surface irregularities
Km Stiffness matrix ¢ Electric field potential
I( Electrolyte conductivity X Wavelength
K,j Coefficients of stiffness matrix 77 Machining efficiency
k Wave number
L Length of electric resistance
Subscripts
m Metal removal
ms Total number of sparks before the end of tool- c corner
life d drill
mr/" Metal removal rate e electrolyte (Ce ), element (H e ), equilibrium
n Exponent F front
n r
Length of normal to anode surface g gas
ns Number of sparks per unit length of drilling i,j node number
P Mean gap between electrodes I liquid
P Electrolyte pressure within l E G m work material
Q Electrolyte flow rate s sparks, spike, side
R~p Gap resistance t condition at time t
f Radius V voltage

196 PRECISION ENGINEERING

(4) and (7) predict that the lEG would become non- shapes, the electric field gets distorted and in such cases
parallel after a time t even for the simplest machining Ohm's Law is not obeyed 27 . Under such conditions J can
configuration. be computed from 37-39 :
Theoretically, the ec reaction would attain an
equilibrium only after t approaches infinity and the J=-~ (2K o ) (13)
corresponding lEG can be computed from Equations (8)
and (9) while machining with zero and finite feed rates, Ippolito 1~7 has also mentioned that the conductivity of the
respectively. lEG is a function of the machining current and other para-
meters and hence application of Ohm's Law to ecm is not
Y = (Y2o + 2 C A t) ½ (8) justified. According to him
where Rgap = R e + Rad d (14)
Ev E K where
C=11 F p m
A~ 1 Va QbpC
1 Ye Y - Re = ; Radd = ~ K / c ~c (15)
z~t=-~F [Yo-Yt + Ye In ( -o "e) ] (9)
Yt- Ye and the values of the constants have been evaluated experi-
Equation (9) is implicit and can be solved iteratively. mentally nT as a = -0.32, b = -0.12, c = -0.11, ~ = 0.151.
Equation (8) predicts an infinite value of the gap as t Current density distribution within the lEG has
approaches infinity. However, in practice, as the lEG been measured by Kawafune ~s who found it to be lower
increases, the current density decreases so that the mrr than the analytically calculated distribution. However,
(metal removal rate) gradually diminishes and for a large in some cases~ , experimentally measured current
gap the process would come to a standstill. Equations (8) density has been reported to be higher than that
and (9) have been re-derived ]13 with the lEG expressed obtained analytically (see also Fig 2). The conflicting
in terms of the current density, J: nature of the results can be explained on the basis of
Y= Yo+C' At (10) actual anodic dissolution efficiency, r/, achieved and a
change in anode material valency with time.
Ye = Yo + ( C ' - F F) A t (11)
lEG varies along the electrolyte flow direction,
where with the result that the flow velocity also varies and
C' = T?J/F Pm and z& t is very small can be evaluated from the equation of continuity for
flow of electrolyte, ie
Equations (10) and (11) yield values of Y which
are close to those obtained from (8) and (9) and agree Vl W Y1 = V2 W Y2 (16)
well with the experimental9~']°~ data. For a simple shaped lEG, Equation (16) would give satis-
Assuming that the electrolyte behaves like a pure factory results; however, for higher accuracy and when a
ohmic resistance, the current density J can be com- complex shaped lEG is involved, the conformal mapping
puted from Equation (12). technique is recommended.

Ev K Ev O p t i m i s a t i o n o f process variables
- - (12)
J y Rgap
During ecm, at certain values of the limiting tool feed rate,
Equation (12) is valid within a certain range of experimental the process 16'8° can change from boiling to non-boiling
conditions only 2° . While machining complicated anode and choking to non-choking. Feed rate greater than the
/ Machining
10 ~-- x = 84mm f x = 57mm time

L Current 2"4 Current 2"3

5" o 0 o 0 t=0S

~" £~ ~3 • o t = 140S

T o o n 0 t : 320s
o

[I I I I f II I I I I I I I I -t r t f t it I I II III

c I 0 I--
I x = 2.Smm -- x = 30mm

3 L Current Z I --
x
Current Z 2 b

o o 9 O t = 40s

5 Oo o 000 °0 0 o o O o t =60s
%
2.04 ,c
E
_,', ~, z~ ~ ,', ,,, ~, ~ , ~z~ ~, z~ t : 3 2 0 s
2.02
I I I I 1111 I II I I I I E
-- Machining accuracy 2.00
o IOO 200 3oo o IOO 200 3OO
Machining t i m e , s Machining t i m e , s 1.98 ~
I IIII II I I II Ill
Zero feed rote V = 21.0m/s 5 10 14
Experimental x, c,,o, (3 x = Distance
F E T - II - - Distance, x , m x I0 - z

