KIGALI INDEPENDENT UNIVERSITY (ULK)

Department of Computer Science

Module: Calculus
Unit 1: SETS
1.1 Introduction

1. A set is a collection of definite, distinguishable objects.

Example { chairs, desks, tables } is a set of furniture.
{ a , e, i, o, u } is a set of vowels.
{ 0 , 1 , 1 , 2 , 2 , 3 , 3 , ... } is a set of integers.

2. The objects of a set is called the elements or members of the set.

Example a , e , i , o and u are the elements of the set of vowels.

3. Expressing a set in two ways:

(a) Tabular form :
Examples { a , e, i, o, u } is the set of vowels.
{0, 2, 2, 4, 4, ...} is a set containing all the even numbers.
(b) Set-Builder form :
Example { x : x is a vowel} is the set of vowels.
Example { x : x is an even number } is a set containing all the even numbers.

4. If x is a member of a set A , we write x  A.

If x is not belong to a set A , we write x  A.
Examples If A = { x : x is a vowel } , then a  A , u  A , but g  A.
If B = { x : x is an integer greater than 11 } , then 20  B , 999  B ,
but 11  B.

5. Sets containing finite number of objects are called finite sets. Otherwise, it is
called an infinite set.
Examples { x : x is a vowel } is a finite set.
{ x : x is an integer greater than 11 } is a infinite set.

6. Some symbols are frequently adopted:

1. N denoted the set of all positive integers.
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 N = { 1, 2, 3, 4, ... }
2. Z denoted the set of all integers.
Z = { 0, 1, 1, 2, 2, ... }

3. Q={ : p, q  Z and q  0 } is the set of rational numbers.

4. Q = { x : x  Q and x > 0 }
5. R = { x : x is a real number } is the set of real numbers
6. R = { x : x  R and x > 0 }
7. C = { x + yi : x , y  R and i2 = 1 } is the set of complex numbers

1.2 Venn Diagrams

A = {a, e, i, o, u} , B = {1, 2, 3, 4} , C = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} , D = {5}

A D
a u e 5 7
i o B 1 3 6 C
2 4

1.3 Equality of Sets

Definition 1.1 Two sets are said to be equal if and only if they contain the same
elements.

i.e. A = B if x  A  x  B

Examples {1, 1, 2, 3, 3, 3, 3} = {1, 2, 3}

{1, 2, 3, 4, 5} = {2, 5, 4, 1, 3}

1.4 Subsets

Definition 1.2 A set A is said to be a subset of another set B , denoted by A  B, if and

only if every
element of A is an element of B.

i.e. A  B if  x , x  A  x  B

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Examples {1, 2, 3}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
{4, 5, 6}  {1, 2, 3, 4, 5}
A B
ZQR.

Definition 1.3 If A  B and A  B , A is called a proper subset of B.

Theorem 1.1. (a) A  A , for every set A.

(b) if A  B and B  C , then A  C.
(c) A = B if and only if A  B and B  A.

Proof : (a) x,xA  xA

AA.
(b) Since A  B
  x , x  A  x  B ............(1)
Also , since B  C
  x , x  B  x  C .............(2)
From (1) and (2), we have
x,xA  xC
i.e. AC

N.B. A  B if  x , x  A, and x  B.

1.5 Empty Set and Singleton

Definition 1.4 The empty set, denoted by , is a set that contains no element.

i.e.  = { x : x  x } is unique

Examples { x | x > 3 and x < 3 } is an empty set

{ x | x is an real number and sin x = 2 } is an empty set

Theorem 1.2. For any set A ,   A

N.B. NZQRC

Definition 1.5 A set containing exactly one element is called a singleton.

Example {x}, {2}, {} is a singleton

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 

N.B. (1) {} is not an empty set

(2)   {}

1.6 Operations on Sets

Definition 1.6 The intersection of A and B , denoted by A  B , is defined as

A  B = { x | x  A and x  B }.

i.e. x  A  B iff x  A and x  B

A AB B A B AB

Examples Let A = { a, b, c, d } , B = { c, d, e, f } . Then A  B = {c, d }

Let A = { x  Z : x  3 }, B = { x  Z : x < 8 } .
Then A  B = { x  Z : 3  x < 8 }

A = { x  Z : x is an even number } , B = { x  Z : x is the multiple of 3 }

Then A  B =

Definition 1.7 Two sets A and B are said to be disjoint iff A  B = .

A B A
B

Example Let A = {1, 2, 3} and B = {4, 5}. Are A and B disjoint?

Solution: Since A  B =  , A and B are disjoint.

Theorem 1.3. If C is a subset of the sets A and B , then C  A  B.

Definition 1.8 The union of A and B , denoted by A  B , is defined as

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 A  B = { x | x  A or x  B }.

i.e. x  A  B iff x  A or x  B

AB AB

A B A
B

Example Given that A = {1, 2, 3, 4, 5} , B = {3, 4, 5, 6, 7} , C = {1, 3, 5, 7}.

Then A  B = ABC=

Theorem 1.4. Let A, B, and C be any three sets. Then we have

(a) Idemptotent Laws:
(i) AA=A
(ii) AA=A
(b) Commutative Laws:
(i) AA=AA
(ii) AA=AA
(c) Associative Laws:
(i) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
(ii) (A  B)  C = A  (B  C)
(d) Distributive Laws:
(i) (A  B)  C = (A  C)  (B  C)
(ii) (A  B)  C = (A  C)  (B  C)
(iii) C  (A  B) = (C  A)  (C  B)
(iv) C  (A  B) = (C  A)  (C  B)
(v) (A  B)  (C  D) =
(e) Identity Laws:
(i) A=
(ii) A   = A.

