Tutorial 11: Viscous Flow in Pipes

MECH 2210 - Fluid Mechanics (L2)

Spring 23-24

Justin Sun
kijesun@connect.ust.hk

29th April 2024

Contents
1 Concept Recap 2
1.1 Characterisation of Flows . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2
1.2 Reynolds Number . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.3 Development of Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.4 Fully-Developed Laminar Flow . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.1 Inclined Pipe . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 4
1.4.2 Darcy Friction Factor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.5 Energy Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.6 Head Loss - Major and Minor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.1 Major Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.6.2 Minor Losses . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8

2 Exercises 10
2.1 Question 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.1.1 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2 Question 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.1 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.3 Question 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

3 Additional Problems 17
3.1 Question 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.1.1 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 Question 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.2.1 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Question 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.1 Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.2 Solution - Part (a) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3.3 Solution - Part (b) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23

1
1 Concept Recap
1.1 Characterisation of Flows

Figure 1: (a) Experiment to illustrate the type of flow. (b) Typical dye streaks.

Flow in general can be categorised into the following:

(a) Laminar

(b) Transitional

(c) Turbulent

We can briefly describe the flows as follows. Laminar Flows are the fluid particles that have
a smooth trajectory, where they do not travel in the vertical direction (upwards or downwards).
Turbulent Flows can be described where fluid particles have nearly random and chaotic motion.
You may imagine the fluid particle moving in near-random motion. Transitional Flows are
somewhere in between Laminar and Turbulent Flows, and indicate a transition from laminar
into turbulent flow.

Figure 2: Time dependence of fluid velocity at a point.

2
1.2 Reynolds Number
To quantify and classify a flow, we utilise the Reynolds number, Re, a dimensionless param-
eter. Specifically for pipe flow, we have the following equation:
ρV D Fintertial
Re = =
µ Fviscous
where:
(i) ρ is the fluid density
(ii) V is the average fluid velocity
(iii) D is the pipe diameter
The Reynolds number is also a ratio between inertial and viscous forces. Note that the Reynolds
number is defined differently depending on the type of flow. The above is only specific to pipe
flows. We can loosely classify pipe flow as follows:

Re < 2100,
 Laminar
2100 ≤ Re ≤ 4000, Transitional

Re > 4000, Turbulent


1.3 Development of Flow

Figure 3: Entrance region, developing flow, and fully developed flow in a pipe system.

When flow enters a pipe (or meets any changes in the flow environment), the physics of the
flow changes which leads to a change in the velocity profiles. In the case of the pipe, the walls,
due to their viscous effects, cause a zero velocity at the wall-fluid interface and therefore change
the fluid velocity profile. When the velocity profile no longer changes, i.e., it no longer varies
with respect to the length of the pipe travelled, we can call such flow fully-developed. The
corresponding length of the pipe where this non-varying velocity profile is achieved is called the
entrance length, denoted as ℓe . Through experiments, we have found values for ℓe :
(
ℓe 0.06Re, Laminar
= 1
D 4.4(Re) 6 , Turbulent
Note that the entrance length, ℓe , is non-dimensionalised by the pipe diameter, D, such that the
values will hold for pipes of any diameter. Also, observe that the entrance length is dependent on
Re.

3
1.4 Fully-Developed Laminar Flow

Figure 4: Motion of a cylindrical fluid element within a pipe.

For fully-developed laminar flows, we have developed several equations for the velocity profile,
u = u(r) as follows:
"  2 #
∆pD2 2r
u(r) = 1−
16µl D

where ∆p is the pressure difference between sections (1) and (2) with a distance ℓ, with a corre-
sponding centerline velocity, Vc , where r = 0 as follows:
∆pD2
u(0) = Vc =
16µl
The average velocity, V̄ , is as follows:
∆pD2
V̄ =
32µl
The volumetric flow rate, Q, is as follows:
πD4 ∆p
Q=
128µℓ

1.4.1 Inclined Pipe

Figure 5: Free-body diagram of a fluid cylinder for flow in a non-horizontal pipe.