Fig 2 Comparison of analytical and experimental results

PRECISION ENGINEERING 197

value corresponding to the intersection point m' of choke have been used extensively. An alternative method for tool
limit and boil limit (Fig 3) implies that the flow in the profile correction is to calculate the working gap and
lEG is either choked or boiling. Maximum mrr is defined account for it during tool manufacture. With the avail-
to correspond to the point m'. Optimisation analysis ability of high speed computers it is now possible to
carried out by Bhattacharyya62 with mrr (or feed rate for determine the tool shape, that would yield a workpiece of
constant area of machining) as the objective function and specified geometry, by successive approximations. Since
the following three constraints the computing time is only a fraction of that required for
Vo i> 1.65 F F (Electrolyte boiling) (17) carrying out the experiments, applying tool correction
analytically has proved to be time Saving and economical.
Vo/> 1.44 F}: (Hydrodynamic instability) (18) A number of models for anode shape prediction
Vo ~< 2.66 F F (Passivity) (19) and tooling design in ecm have been developed. Since the
ability to predict the variation in lEG for any given
predicted an optimum feed rate, in ecm, of 1.825 mm/min.
operating conditions is a pre-requisite of proper design of
This analysis does not include the onset of sparking as a
ecm tools, these models are discussed in terms of the
constraint. This is important from a practical viewPoint as
equilibrium gap.
beyond a certain frequency of sparking (or feed rate) the
tool damage due to sparking could become significant
Cos 0 m e t h o d
and make the process uneconomical 73'a8. Higher feed
rates in excess of the optimum lead to lower tool life. This method is based on the computation of equilibrium
Larsson and coworkers 7a suggest that the feed rate given gap for the given conditions but excludes the consideration
by Equation (20) would result in minimum machining of the mode of e!ectrolyte flow, overpotential, variation
cost/part. in electrolyte conductivity, heat transferred to the
ms o.5 environment etc. In this method, equilibrium work
F F ={b c (tc+~,t/cm)} (20) shape is computed corresponding to the tool whose profile
has to be approximated by a large number of planar
For the condition of zero sparking rate, Larsson and sections inclined at different angles.
co-workers ~a's7 have derived an optimum feed rate of This method was first proposed by Tipton 6s and
2.28 mm/min which means the optimum feed rate62 of is described in detail in reference 92, but its scope is
1.825 mm/min takes care of the sparking constraint limited by the following
automatically. However in general, high mrr in ecm can Regions with sharp corners 92 cannot be analysed.
be realised by increasing the feed rate, supply voltage, Generally applicable only for 0 < 45 °
electrolyte pressure, flow velocity and the electrolyte It is not possible to account for the effects of
inlet temperature. To achieve higher feed the quantity the mode of electrolyte flow, void fraction, change
J r/should be high, but increase in J leads to a decrease in electrolyte temperature and conductivity, over-
in r/. On the other hand, if Y is decreased beyond a potential, heat conducted away to the tool and
certain value, increase in potential gradient would work etc.
result in arcing and the process would come to a stop 76 Researchers have also expressed conflicting opinions
It has also been reported ~27 that, in some cases*,the about the reference surface for the measurement of the
sludge produced during the process could coat the angle 0. Tsuei 7° et al suggest that 0 should be taken as the
electrodes resulting in a complete halt of the anodic angle between the tool-feed direction and the normal to the
dissolution and short circuiting of the lEG. anode surface,and not the cathode surface, as suggested
From the discussion above, it is evident that the by others 6s . However, in view of the approximations
relationship between the'parameters governing the ecm involved, its use is not recommended, especially when
process is complex and hence difficult to model analytically. complex shaped workpieces are to be analysed.
Some progress made in this direction is discussed below.