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Theorem 1.5. Let A and B be any two sets. Then
(a) A  B  A and A  B  B
(b) A  A  B and B  A  B.

Theorem 1.6. Let A , B , C and D be any four sets. If A  C and B  D , then

(a) ABCD
(b) A  B  C  D.

Definition 1.9 Let A be a subset of E. The complement of A in E is the set

A = E \ A = { x : x  E and x  A }.

E E \ A = A where A  E
A

e.g. If A = { x : x  3 or x  8 } , then R \ A = { x : 3 < x < 8 }

e.g. R\= , R\R=
Def.1.9 The relative complement of a set B in another set A is the set
A \ B = { x : x  A and x  B } = A  B

A\B B \ A = B  A where B = E \ B

A B

Example Let A = { 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 }, B = { 2, 4, 6, 8 }, C = { 1, 3, 5 }
Then A\B= B\A=
C\B= C\A=

Theorem 1.7. Complement Laws:

Let A be a subset of a set E. Then
(a) A\A= (e) A  A =
(b) A\=A (f) A  A =
(c) \A= (g) E =
(d) (A) = A (h)  =

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Proof : (a) xA\A  x  A and x  A
 x
Hence A \ A = 
Alternatively,
A \ A = A  A = A  (E \ A) = 

(d) x  (A)  x  E and x  A

 x  E and x  A
 xA

Theorem 1.9. Let A and B be a subset of a set E. Then

(A \ B) = A  B'

Example 1 Let A and B be two subsets of a set E . Prove that

(a) (A \ B)  (B \ A) = 
(b) A  (B \ A) = 

Solution: (a) (A \ B)  (B \ A) = (A  B)  (B  A)

= (A  A)  (B  B)
= 
= 
Example 2 Let A and B be any two sets.
Prove that if A \ B =  and B \ A =  , then A = B.

Theorem 1.9. De Morgan‘s Laws:

Let A and B be two subsets of E. Then
(a) (A  B) = A  B
(b) (A  B) = A  B, where A = E \ A, B = E \ B.

1.7 Number of Elements in a Finite Set

1. Let n(A) denote the number of elements in a set A.

Example If A = {a, b, c, d}, then n(A) = 4

2. n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)  n(A  B)

If A  B =  , n(A B) = n(A) + n(B)

3. n(A \ B) = n(A)  n(A  B)

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Example In a class of 40 students, every student studies either Computer Applications or
Calculus I. If 30 students are studying Computer Applications and 20 students studying Calculus
I, how many students study both?

Solution: Let A = the set of students studying Computer Applications

B = the set of students studying Calculus I
Then A  B = the set of students studying both
n(A  B) = n(A) + n(B)  n(A  B)
= 30 + 20  40
= 10
Hence, 10 students study both subjects.
I.8 Universal set with three (3) subsets

For a universal set with three (3) subsets,

n(U) = n(AUBUC)+ n(AUBUC)C

In the case that n(AUBUC)C = 0.

Then
n(U) = n(AUBUC).
And
n(AUBUC) = n(A)+n(B) + n(B) + n(C) – n(AnB) – n(AnC) – n(BnC)+n(AnBnC)

A n BC n CC A n B n CC AC n BC n C A u Bu C

Exercise: Draw and shed the following:

1. AC n B n CC
2. A n BC n C
3. A n B n C
4. (A u B u C)C
Examples
1. In a group of 30 people, 15 run, 13 swim, 13 cycle, 5 run and swim, 8 cycle and swim, 9
run and cycle, and 5 do all three activities. How many of the 30 people neither run nor
cycle?
Solution
n (U) = 30; n (R) = 15; n (S) = 13; n (C) = 13. n (R ∩ S) = 5; n (C ∩ S) = 8;
n (R ∩ C) = 9. R ∩ C ∩ S = 5.
Answer is 6 + 5 = 11

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2. Out of 50 students who exercise regularly, 25 jog, 20 play basketball and 15 swim. 10
play basketball and jog, 5 play basketball and swim, 7 jog and swim and 2 people do all
three. How many students do not do any of these activities?
Solution
n (U) = 50; n (J) = 25; n (B) = 20; n (S) = 15. n (B ∩ J) = 10; n (B ∩ S) = 5; n (J ∩ S) =
7; n (B ∩ J ∩ S) = 2;

Answer is 10
3. The results of a survey of 68 Finite Math students on learning preferences were as
follows: 64 liked to learn visually, 50 liked learning through listening and 36 liked
learning Kinesthetically. 21 liked using all three channels, 47 liked to learn visually and
through listening, 35 liked to learn both visually and kinesthetically, 21 liked to learn
through listening and kinesthetically. How many preferred only visual learning?
Solution
n (U) = 68; n (V) = 64; n (L) = 50; n (K) = 36; n (V ∩ L) = 47; n (V ∩ K) = 35; n (L ∩
K) = 21. n (V ∩ L ∩ K) = 21.

Solution Q2

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Find the following from the above Venn diagram
A. A n B n CC
B. A u B u C
C. A n BC n C
D. (A u B u C)C

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