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SCHOOL OF EDUCATION

UNIT CODE: BLA4115

UNIT NAME: ADVANCED THEORETICAL STUDIES IN GRAMMAR

LECTURER: Mr. EMMANUEL BWANKARIKARI

Purpose
To examine the grammatical theories that is used for the Description of English.
Expected Learning Outcomes
By the end of the course unit the learners should be able to:
i) Compare and evaluate various grammatical theories used for the description of English.
ii) Describe study of morphology
iii) Apply the study of syntax and morphology
iv) Explain systematic functional grammar
Content
An advanced study of syntax and morphology through the application of generative grammar and
systemic functional grammar; detailed study of morphology
Teaching / Learning Methodologies
Lectures and tutorials; Group discussion; Demonstration; Individual assignment
Instructional Materials and Equipment
Projector; Text books; Design catalogues; Computer laboratory; Design software; Simulators
Course Assessment
Examination - 70%; Continuous Assessment Test (CATS) - 30%; Total - 100%
Core Textbooks
i) Alvah A. Weaver (2009); Practical Studies In Grammar; General Books
ii) Martin Hewings (2005); Advanced Grammar In Use: A Reference And Practice Book For Advanced
Learners Of English; Cambridge University Press
iii) Palmer F. (1994);Grammatical Roles and Relations Cambridge: Cambridge University Press
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1. Morphology

1.1. How to do morphological analysis (or any other kind of linguistic analysis)

Morphology is the study of word formation – how words are built up from smaller pieces. When we do
morphological analysis, then, we‟re asking questions like, what pieces does this word have? What does each
of them mean? How are they combined? In general, when you‟re asked to do any sort of linguistic analysis,
you‟ll be given a set of data – words or sentences from some language that generally isn‟t, but occasionally
is, English–and asked to find patterns in it.

How to do morphological analysis?

When you don‟t know anything about the language:

• Find a pair of words whose English translations differ only in a single way that‟s relevant to the task at
hand.
• Find the corresponding difference in the non-English words – often some letters will be added, or the
word will be changed in some systematic other way. Making this change in the non English word
therefore produces the relevant change in the English meaning.
• Check your theory: find another pair of foreign words whose English translations also differ only in this
relevant way, and make sure this pair of foreign words change in the same way as the last.
We‟ll encounter kinds of morphology that are more complex than this, but this basic method of looking for
forms with minimal differences and figuring out how to describe that difference is always a good approach.

1.2. Types of morphemes

Morpheme

Morphemes are the minimal units of words that have a meaning and cannot be sub-divided further. A
morpheme is the smallest unit of meaning we have–that is, the smallest piece of a word that contributes
meaning to a word.

Example: The word trainings has 3 morphemes in it: train-ing-s.

To break a word into morphemes, try starting at the beginning of the word and seeing how far into the word
you need to go to find a sub-part of the word that has some meaning. For example, in the word unbreakable,
the first two letters un- are independently meaningful in a way that just the first letter, u-, is not – un- means
something like „not (whatever)‟, and changes the meaning of the word it attaches to in a predictable way;
sub-parts of un-, like u- or –n-, don‟t have this property. This means that un- is a morpheme.

Once you‟ve found the first morpheme, ask yourself whether there‟s another meaningful sub-part of the
word after that first morpheme. Again, -break- is independently meaningful; so is the last part of the word,
-able. So unbreakable has three morphemes: un-break-able. Some words just have one morpheme, of
course–you can‟t break down the word love into any meaningful sub-parts, for example.
We define different kinds of morphemes based on various properties like where they
show up in words. All morphemes are either free or bound.
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1.2.1. Free morpheme

A free morpheme is one that can stand on its own–that is, it‟s an entire word.
Example: the, cat, run, pretty, bad.

Free morphemes may appear with other bound morphemes attached to them; crucially, though, they don‟t
need to have other morphemes on them.

1.2.2. Bound morpheme

A bound morpheme cannot stand on its own, but rather must be attached to a free morpheme whenever
you say it.

Examples: re-, un-, -est, -er,-ly.