4
For a non-horizontal pipe, we adjust the above quantities as follows due to a component of the
weight force acting in the x-direction. The velocity profile:
"  2 #
(∆p − γℓ sin θ)D2 2r
u(r) = 1−
16µl D

The centerline velocity, Vc , where r = 0 as follows:

(∆p − γℓ sin θ)pD2

u(0) = Vc =
16µl

The average velocity, V̄ , is as follows:

(∆p − γℓ sin θ)D2

V̄ =
32µl
The volumetric flow rate, Q, is as follows:

πD4 (∆p − γℓ sin θ)

Q=
128µℓ
Note that for all the quantities, we have simply adjusted the pressure differential term ∆p.

1.4.2 Darcy Friction Factor

We can further relate the pressure differential term, ∆p, as follows:

ℓ ρV 2
∆p = f
|{z} D |{z}
2
Static
Pressure Dynamic
Drop Pressure

where f is the dimensionless Darcy Friction Factor. Through experiments, we have found
that for a full-developed round pipe flow to be:
64
f=
Re
or alternatively, in terms of the dimensionless wall shear stress:
8τw
f=
ρV 2

5
1.5 Energy Considerations
From Bernoulli Equations, we have previously had the following equation:

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
where hL is the head loss from friction such as those within a machinery component. This equation
assumes that the flow is uniform. If the flow profile is not uniform, we have the following equation:

p1 V2 p2 V2
+ α1 1 + z1 = + α2 2 + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g
where α1 and α2 accounts for the non-uniform flow profiles. If α1 = α2 = 1 and hL = 0, then we
have our ideal, inviscid case, reducing our equation back into the Bernoulli Equation.

For Fully-Developed Flows, since the flow profile between two sections does not change, we
α V2 α V2
therefore have α1 = α2 which leads to 12 1 = 22 2 . This leads to:
   
p1 p2
+ z1 − + z2 = hL
γ γ

This equation states that the energy dissipated by the viscous forces, hL , is supplied by the excess
work done by the pressure and gravity forces, as shown below:

Figure 6: Pressure drop from (1) to (2) attributed to pressure and gravity forces.

Using the pressure differential term from the Inclined Pipe, we have the following:
2τℓ 4ℓτw
hL = =
γr γD

6
1.6 Head Loss - Major and Minor Losses
The head loss term hL can be decomposed into the following:
hL = hLmajor + hLminor
The major loss, hLmajor , denotes the head loss due to viscous effects in straight pipes, and the
minor loss, hLminor , is the head loss due to various pipe components, such as a valve.

Note: Do not be confused with the naming. It is not necessary that hLmajor > hLminor . For very
short pipes with lots of components, we will have hLminor > hLmajor .

1.6.1 Major Losses

Recall previously for a horizontal pipe the pressure loss can be expressed as follows:
ℓ V2
hLmajor = f
D 2g
which is also named the Darcy-Weisbach Equation. The key factor here is the friction factor,
f . We can show by dimensionless analysis that f is a function of a relative surface roughness, Dε
64
and the Reynolds number, Re. From before, we know for fully-developed laminar flow, f = Re
(independent of surface roughness). However, for turbulent flows, the friction factor function is
much more complex, where we usually deploy the Moody Chart:

Figure 7: The Moody Chart - Friction factor as a function for Reynolds number and relative
roughness for round pipes.

7
For non-laminar flows of the Moody Chart, the empirical formula, named Colebrook formula, is
given as follows:
 ε 
1 D 2.51
√ = −2 log + √
f 3.7 Re f

However, this formula is implicit and therefore requires numerical iterative solvers to solve for f .
An approximate explicit form, the Haaland equation, is as follows:
"  #
ε 1.11
1 D 6.9
√ = −1.8 log +
f 3.7 Re

It is recommended to use the Moody Chart whenever possible.