A n a l y t i c a l m o d e l s f o r t o o l design in e c m Finite difference technique (fdt) :

The classical theory of ecm is valid under ideal conditions The cos 0 method is based on the assumption that the
only. Trial and error methods for tool profile corrections lines of electric potential are straight and normal to the
electrode surfaces, but this is not true when electrodes
with small radii are used. In such cases, it is necessary
to know the electric potential distribution in order to
determine the current density, mrr, transient and
4 - Theoretical ,, equilibrium anode profile etc. fdt has been employed
.c_ by several investigators4'4~'64'7°'83-8s'~19 for ecm tooling
_~ 3 design using a nonpassivating electrolyte with constant
g conductivity and temperature. In such cases, the electric
field flow lines are governed by Laplace's Equation (21)
fn I and the boundary conditions given by Equation (22)
I o Run 2 a2~ a2~ ~2~
z~ R u n I
. +--+--=0 (21)
~)x2 ~3y2 ~)z2
I I
o 0.06 o.12 0.18 ~b= 0 at the cathode and ~=Ev=Av-AEv at the anode (22)
Feedrote.in/min Equations (21) and (22) would yield a set of simultaneous
Fig 3 The ecm characteristic curve'S°.m' corresponds to the equations that could be solved for ~ by the backward
point o f maximum metal removal rate differences, forward differences, or central differences9s'96

198 PRECISION ENGINEERING

technique. Corresponding to the potential distributibh
obtained, the instantaneous current density s3 at the
anode surface can be evaluated from
~ r l l l ] l l l l l l l l l i l r l l l [llll
h1
a ~b)
J = K ( an---; (23) i i i J ~ l l ] l
........ I iJl
'~'
Ii ~ iI i iI I Ji Ii I[ ii l l i i
j2,
/
J
;4
yJ ,. ,. ,. ,. . . . . . ::''"

Fig 4 shows the tool-wo'rk surfaces and lEG drawn in

l ~- -.......
~ i j-li_ I il i+l
square mesh. The initial potentials at the grid points within ~x
the lEG region are set by linear interpolation along the a b
vertical gridlines betweeen the tool and work boundaries.
For a point 0 located in a mesh of spacing h (i,j) we can 3
write s3
0 4 4

@ii= (@i+1,i + @i-1 ,j+ @i,i+1 + @i,i-1 )/4 (24) I /"z "3
I I
I
Equation (24) shows that the potential at any point 0 (i,j) c d e
on the square mesh is equal to the mean of the potentials
at the four nearest adjacent points (ie the points 1,2,3 and
4 in Fig 4).
The procedure of computation in this case is to Fig 4 Finite difference analysis model s3 of ecru process
consider each grid point (i,j) within the field in turn and (a) I EG-tool-work system discretised in square meshes
adjust its potential value to the mean of those at the four
(b) A square mesh of spacing h having four equiplaced
points around it and to repeat the process until the adjacent points 1,2,3,4 which form a regular star.
potential values attained are correct within the prescribed
(c) Boundary forms irregular star with one short arm-03.
tolerances. It should be noted that the work and tool
(d) Boundary forms irregular star with two short arms
boundaries are at fixed known potentials and, therefore,
02,03 and (e) Boundary forms irregular star with three
their values are not adjusted during the relaxation process.
short arms 02,03,04
In some cases, all the points on the tool and work
boundary may not lie on grid points (Fig 4) and the
regular stars may not be formed; such problems have been ( K i ~ , ) A t). The method is based on the assumption that
attempted by the use of the over-relaxation technique s3. feed rate velocity and cut velocities are constant over the
To solve such problems, Nanayakkara and Larsson n9 have time A t. This transforms point A to point B to make a
suggested the use of irregular grids along with regular new surface on the work and this process is repeated until
grids. In this case, a polynomial Equation (25) was used all points A are transformed to points B which are on the
instead of a linear interpolation Equation (24) to describe worksurface.
the potential distribution in the area around a nodal point Before repeating the process, the applied voltage
including its near neighbours. must be adjusted so that the same current values as
0 = B l x 2 + B2Y2 + B3x + B4y+Bs (25) used earlier are obtained. The process has to be repeated
until the workshape does not change appreciably
After each computational interval of Ats, work and tool
between two successive steps and the final equilibrium
boundaries are moved to new locations, according to the
shape obtained s3.
cut and feed vector. For simplicity, Tipton sl has only
The analogue method is approximate and cumber-
accounted for the vertical component of the cut vector
some, its accuracy depends on the skill of the operator
which is proportional to the vertical potential gradient
and is not advisable for use when a high degree of precision
at the work boundary. However, for precision in the
is desired.
results, movenlent of the cut vector in both x and y
directions should be considered.
Empirical formulae
It is thus evident that fdt would yield approximate
results. Further, in case of a complex shaped lEG, the tool The exact path of the electric current flow lines, within the
work boundaries cannot be matched accurately using lEG, is difficult to determine analytically. Therefore,
square mesheswhich introduce still greater approxi- normally, the chordal distance between two stations27 is
mations. On account of the approximation involved in taken as the length of current flow line and this assumption
the use of this technique, the authors recommended 92'u° in the majority of cases is responsible for the discrepancy
the use of the fet for tool design in ecm. between the analytical and experimental results. It has
also been found that the conformity of the surface radii
Analogue m e t i l o d of the tool and the anode cavity decreases as the angle 0
increases. Therefore, attempts 22,3~,71,1oo have been made
Laplace Equation (21) was first solved by the conducting
to derive empirical equations for the evaluation of the
paper analogue s3'9~'97. In this case, equipotential surfaces
lEG.
representing the anode and cathode, to an approximate
Based on experimental data, empirical Equation (26)
scale, have to be drawn on a conducting paper. The work-"
has been suggested by K6nig and Pah122.
boundary is segmented to evaluate local current density
and then it is moved to the position they would occupy ao = r 0"35 0.35 [(10e*) ye] 0.5 (26)
c
at the end of the time interval At. This could be obtained
by finding point to point movement by the vectorial for 0.15 ~< Ye ~ 0.6 mm and 0.5 ~<rc ~< 5 mm. e * is
addition of feed rate vector (F F /k t cos ~) and cut vector Euler's number.