NB. For example, bad is as an example of a free morpheme and an example of a bound morpheme is –ly.
The latter is bound because although it has meaning, it cannot stand alone. It must be attached to another
morpheme to produce a word.
 Free morpheme: bad
 Bound morpheme: ly
 Word: badly.

Another type of bound morphemes is called bound roots. These are morphemes (and not affixes) that must
be attached to another morpheme and do not have a meaning of their own. Some examples are ceive and mit
in perceive and submit.

1.2.3. Lexical and function words

When we talk about words, there are two groups: lexical (or content) and function (or grammatical) words.
Lexical words are called open class words and include nouns, verbs, adjectives and adverbs. New words
can regularly be added to this group. Function words, or closed class words are conjunctions,
prepositions, articles and pronouns; and new words cannot be (or are very rarely) added to this class.

Some morphemes are roots; others are affixes.

1.2.4. Root: The primary piece of meaning in a word, to which affixes can be added. In English, a root is
often a word itself.

Examples: cat, pretty,

1.2.5. Affix: A morpheme which attaches to roots (or stems), changing their meaning in regular ways.

Example: re-, un-, -est, -er, -ing, -s

Affixes are often the bound morpheme. This group includes prefixes, suffixes, infixes and circumfixes.
Prefixes are added to the beginning of another morpheme, suffixes are added to the end, infixes are inserted
into other morphemes, and circumfixes are attached to another morpheme at the beginning and end.
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a) Prefix: An affix that goes before a root.

Examples:
 re-, un- (re-read, un-loved)
 pre-test, post-test, ex-husband, dis-appear, un-qualified, re-think, redo, in-accurate

b) Suffix: An affix that goes after a root.

Examples:
 -est, -er, -s (quick-est, quick-er, read-s, book-s)
 test-s, test-ed, test-able; edit-or; edit-ing, nation-al-iz-ation

c) Infix: -um- added to fikas (strong) produces fumikas (to be strong) in Bontoc.
d) Circumfix: ge- and –t to lieb (love) produces geliebt (loved) in German.

1.4. Word formation process in English

There are two categories of affixes: Derivational and inflectional. The main difference between the two
is that derivational affixes are added to morphemes to form new words that may or may not be the same part
of speech and inflectional affixes are added to the end of an existing word for purely grammatical reasons.

The affixes we just talk about are distinctive in one more way. They are acting in a particular way when
attached to the base. Either they are giving grammatical information or they are creating a new word.

1.4.1. INFLECTION: the process by which affixes combine with roots to indicate basic grammatical
categories such as tense or plurality (e.g. in 'cat-s', 'talk-ed', '-s' and '-ed' are inflectional suffixes). Inflection
is viewed as the process of adding very general meanings to existing words, not as the creation of new
words. In English, there are only eight total inflectional affixes. Look at the table below:

Inflectional categories and affixes of English

Word class to which Inflectional category Regular affix used to

inflection applies express category
Nouns Number -s, -es: book/books,
bush/bushes
Possessive -'s, -': the cat's tail, Students'
Union
Verbs 3rd person singular present -s, -es: it rains, Karen writes,
the water sloshes
 past tense - ed: paint/painted
 perfect aspect -ed: paint/painted ('has
painted) (past participle)
 past participle -en: She has eaten
 progressive or -ing: fall/falling,
continuous aspect write/writing
(present participle)
Adjectives: -er: tall/taller
 comparative
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(comparing two items)

 Superlative -est: tall/tallest
(comparing more than
2 items)

1.4.2. DERIVATION: the process by which affixes combine with roots to create new words (e.g. in
'modern-ize', 'read-er', '-ize' and '-er' are derivational suffixes). Derivation is viewed as using existing
words to make new words.

1.4.3. Other ways to create new words.

Here are six ways to form new words. Compounds are a combination of words that is a word that is formed
from two or more simple or complex words (e.g. landlord, red-hot, window cleaner).
It is probably the most common one in today's English because it is so productively used in technical
languages. Compounding is a process whereby two or more individual words are combined as one word.
Here are a few examples: beginning intersect point, exit light fixture symbol, column centerline grid,
default Project Architect support directory, and delete project menu. The last example even has a verb
(delete) in it. Acronyms are derived from the initials of words, back-formations are created from removing
what is mistakenly considered to be an affix, abbreviations or clippings are shortening longer words,
eponyms are created from proper nouns (names) and blending is combining parts of words into one.