1.6.2 Minor Losses

By the definition of the minor losses, it is the pressure drop due to pipe components, such that
the non-dimensionalised length of the pipe, Dℓ is not a factor. Therefore compared to the major
loss, we do not need to consider the term Dℓ . It must follow that the pressure drop is proportional
to the remaining factor, the dynamic pressure, i.e.:
1
(∆p)minor ∝ ρV 2
2
which leads to a minor loss expression as follows:

V2
hLminor = KL
2g
where KL is the proportionality constant, named the loss coefficient. The loss coefficient is de-
pendent on the geometries of the pipe component and the flow properties, i.e, Re. However, since
this is still difficult to determine, especially how to quantify the geometry of complex components,
we observe the loss coefficients of common pipe components as shown below:

Figure 8: Common pipe geometries and their loss coefficients.

8
The only theoretical result that we have found is the case of sudden expansion, where the geometry
is shown below:

Figure 9: Sudden expansion and the control volume used to calculate KL .

In this case, we have the following expression for the loss coefficient:
 2  2
Sudden Expansion V3 A1
KL = 1− = 1−
V1 A2

9
2 Exercises
2.1 Question 1
Oil with a SG = 0.87 and a kinematic viscosity, ν = 2.2 × 10−4 m2 /s, flows through the pipe
shown below at a rate of 4 × 10−4 m3 /s. Determine the manometer reading, h.

2.1.1 Solution
Let us first classify the flow within the 4m section of the pipe by finding the Reynolds number.
Given the flow rate Q = V A = 4 × 10−4 m3 /s, we can find the average velocity V as follows:

Q
V =
A
4 × 10−4
=
π(10 × 10−3 )2
V = 1.27323954474m/s

and therefore we compute the Reynolds number as follows since µ = ρν:

ρV D
Re =
µ
VD
=
ν
(1.27323954474)(20 × 10−3 )
=
2.2 × 10−4
Re = 115.7490495 < 2100

Therefore, we have laminar flow. Let us assume that the flow is a fully-developed laminar pipe
flow, where we have an inclination angle of θ = 270◦ . We can then use the formula for the
volumetric flow rate as follows:
πD4 (∆p − γℓ sin θ)
Q=
128µℓ

10
 πD4 (∆p − γℓ sin(270◦ ))
=
128µℓ
4
πD (∆p + γℓ)
Q=
128µℓ
128Qµℓ
∆p = − γℓ
D4 π
Now, we need to find the required quantities to compute the pressure differential between the 4m
section of the pipe indicated in the figure. First, we can find the specific weight of the oil:

γ = ρg
= SG(ρwater )g
= (0.87)(1000)(9.81)
γ = 8534.7 N/m3

and the dynamic viscosity:

µ = ρν
= SG(ρwater )ν
= (0.87)(1000)(2.2 × 10−4 )
µ = 0.1914 Ns/m2

Finally, we know that ℓ = 4m and therefore, we compute the pressure differential as follows:
128Qµℓ
∆p = − γℓ
D4 π
128(4 × 10−4 )(0.1914)(4)
= − (8534.7)(4)
(20 × 10−3 )4 π
∆p = 43844.57564 Pa

To compute the manometer reading, h, we compute the h based on the manometer fluid. Following
the figure below:

We have the following relationship between the static pressures at the top of (1) and the bottom
(2) of the 4m section:

p1 + γh1 − γm h + γh2 = p2

11
where h1 = ℓ + h − h2 and we compute the specific weight of the fluid inside the manometer as
follows:

γm = SGm γwater
= (1.3)ρwater g
= (1.3)(1000)(9.81)
γm = 12753 N/m3

Substituting our known values, we get the following:

p1 − p2 = ∆p = γm h − γh2 − γh1
= γm h − γ(h2 + h1 )
= γm h − γ(ℓ + h)
∆p = γm h − γℓ − γh
∆p + γℓ
h=
γm − γ
43844.57564 + (8534.7)(4)
=
12753 − 8534.7
h = 18.486920238010573 m
h = 18.5m (3.s.f.)