PRECISION ENGINEERING 199

 K6nig and Degenhardt 7~ also suggest Equations gaps, Ye can be used as a basic parameter. In some of the
(27-28) when the bare length of the tool (b b) varies cases the side gap has been demonstrated to be indepen-
between 1 mm ~< r c ~< 5 mm. dent of the machining time which, however, is not true in
practice. It is to be noted that in the majority of cases
ao = (0.1 + Ye)(0.314 r c + 1.17) for b b = 0 (27)
the effect of electrolyte flow mode (inward, outward etc)
ao,= 2Ye + 0.1 [6.283(rc-1)] 0"5 for bb/> 1 (28) has been neglected. Empirical equations are normally
valid under specified working conditions only, which
Equations (27-28) have been found 91'127 to yield erroneous limits their use.
results at low feed rates (F F <~ 0.006 mm/s) or when the
equilibrium gap is large ( Ye ~> 1.0 mm). Based on the Nomographic approach
regression analysis 127 of experimental data plotted in
Fig 5 (mild steel anode, brass cathode, electrolyte For the evaluation of equilibrium anode shape, a nomo-
graphic approach has also been used22:1'1°1. K6nig 22 has
10% w/v NaCI and feed rate 0.0057 mm/s, outward
electrolyte flow, coefficient of correlation 0.8) the authors prepared a nomogram for the evaluation of side gap for
suggest Equation (29) for the computation of a n, mm. the known equilibrium gap, tool-radius and the bare tool
length. Fig 6 shows such a nomogram for bb=0 and bb/>0
ao = 0.19536 Ye + 0.5779 (29) for a given tool. Heitmann a4 has used the nomograms for
The magnitude ofa's (Fig 1) can be evaluated 22 from evaluation of electrolyte temperature rise (A T) while
Equation (30), as working under specified conditions. Use of nomograms
t , 2,0 5 has proved to be advantageous in planning an ecm operation.
as = (2 b b Y e t aol • (30}
! However, the nomograms are very often based on a
Analytical evaluation of as, which is affected by stray
number of simplified assumptions 8,9 and hence cannot be
current, is difficult. It can, however, be evaluated =z from
recommended for general use; they would be more useful
the empirical equation
if available in a generalised form.
a s = [2 b b Ye + rc0.7 0.123(10e*) Ye] 0.5
+ 0.65 Ye (31) Complex variables approach
Test results show that the overcut in ecm is a function of Anode shape prec~iction in ecm has been attempted by
the machining parameters but does not depend on the employing the complex variables approach for the case
tool di mensions22 . The authors' experimental data 9~ , of shaped workpieces and using simplified assumptions.
however, point to the contrary. Further, it should be Collett et al 1°3 have determined lEG for both completely
noted that Equations (26-31) are valid only for the side insulated and bare and straight sided tools and
case of non-passivating electrolytes. I ppolito and arrived at Equation (36)
Fassolio l°° checked the validity of Equation (28) and Overcut at corner
report that for rc=0 it gives the upper bound whereas = 1.159 (36)
Machine gap
Equation (32) gives the lower bound of the side gap;
However, PERA 118 suggests a value of 1.7 for this ratio.
Equation (33) was found to cross the experimental
This is because Collett et al 1e3 assumed that the electrolyte
data.
I
conductivity and void fraction remain constant throughout.
as = (2 b b Ye +/)2 y2}0.5
-e" (32) Hewson-Browne 1°4 extended the work of Collett et al and
t
as = (2 b b Ye + 2.9 Ye2)0"5 (33) used the conformal mapping technique for the analysis of
two dimensional machining using straight sided tools with
The lateral gap at the end of the non-coated zone of the a finite land width b b. For an insulated tool it was
electrode can be computed from: assumed that the sides do not participate in metal removal;
a's = (2Yeb b + (1; Ye*)2 - c ) 0"5 (34) it was shown for such a case that
where 0.731 ~ao/Y e ~ 1.159 (37)
¢$-- =
Ye-l.29Ye, c = 0.29 and F F 1.16 mm/min where the lower limit applies to the case of a side
From the results given in reference 100 it is evident that insulated tool and the higher limit is for a bare tool. How-
Equation (34) is valid only for a specified tool-work ever, the authors have found experimentally that for the
combination and specified machining conditions and the case of machining with bare tools the ratio ao/Ye is a
discrepancy between experimental and analytical results function of machining conditions and tool-work com-
increases with an increase in K Ev/F F. Equation (35) also binations. Nilson and Tsuei41'86'94 have solved the pro-
predicts variation in overcut with the conical taper and it blem of anode shape predicted by the inverted method, in
was found l°° to be practically independent of the which the spatial coordinates were selected as dependent
uncoated length b b. variables on the plane of complex potential and the
transformed boundary conditions are known explicitly
, 2B'Y e , 2x+B' on the free boundary. Known asymptotic solutions for
as=as+ ~ larctan ~r - arctan (BI/D')] (35)
the side gap region reduce the size of the field which
where
must be determined.
B'= v'E K E v ; D' = (4F~= a's2 -B'2 )0.5 Use of mathematical models has not so far been
FPm generalised because workpieces have complex shapes
v' is a correction factor of conductivity and takes into and there are many parameters to consider.
account the fact that the lines of electrical potential are not
straight and the work-surface will be lightly passivated A perturbation method
by the presence of the metallic oxides and hydroxides. It is This analysis has been developed by McGeough ani:l
thus evident that for the evaluation of side and front co-workers 77-79 and can be used for the analysis of ec