Examples:
 Compound: doghouse
 Acronym: NBA (National Basket Association) or HEC (Higher Education Council).
 Back-formation: edit from editor.
 Abbreviation: phone from telephone.
 Eponym: sandwich from Earl of Sandwich.
 Blending: smog from smoke and fog.

1.5 Morphological rules

When you‟re doing morphological analysis, you‟ll be asked to report your results in various ways.
Sometimes you‟ll be asked to tell whether various morphemes are free or bound, roots or affixes, prefixes
or suffixes, etc. Other times, you‟ll be asked to write rules that explain how words are built out of
morphemes.

The point of writing a rule is to describe exactly what‟s going on morphologically in such a way that
someone could use your rule to build new words. A good test for whether your rule is right is to try to use
it and make sure it gives you the right result. This will become clearer soon.

Morphology rules are sentences that tell you these three (or four) things:

(1) What kind of morphological category you‟re expressing (noun, verb…)

(2) What change takes place in the root to express this category.
(3) Where in the stem this change takes place.
(4) Special conditions, if any, on this change (e.g. it might only occur in certain circumstances, on certain
kinds of words, etc.).
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We can look at a simple example rule that makes the English plural form of a noun (i.e. that takes the root
cat and adds an –s to the end to make cats). The rule looks like this:

To make the plural form of a noun, add –s to the end of the noun. We can break down this rule to show
super-explicitly which parts of it are doing which of the four necessary things, like this:

(1) To make the plural form of a noun,

(2) add–s
(3) to the end of the noun.

1.6 Parts of Speech

You‟ve probably heard definitions for parts of speech like this: “A noun is a person, place, thing, or idea”
or “A verb is an action word.” That‟s lovely, but they‟re slippery definitions–we generally agree that a
word like appetite is a noun, but it‟s not really a person, place, thing, or idea; similarly, seem is a verb, but
it‟s not really an action word. So instead of these meaning-based definitions of parts of speech, in this class,
we will use structural definitions–that is, definitions based on the structure of a word, and/or its position in
a sentence structure.

There are a few other English parts of speech that we will talk about:

1.6.1. Determiner

Syntactic position

Before a noun and adjective, if one precedes the noun; only one determiner can precede a single noun
(*the a car).

The cat sat on my favorite chair.

Examples the, a, my, your, his, her, its, our, their, this, that, those, some, all, every, one, two,
three…

1.6.2. Auxiliary

Syntactic position

Before a verb; no more than three auxiliaries may appear before a single verb.

I could have been lying on the beach right now.

Examples: be (is/am/are/were/being…), have (has/had/having…), modal auxiliary: can, could, may,

might, will, would, shall, should, must.

1.6.3. Pronoun

Syntactic position

In a position normally occupied by an entire noun phrase:

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I want you to go to him and get it tomorrow.

Examples: I, me, mine, we, us, ours, you, yours he, him, his, she, her, hers, it, its, they, them, their, theirs,
one…

1.6.4. Preposition

Syntactic position

Before a noun phrase; usually only one preposition can precede a single noun phrase (*on above the
desk).

Before the ice age, dinosaurs wandered across the earth.

Examples: about, above, across, after, against, among, around, ago, as, at, before, behind, below, beside,
between, by, despite, down, during, for, from, in, inside, into, off, on, out, over, past, since, than, through,
to, toward, under, until, up, with, without…

2. Syntax

2.1. Nature and structure of phrases in English

There are several kinds of phrases in grammar. They include the noun phrase, verb phrase, preposition
phrase, adverb phrase and adjectival phrase. A phrase typically contains more than one word and is seen
as one unit. Read the sentences below:

1) The man selected a car from the show room.

2) The man selected a car very carefully.
3) The man was rather astute.

The phrases in these sentences are:

a) The man (noun phrase)

b) Selected a car (verb phrase)
c) From the show room (prepositional phrase)
d) Very carefully (adverb phrase)
e) Rather astute (adjectival phrase)

In a sentence, some phrases are obligatory while others are optional. A sentence can be complete with only
a noun phrase and a verb phrase, as in the sentence:

The man selected a car.