12
2.2 Question 2
Fluid dynamicist H. Blasius found an expression for turbulent friction factor in smooth pipes
using experimental data as follows:

fsmooth ≈ 0.3164Re−0.25

Now suppose water is at 20◦ C, flowing through a 3cm diameter plastic pipe at a rate of 0.001
m3 /s. Find the incline angle and the angle direction of the pipe needed to make the static pressure
constant along the pipe.

2.2.1 Solution
Applying the Bernoulli Equation with head loss, we have the following:

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + gz1 = + + gz2 + ghL
ρ 2 ρ 2

By the conservation of mass (or volumetric flow rate), we have V1 = V2 , and the question assumes
a constant static pressure along the pipe, i.e., p1 = p2 , where it simplifies the equation into the
following:

g(z1 − z2 ) = ghL
z1 − z2 = hL

Since we have no pipe components, we have hL = hLmajor , such that we have the following as we
substitute the given friction factor:

ℓ V2
z1 − z2 = fsmooth
D 2g
ℓ V2
z1 − z2 = 0.3164Re−0.25
D 2g
Let us now assume the pipe is inclined downwards as follows:

such that we have z1 − z2 = ℓ sin ϕ. Therefore, we have the following:

ℓ V2
ℓ sin ϕ = 0.3164Re−0.25
D 2g
−0.25
1 V2

VD
sin ϕ = 0.3164
ν D 2g

13
From the volumetric flow rate, we find the flow velocity as follows:

Q = 0.001 = V A
4
V = 0.001
π(0.03)2
V = 1.41471060524 m/s
µ 1×10−3
Therefore, we find the inclination angle, ϕ, as follows where we have ν = ρ
= 1000
= 10−6 :
−0.25
1 V2

VD
sin ϕ = 0.3164
ν D 2g
−0.25
1 (1.41471060524)2

(1.41471060524)(0.03)
= 0.3164
10−6 0.03 2g
sin ϕ = 0.07495562322
ϕ = 4.298672525◦
ϕ = 4.30◦ (3.s.f.) Inclined downwards in the direction of flow.

We can further verify the validity of our solution by checking whether the flow is turbulent or not
such that the given turbulent friction factor is valid for this flow. We compute the Reynolds
number as follows:
ρV D VD
Re = =
µ ν
(1.41471060524)(0.03)
=
10−6
Re = 42,441.31816

which verifies our solution since Re > 4000 such that the turbulent friction factor is valid.

14
2.3 Question 3
Water flows from one tank to another as shown below through a short pipe, whose length ℓ, is
n times the pipe diameter, D. Head losses occur in the pipe, at the entrance and at the exit of
the pipe. Determine the maximum value of n if the major loss is to be no more than 10% of the
minor loss. Assume a friction factor of 0.02.

2.4 Solution
The question states that the major loss is to be no more than 10% of the minor loss, i.e.:

hLmajor < 0.1hLminor

To take the limiting case, we can assume that hLmajor = 0.1hLminor . Note that we can express our
major loss as follows:

ℓ V2 nD V 2 V2
hLmajor = f =f = fn
D 2g D 2g 2g
and we can express our minor losses as follows:

V2
hLminor = KLtotal
2g

where KLtotal is the sum of all the loss coefficients of each pipe component. From the figure, we
have a Re-entrant flow in the entrance and the exit, such that referring to Figure 8, we have the
following:
X
KLtotal = KL
components

= KLentrance + KLexit
= 0.8 + 1
KLtotal = 1.8

Given the assumed friction factor of 0.02, we find n as follows:

hLmajor = 0.1hLminor

15
 V2 V2
fn = 0.1KLtotal
2g 2g
total
f n = 0.1KL
0.02n = (0.1)(1.8)
n=9

16
3 Additional Problems
3.1 Question 4
Water flows through the screen in the pipe shown below. Determine the loss coefficient for the
screen.