200 PRECISION ENGINEERING

operations like deburring, anode smoothing or shaping e=eoEXp[_MEvk~ c o t h k s ds] (41}
when the amplitude of micro-irregularities on the Po M Ev-FFS
cathode and.anode is small compared to lEG. This dp
analysis has limited applications and is based on the provided d-~ =/=0. Here, M = E El(pro F) and s is the coordinate
following simplified assumptionsS9 :
that specifies the average surface.
Electrolyte conductivity is constant
Equation (41) has been applieds9 to analyse irregu-
Effects of Joule heating and hydrogen gas bubbles
larities on the anode shape of the type of short wave-
are suppressed by sufficient agitation o.f the
length, long wavelength, arbitrarily shaped and even and
electrolyte
arbitrarily shaped.
Machining efficiency is 100%
Perturbation boundaries change so slowly that This analysis is based on the solution of Laplace's
their motion may be ignored at any instant. Equation (21) and therefore accounts for the field
Consider a case in which cathode and anode shapes concentration effects. This explains the more rapid
(Fig 7) -are defined mathematically by Equations (38)a-b smoothing expected with short wavelength irregularities
respectively which have a much greater field concentration than
larger wavelength irregularities. This analysis uses the
Y=0 (38)a Fourier series expansion and has been extended to analyse
Y =p + e sin k x where e < < p (38)b a more general class of electrode shaping by Fourier
Transforms. An equation similar to (40) has also been
Laplace's Equation (21) can be solved with the
derived by Tipton 6s in terms of dimensionless quantities
boundary condition given below.
for the case of surface smoothing to the required
~b=0on Y = O a n d ~ = E v o n Y=p+esinkx tolerance.
It has been shown s9 that the potential at any point Y can
be obtained from Finite elements technique (fet)
= E v Y Eve s i n k x s i n h k y (39) In view of the shortcomings in the analytical models
P p sinhkp discussed so far, the authors recommend l°s the use of
the fet where the choice of the shape and size of the
Using Equation (39), a set of equations has been derived elements is convenient ~°6, it is easy to incorporate
which describe separately the behaviours of the anode different boundary conditions 1°~ and it is possible to
surface and irregularities respectively: analyse non-homogeneous situations 9s . In this case,
1 Pe-Po] the effects of simultaneous variations in different para-
A t = FFF [P°-P+Pe in (40) meters could easily be accounted for. The authors have
Pe-P
so far developed one, two and three dimensional models
for the anode shape obtainable in ecm.
18 --
Unidimensional analysis (Model FET-11)
x
14 --
A
For the analysis of the unidimensional electrochemical
ro wire cutting process (ecwcp) l°s'z°9 and the ecru
process92'zl°'ln the lEG has been discretised into a
E
,o A o ~ ~" --a%~ ~ number of elements (Fig 8).
O S ~ 0
~o Electrolyte temperature at any nodal point in the
0
6 0 continuum, ie lEG is evaluated from (6) which could
be written as
I I I I I 1 I I I 1 l I I I I
0.5 1.0 1.5 2.0 2.5 :3.0 :3.5 4.0 51=dT 6Tfj - ~j dT
~- (6
d_TT)
dx = 0 (42}
dx xi xi dx
~, mm