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Both the noun phrase “the man” and the verb phrase “selected a car” need to be present in that sentence for
it to be meaningful. On the contrary, information which provided by a prepositional phrase, an adverb phrase
or an adjectival phrase is often optional in a sentence. The phrases give additional information about
the noun or verb. They are not obligatory.

Read this sentence:

The rather astute man very carefully selected a car from the showroom.

Note the following:

1) The prepositional phrase “from the showroom” tells us where the action took place. This phrase
gives more information about the verb ‘select’. It is a response to the question ‘Where did he select
the car?’
2) The adverb phrase ‘very carefully’ also tells us something more about the verb. It tells us how the
action took place. It is a response to ‘How did he select the car?’
3) The adjectival phrase ‘rather astute’ tells us more about the noun (man). It gives the man’s
characteristics. He is astute.

2.1.1. The noun phrase

Recognize a noun phrase when you see one. A noun phrase includes a noun of a person, place, or thing and
the modifiers which distinguish it. You can find the noun dog in a sentence, for example, but you don't
know which canine the writer means until you consider the entire noun phrase: that dog, Aunt Audrey's
dog, the dog on the sofa, the neighbor's dog that chases our cat, the dog digging in the new flower bed.

Modifiers can come before or after the noun. Ones that come before might include articles, possessive
nouns, possessive adjectives, adjectives, and/or participles.

Articles: a dog, the dog

Possessive nouns: Aunt Audrey's dog, the neighbor's dog, the police officer's dog
Possessive adjectives: our dog, her dog, their dog
Adjectives: that dog, the big dog, the spotted dog
Participles: the drooling dog, the barking dog, the well trained dog.
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Modifiers that come after the noun might include prepositional phrases, adjective clauses, participle
phrases, and/or infinitives.
Prepositional phrases: a dog on the mat, the dog in the front seat, the dog behind the fence.
Adjective clauses: The dog that chases cats, the dog that looks lost, the dog that won the championship.
Participle phrases: The dog whining for a treat, the dog clipped at the grooming salon, the dog walked
daily.
Infinitives: The dog to catch, the dog to train, the dog to adopt.

Less frequently, a noun phrase will have a pronoun as its base—a word like we, everybody, etc.—and the
modifiers which distinguish it.

Read these examples:

1) We who were green with envy.

We= subject pronoun;
who were green with envy= modifier.
2) Someone intelligent.
Someone= indefinite pronoun;
intelligent= modifier.
3) No one important
No one= indefinite pronoun;
important= modifier.

As it has been said above, a noun can have additional information occurring before it or after it. Read the
examples below:
1. The tired inspector arrived in the morning.
2. The visitor with an angry look spoke rudely to me.
3. Mary wrote these books.

The italicized words in examples 1 and 2 are noun phrases with the main noun in bold. The rest of the
italicized words before or after the main nouns give more information about those nouns. Note that in the
example 1, the additional information (tired) occurs before the noun i.e. it pre-modifies it. While in the
example2, the additional information (with an angry look) occurs after the noun. It post-modifies it. Noun
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phrases do not only occur in subject positions. They can also occur in predicate positions of a sentence, as
in example 3 above, where the italicized words form a noun phrase. Note that this noun phrase occurs as
part of the verb phrase. The phrase ‘this book’ is the object of the verb ‘wrote’.

Study the sentences below. Note the additional information in italics. The noun is in bold for easy
recognition.

1. The beautiful picture was drawn by Prince.

2. The petrol bomb destroyed our house during the war.
3. Modern industrial paints have made the painting of houses an exciting occupation.
4. Class textbooks must be handled with care.
5. The picture of a man and a girl was drawn by Prince.
6. The bomb the terrorist had made exploded in his own hands.
7. Paints packed in ten-litre containers have proved the most economical over the years.
8. The books in the library were donated by the Chandaria Foundation.

In sentence 1 to 4, the italicized words are pre-modifiers of the nouns. The words ‘picture’, ‘bomb’, ‘paints’
and ‘textbooks’ have been pre-modified because we have more precise information about each of these
nouns. The modifier ‘beautiful’ tells the perceived quality of the picture, ‘petrol’ identifies the kind of bomb,
‘modern industrial’ tells us which paints, and ‘class’ tells us which textbooks.