3.1.1 Solution
By the Bernoulli energy equation, let us denote the section before the screen as (1) and after the
screen as (2). We have the following:

p1 V12 p2 V22
+ + z1 = + + z2 + hL
γ 2g γ 2g

To find the loss coefficient for the screen, we must find the pressure (energy) decrease of the flow
through the screen. Given the screen is relatively thin, we can assume no significant major losses
(since it is proportional to the length of pipe travelled) such that we have the following:

hL = hLmajor + hLminor
= hLminor
V2
hL = KL
2g

Since z1 = z2 and assuming V1 = V2 = V = 6m/s, we can simplify our Bernoulli equation as

follows:
p1 V12
p2 V22

+
+ z1 = +
+ z2 + hL
γ
2g γ
2g
1 V2
(p1 − p2 ) = KL
γ 2g
1 2g
KL = (p1 − p2 ) 2
ρg V
2(p1 − p2 )
KL =
ρV 2
From the manometer, let ℓ be the distance from the center of the pipe flow to the fluid in the
manometer, as indicated below:

17
we can find p1 − p2 as follows:

p1 + γℓ = p2 + γ(ℓ − 0.15) + SGγ(0.15)

p1 − p2 = SGγ(0.15) − γ(0.15)
= 0.15ρg(SG − 1)
= (0.15)(1000)(9.81)(3.2 − 1)
p1 − p2 = 3237.3 Pa

Finally, we can compute the loss coefficient of the screen as follows:

2(p1 − p2 )
KL =
ρV 2
2(3237.3)
=
1000(6)2
KL = 0.17985

18
3.2 Question 5
A 40m long, 12mm diameter pipe with a friction factor of 0.02 is used to siphon 30◦ C water from
a tank as shown below. Determine the maximum value of h allowed if there is to be no cavitation
within the hose.

Assume the absolute vapour pressure of water is pv = 4.243kPa and no minor losses within the
hose.

3.2.1 Solution
For there to be no cavitation within the pipe, we must have a minimum static pressure greater
than the vapour pressure. Naturally, the point of lowest pressure should be at the top of the
hose. We will use this assumption going forward and verify it afterwards. First, let us consider
the energy equation (Bernoulli) between the start of the hose and the top of the hose. We label
our hose with the following sections as follows:

2
We can assume hL = hLmajor = f Dℓ V2g since there are no minor losses in the hose. We can further
assume that p1 = 101,000Pa, p3 = 4234Pa, z3 = 7 − 3 = 4m, z1 = 0m, V1 = 0m/s, and we have a

19
constant flow speed within the hose V3 = V by the conservation of mass (flow rate). Considering
the Bernoulli Equation between (1) and (3), we get the following:
p1 V12
p3 V32
+
+ z1 = + + z3 + hL
γ
2g γ 2g
p1 − p3 V2 ℓ V2
− z3 = +f
ρg 2g D 2g
 
2(p1 − p3 ) 2 ℓ
− 2gz3 = V 1+f
ρ D
 
2(101,000 − 4234) 2 10
− 2(9.81)(4) = V 1 + (0.02)
1000 12 × 10−3
53
115.052 = V 2
r 3
(115.052)(3)
V =
53
V = 2.551936002 m/s
We now find h by considering the Bernoulli Equation between points (1) and (2). Again, we
assume p1 = 101,000Pa, z1 = 0m, V1 = 0m/s, and for point (2), we can assume p2 = p1 ,
V2 = V m/s, and z2 = −(3 + h)m. Therefore, we have:
p1
V12
p2 V 2

+
+z1 =

+ 2 + z2 + hL

γ
2g
γ 2g
2
V ℓ V2
0= − (3 + h) + f
2g D 2g
2
 
V ℓ
h= 1+f −3
2g D
(2.551936002)2
 
40
= 1 + (0.02) −3
2g 12 × 10−3
h = 19.46028889 m
h = 19.5 m (3.s.f.)