r, mm ~mm~ yC x Cathode
:3.03.54.0 / . z / i / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / / .
2.5
"~ Electrolyte

2.0
p(,I I'-- )' - ' t

1.5

1.0
Fig 5 (Top left) Relationship between
I ----I=
-
equilibrium gap Ye and overcut, ao
0.5

b,.~"~ o.s Fig 6 (Left) Nomogram 22 for the

determination of the side gap, as
I I Ill [ t III I I
0.7 0.5 410.:3 0.1 0 0.6 0.4 0.2 0 0.2 ~1~).4 0.6
Og, mrn Fig 7 (Above) Configuration of electrodes s9

PRECISION ENGINEERING 201

On simplification, this reduces to a computational procedure (Fig 10) for anode shape pre-
X = D H e.= K m Te (43) diction (model SGFET-22), evaluation of current density
and other related parameters by solving the Laplace's
where Equation (21). Fig 11 shows a comparison between the
1 theoretical and experimental 9° electrolyte temperature
D =~ i ; He =
Pe y; Ce V distribution within lEG. Further, improvements in
FET-22 and SGFET-22 are possible by the use of
and isoparametric elements 9s'123 instead of triangular elements.
x• 1 -1
Km = f l BTBdx = [
--1 1
] for an element (44)
Three dimensional analysis
xi
Assembly of the equations thus obtained for different Equation (21) can be used for the evaluation of three
elements, say three, would result in a symmetric, sparse dimensional potential distribution within lEG. The pro-
and banded matrix of the form given below: blem is equivalent to finding the 0 distribution that

IXlt fi 1 !l
X2
X3
=
-1
2 - T~
T3
(45)
satisfies the boundary condition and minimises the
function /

I=fffv 2
1 [(a0)2 + 09,2
ox. (~-~t +
(a0)2] d x d y d z
oz
(46)