Examples 5 to 8 illustrate the post-modification of the same nouns discussed in examples 1 to 4. The
italicized expressions post-modify the nouns: we know which picture (the one of a man and a girl), which
bomb (the one which the terrorist had made), which paints (the ones packed in ten-litre containers) and
which books (the ones in the library).

Any noun in subject or predicate position of a sentence can be pre-modified or post-modified. The following
examples illustrate both pre-modification and post-modification of nouns in predicate position.

a) Sarah wrote this excellent book.

b) Sarah wrote this most excellent book.
c) Sarah wrote the book on the table.
d) Sarah wrote the book which she is holding.

These examples show how the noun ‘book’, which is in the predicate part of the sentence, has been modified.
Examples a) and b) demonstrate pre-modification of this noun, as shown by the italicized expressions before
it, while examples c) and d) show how post-modification has been done.
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A noun can be pre-modified or post-modified in elaborate or complex ways. Look at how the noun ‘buses’
has been pre-modified in the sentences below.

a) All buses were auctioned this morning.

b) All my buses were auctioned this morning.
c) All my three buses were auctioned this morning.
d) All my three new buses were auctioned this morning.
e) All my three and efficient buses were auctioned this morning.

The words in italics pre-modify the noun ‘buses’. The complexity of modification is in terms of the
additional information that describes the noun. One can have minimal information as in sentence a), or more
information as in sentence e).

Functions of noun phrases

Like a noun, a noun phrase can act as a subject, an object of a verb, a subject or object complement, or an
object of a preposition as discussed and illustrated below.

a) Subject

The italicized words in the following examples are noun phrases.

1) The floods destroyed all the buildings in our village.

2) My little sister became the new champion.

The italicized words act as the subject of the sentences.

b) Object of verb

Look at the italicized words.

1) The floods destroyed all the buildings.

2) We welcomed the new champion.

The italicized words are noun phrases in the predicate part of the sentences. ‘All the buildings’ is the object
of the verb ‘destroyed’. It is a response to the question ‘What did the floods destroy?’ In sentence 2, ‘the new
champion’ is the object of the verb ‘became’. It is a response to the question ‘Whom did we welcome?’
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c) Object of a preposition

Noun phrases can also serve as objects or complements of prepositions. For example:

1) Joseph lived in our area.

2) The mechanic bought engine oil for my car.

The noun phrase ‘our area’ in example 1, is needed to complete the meaning of the preposition in.

This preposition has the meaning of position or place. It responds to the question ‘Where?’

The phrase ‘my car’ in example 2 complements the meaning of the preposition for.

d) Subject complement

A noun phrase can act as a complement of the subject of a sentence as in the following examples.

1) Daniel Arap Moi was the president of Kenya until the year 2002.
2) Armstrong is the man who explored the moon in 1969.
3) Carrots are my favorite vegetables.

The italicized expressions in each of the examples above are noun phrases. Note that the subject of the
sentence and the italicized phrases refer to the same person or thing.

e) Object complement

A noun phrase can act as complement of an object of a verb.

1) Simon considers Allan his best friend.

2) The principal declared Elizabeth ‘Student of the year’.

In example 1 above, Allan is the object of the verb. ‘His best friend’ and ‘Allan’ refer to the same person.
‘His best friend’, therefore, complements or refers back to Allan who is the object of the sentence.

In example 2, the object of the sentence is Elizabeth. This object requires a complement for the sentence
to have complete meaning. ‘Student of the year’ complements the noun Elizabeth. The noun and the
complement refer to the same person.
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2.1.2. The verb phrase

The predicate elements of a sentence form a verb phrase. Study the italicized part of each of the following
examples:

1) The cat is eating.

2) The cat has eaten.
3) The food has been eaten.
4) The food will have been eaten.
5) The food will be being eaten.

All the italicized phrases in the examples above are verb phrases.