Let us now verify that the minimum pressure occurs at point (3). Let us consider the Bernoulli
Equation between point (2) and an arbitrary point (4) at length L upstream of point (2), where
p2 = 0, V2 = V4 = V , z2 = 0. Note that by similar triangles, we compute z4 as follows:
z4 h+7
=
L 30
z4 = 0.8820096295L
Now considering the Bernoulli Equation between (2) and (4), we get the following:
p4 V42
p2 V 2

+
+ z4 =

+
2 +  z2 + hL
γ
2g
γ
2g
p4 ℓ V2
=f − z4
ρg D 2g
ℓ ρV 2
p4 = f − ρgz4
D 2
20
 L 1000(2.551936002)2
= (0.02) − 1000(9.81)(0.8820096295)L
12 × 10−3 2
= 5426.981132L − 8652.514465L
p4 = −3225.533333L Pa

Note that as L increases, i.e., as we move point (4) upwards towards point (3), the pressure p4
decreases due to the negative sign. Therefore, point (3) must be the point of minimum pressure,
verifying our original assumption where p3 = pv = 4.243kPa.

21
3.3 Question 6
The velocity profile for laminar flow in a pipe is quite different from that for turbulent flow. With
laminar flow the velocity profile is parabolic; with turbulent flow at Re =10,000, the turbulent
velocity profile can be approximated by the power-law profile shown below.

(a) For laminar flow, determine at what radial location you would place a Pitot tube if it is to
measure the average velocity, V̄ , in the pipe.
(b) Repeat part (a) for turbulent flow with Re =10,000.

3.3.1 Solution
First, note that we can compute the flow rate within a pipe, regardless of the type of flow (laminar
or turbulent), as follows:
Z Z Z R
2
Q = AV̄ = πr V̄ = u dA = u(2πr dr) = 2π ur dr
r=0

3.3.2 Solution - Part (a)

Therefore, for the laminar flow, we have the following:
Z R
2
πR V̄ = 2π ur dr
r=0
Z R   r 2 
= 2π Vc 1 − r dr
0 R
Z R
r3

= 2πVc r − 2 dr
0 R

22
 R
r2 r4

= 2πVc −
2 4R2 0
 2
R4
 
R
= 2πVc − − (0 − 0)
2 4R2
R2
= 2πVc
4
2
R
πR2 V̄ = πVc
2
1
V̄ = Vc
2
This suggests that the average velocity is equal to half of the center point velocity. Therefore,
by finding where the center point velocity is, we can find where to place a pitot tube to measure
average velocity. We find the point of average velocity by using the velocity profile as follows:
  r 2 
1
u = V̄ = Vc = Vc 1 −
2 R
 
1  r 2

= 1−
2 R
r
r 1
=
R 2
1
r=√ R
2

where the position to measure average velocity r is a ratio of the pipe radius R.

3.3.3 Solution - Part (b)

We find the point of average velocity for the turbulent flow at Re = 10,000 similarly. First, we
relate the average velocity, V̄ , to the center point velocity, Vc , as follows:
Z R
2
πR V̄ = 2π ur dr
r=0
Z R 
r  15
= 2π Vc 1 − r dr
0 R
Z R
r  15
= 2πVc 1− r dr
0 R
Z 1
2 2 r  51  r   r 
πR V̄ = 2πVc R 1− d
0 R R R

Let us now substitute y = 1 − Rr such that Rr = 1 − y and d Rr = −dy. Note that for the

integration limits, we replace r = R with y = 0 and r = 0 with y = 1. We then write our integral
as follows:
Z 1
2 2 r  51  r   r 
πR V̄ = 2πVc R 1− d
0 R R R
Z 0
1
= 2πVc R2 y 5 (1 − y)(−dy)
1

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 Z 0
1
2
= 2πVc R y 5 (y − 1) dy
Z1 0
6 1
= 2πVc R2 y 5 − y 5 dy
1
 0
2 5 11 5 6
= 2πVc R y − y
5 5
11 6
  1 
2 5 5
= 2πVc R (0 − 0) − −
11 6
 
2 5 5
= 2πVc R −
6 11
25
πR2 V̄ = 2πVc R2
66
25
V̄ = Vc
33
Similar to part (a), we find the average velocity by using the velocity profile as follows:

25  r  15
u = V̄ = Vc = Vc 1 −
33 R
25  r  15
= 1−
33 R
 5
r 25
=1−
R 33
r = 0.7504656463R

where the position to measure average velocity r is a ratio of the pipe radius R.

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