The set of simultaneous equations can be solved by or

Gaussian elimination technique 122 for unknown nodal
temperatures using a boundary condition of A T = 0 at I= fffv 1 {g~T [ D m ] { g } dv (47)
entry. Thereafter. current density, mrr, conductivity
09 09 o30] (48)
etc can be computed. wheregT= [~x Oy Oz
!
The analytical results have been compared with
experimental data and a good correlation between them / = / ( 1 ) +/(2) + / ( 3 ) + . . . + / ( E ' ) = ~ I(e) (49)
has been shown. As an illustration, a comparison between e=l
temperature computed from model FET-11 and obtained where I (e) is the contribution of a single element to I. The
experimentally9° is given in Fig 9. The authors have also minimisation of / occurs when
conducted a parametric study H2 of the ecru process in 01 0 E' E' 0 I (e)
attempting to form some guide lines and to evolve a - Z; / e = : S -0 (50)
standard procedure for ecm tool designers. This model 63{0] 0 [ 0 ] e=l e=l 0[0]
has also been extended 113 (model SGFET-11) for the T o evaluate derivatives a-~-}'
63 / the integral should be w r i t t e n
anode shape prediction during ec drilling which has been
treated as a problem with moving coordinates. It has also in terms of nodal values, ie
been shown that the overcut on the side (a's) is basically 0 (e) = [N re) ] (0] (51)
governed by the computed value of ao . A comparison
Therefore,
between the computed and experimentally measured
anode shapes shows 91 a good correlation between the -aN l (o) aN 2 (e) aN¢(eF 01
two. ax ax """ ax
However, the degree of correlation could further be g(e) = a N z (e) 0 N 2 (e) a N¢ (e) 92 =[B] (e)[o] (52)
improved if more realistic values of the machining ay ay " ay
efficiency, T/, anode material valency and heat transfer
ON t (°) 63N2 (e) 0 N e (e) 0e
data were available.
az o~z "'" az
Two dimensional analysis
Here B contains the information related to derivatives of the
fet using triangular elements can be used for the analysis shape functions. After simplification 66 it can be shown that
of two dimensional machining problems assuming that the
temperature rise over an element follows a linear law. But 8/
a9 - [ K e ] {0} (53)
in the case of non-parallel lEG the electric current flow
lines would not be normal 84 to the surfaces and the where
electric field potential in such cases would be governed by [K e] = fffv[Bre)] T [D(e)] [B(e)] dv (54)
Laplace Equation (21). The authors H3'H4 have developed
The final system of equations is obtained by substituting
-F%.-~----~---~;~I (53) into (50)
i j' k Work
0/
-- = E
~, [K(e !] [0] (55)
a Tool a0 e=l
Evaluation of stiffness matrix K
- - m(e) involves the solution of
I I Work '- -
the integral Equation (54) and its value is a function of
~, k the type of element being used. Fig 8 illustrates the use of
tetrahedral elements for the analysis.
V 2 Assuming linear interpolation functions, field
X X
variable O(x,y,z) can be uniquely and continuously
b C represented in the solution domain by Equation (56)
Fig 8 (a) One, (b) two and (c) three dimensional discretis- ~e (x,y,z) = [N (e) ] {0 e] = NiOi + NjOj
ation of interelectrode gap
+ NkOk + NI~ I (56)

202 PRECISION ENGINEERING

 Experiment . . . . FET-II
ko = 0.01412 ~-I mm-S To = 30oC
Yo : 0.Smm A t : 30S
t : 500s _ Ev=2O.OV --//
45 I Readand print inputdata I
O = 23.33 = I03 mmS/s

E v:12.0F"F = O.OI5mmIs
v /
I Computeno.of computationcycles J

40 I GenerateK,V and Y for different nodes I

I Computefeed rote at everynode I

35
I Determinebandwidth J

Initiolise parameters I
30
.= J Generateand assemble J
o elementmatrices
&
E Formglobalmatrix J
45 [ O : 31.67=103mmS/s O : 25,0=103mm3/s
FF = O.OIOmm/s / F"F : O.OIImm/s Apply boundaryconditions j
Ev = 16.0V / / Ev = 12.0V
40 -- / _ f
Solve set of eqns.to I
determine I
/ / / / / J
35 - / / ~ - // I Compufe I
I ComputeT I
:50 , , F Y" I I ~ I Computeheat transferto air 1
O 8 16 24 0 8 16 24
Distance, mm Distance, mm I Computedecreasein
electrolytetemperature
Fig 9 Comparison of analytical (FET- 11) and experimental results
Fig 10 (Right) Computational scheme used in mode/SGFET-22. KiN is an
index which counts the number of computational cycles. NC is the total
Jco~p~e effectiveelectrolytetemberatureJ

number of machining cuts (or number of cycles) for which the computation I. ComputeK,Y,mrrL,mrrvondmr I
has been carried out
Experiment. . . . FET-22
V, m/s FF, mm/s x I0 V, m/s FF, mm/s x I0
x &528 0.0011 x 4.74 0.0015 fes
o 2.:55 0.0015 o 6.02 0.0011
• 2.74 0.0020 • 2.32 0.0020
coordinates
Outward flow
40 Yes
I Reassignx-y
coordinates ~ ~0
Side flow
Yes
Reassign x-y
30 coordinates
inward flow

//
I ComputeV for new value of Y
E
¢p
: 20
/
E /
/
/ /
/
/
I0 /e

NN= numberof nodes

Electrolyte flow for
IOW<O sidewards
0 I0 20 25 O I0 20 25
TOW=0 inwards
Distance. mm Distance, mm
IOW>O outwards
Fig 11 Comparison of analytical (FET-22) and experimental results

PRECS
IO
I NENGN
I EERN
IG 203
Differentiation of functional / and simplification 66 leads In the opinion of the authors, it is better to go for
to Equation (57) numerical methods such as the f d t and fet. The fet is
the stronger of the t w o and should develop into a
K['Kji Kij standard procedure for ecm tool design.
i Kji K"/[ = .(0}- 1571
Kki Kkj Kkk Kkl[ Ck
References
LKli KIj KIk K I I j ¢1
1. Bannard J.E. Effect of Density on the Electrical Con-
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ductance of Aqueous Sodium Chloride Solutions. J. App.
K (e) that can be evaluated as follows: Electrochem, 1975, 5, 43-53
K(e)_SSSv(a__~N- O~N" ~/Vi ~__N/N- ONi ~NIN'~dxdydz (58) 2. Idem Electrochemical Machining. ibid, 1977, 7, 1-29
ij - \Ox + ov ov +Tz Oz I 3. Idem The Use of Electrochemical Machining in Biomedical
Engineering. ibid, 1975, 5, 89--90
Using the definition of interpolation function, Equation (58} 4. Hopenfield J. et al. Prediction of the One Dimensional
Equilibrium Cutting Gap in Electrochemical Machining.
can be shown to be reduced as
Trans. ASME, 1969, 755-.765
1
5. LaBoda M.A. et al. Intricate Pattern ECM on Ferrous
Ki j = 36v2 (bibj + c i c j + did/) (59)
Alloys. J. Electrochem. Soc. 1975. 122, 1489--14.91
where a,b,c and d are constants for an element and can be 6. BergsmaF. Electrochemical Machining o1" Metals. Annals
computed w~ CIRP, 1968, 93-99
This analysis w o u l d give three dimensional potential 7. Hofstede A. et al. Some Remarks on Electrochemical
distribution w i t h i n the lEG f r o m which current density, Turning. ibid, 1970, 18, 93--106
mrr, temperature distribution etc could be computed as 8. Mukherjee S. et al. On Electrochemical Turning. J.Inst.Eng.
done in earlier models. (India) 1977, 57,210-211
9. M,lkherjee S.K. et al. Analysis of Electrochemical Turning.
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10. DeBarr A.E. and Oliver D.A. Electrochemical Machining.
The mechanism of anodic passivation at high current MacJonalo and Co. Ltd, 1975
densities in ecru is not well 36'42-47 understood; it has
been found, however, t o reduce the anodic dissolution 11. Kuppuswamy G. Electrochemical Grinding. Proc. 7th
AIMTDR Conf, 1976, 337-340
efficiency. Therefore, attempts have been made to
destroy the passivating f i l m during the process by the 12. RanganathanV. Electrochemical Grinding of Titanium.
ibid, 165--168
use of reducing a~jents 39'46 as additives t o the electrolyte.
Quantitative data regarding the effects of grain size, 13. Bannard J. Fine Hole Drilling Using Electrochemical
Machining. Proc. 19th Int. MTDR Conf, 1978, 503-510
grain boundaries, density and orientation, on mrr and
current density are not available and hence their 14. Chikamori K. et al. Electrochemical Machining in Stagnant
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effect in modelling cannot be incorporated. Also, viii, 31
governing equations do not exist that can relate the
15. Kawafune K. etal. Accuracy in Cavity Sinking by ECM.
influence of electrolyte mixtures on surface finish °~,
Annals CIRP, 1967, 15,443-455
dimensional control 43-4s, pH of the electrolyte 124 and
mrr, especially w i t h comoosite materials. Further, most 16. Thorpe J.F. et al. A Theoretical Analysis of the Equili-
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It is evident that the problems concerning ecm
tool design are highly complex and involve a number 19. Rolsten R.F. and Manning E.J. Electrochemical Deburring.
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of interrelated parameters, such as temperature, electro-
lyte conductivity, current density. Further, a number of 20. Hopenfield J. et al. Electrochemical Machining -- Prediction
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fraction which give rise to discrepancies between the 23. Idem Electrochemical Machining of Heat Resistant Alloys.
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204 PRECISION ENGINEERING

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Grain Size in Electrochemical Machining Process. Trans. Machining. ibid, 1003-- 1008

PRECISION ENGINEERING 205

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80. Thorpe J.F. Operating Characteristics of Electrochemical 106. Zienkiewicz O.C. et ah Finite Elements in the Solution of
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MTIRA, UK (To be published in J.Institution o f Engrs (India))
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