Verb phrase consists of various combinations of the main verb and auxiliary verbs, as in the examples above.
The verb can be preceded by several auxiliaries. Each auxiliary brings in a particular meaning to the verb
phrase. For instance, in example 4 above, modality and tense are marked by the modal will (for modality)
while have, been and the –en suffix on the main verb all mark various aspects of tense. All the elements that
mark tense are often considered part of the verb phrase as shown in the sentences above. Many of them
occur before the main verb in a sentence.

Study the sentences below and note how tense has been marked in the italicized words. It is also possible
to tell if an action is completed or not from the italicized words.

1) Our little brother was waiting at the gate.

2) The man is feeding the cat.
3) George has been there before.
4) Ugandans have been working here for five years.

In example 1, the auxiliary was indicates past tense. In example 2, the auxiliary verb, is, and the –ing suffix
on the main verb marks progression of action. The auxiliary has in combination with been, marks perfection
of action in example 3. Example 4 has the auxiliary have been and the –ing suffix to mark perfect
progressive action.

The verb phrase also indicates certainty or the possibility of an action taking place through the use of words
such as will and might occurring before the main verb. For instance:

1) The food will be eaten this morning.

2) Joyce might come in the morning.
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Functions of verb phrases

A verb phrase acts as the predicate of a sentence. It provides information about the subject of the sentence.

Without a verb phrase, the subject of a sentence cannot convey complete information on its own. It needs
the verb phrase to do this; hence the verb phrase is a central and an obligatory part of a sentence. Every
English sentence must have a verb phrase.

2.1.3. The adverb phrase

An adverb phrase is a group of words where the key word is an adverb. For example:

1) The game between the two top teams was concluded rather abruptly.
2) The boy visited the doctor very recently.
3) She played the piano extremely well.
4) The intruder left quite suddenly.

The italicized words in examples 1 to 4 above are adverb phrases that modify the verbs in the respective
sentences. For example, the phrase rather abruptly tells us how the game was concluded. The verb
‘concluded’ does not convey that information. The word in the adverb phrase is abruptly which is an adverb.
The word rather modifies the adverb abruptly. In example 2, the italicized phrases tell us ‘when the boy
visited the doctor’. In examples 3 and 4, the italicized phrases tell us how she played the pianoand how
the intruder left, respectively.

The main adverb in an adverb phrase may be preceded by an intensifier, as in the examples below.

5) She danced to the beats very beautifully.

Here the intensifier ‘very’ precedes the adverb ‘beautifully’ and tells us how beautifully she danced.

2.1.4. The adjectival phrase

Adjectives describe nouns in such a way that we are given the qualities, characteristics and properties of
people, things and phenomena. Common adjectives include the following words: good, round, red, dark,
small, overwhelmed, certain and fantastic. An adjectival phrase is a group of words where the main word
is an adjective. The adjectives in bold serve as the focus of the italicized group of words in the following
sentences:
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1) Participating in elections is extremely important.

2) The doctor is very late.
3) This year, January has been unusually wet.

In the examples above, the italicized words are adjectival phrases. In each example, the adjective is the
main word of the phrase. Words such as extremely and very modify the adjective. Most modifiers of
adjective occur before the adjective, as in the examples above. These are often adverbs or adverb phrases.
Examples include partly, too, so, extremely, quite, and so forth.

Adjectives in an adjectival phrase may be followed by modifiers. For example:

a) Paul is happy to meet you.

b) The train is ready to go.
c) Maria is quite worried about the results of the test.
d) The italicized words in examples a) to c) are adjectival phrases. The words in bold i.e. happy, ready
and worried have been post-modified. In example a), the adjective ‘happy’ is post-modified by the
infinitive clause ‘to meet you’. Post-modification by an infinitive clause is also evident in example
b). Prepositional phrases also post-modify adjectives in adjectival phrases, as in example c), where
the adjective ‘worried’ has been post modified by the prepositional phrase ‘about the results of the
tests’.

A small number of adjectives must be followed by a complement. These adjectives are used in adjectival
phrases. For example:

a) Ashley is fond of animals.

b) The time was shorter than we expected.

The word like ‘fond’ requires post-modification, as in example a) where it has been followed by the
prepositional phrase ‘of animals’. We cannot say:

My sister is fond

The word ‘fond’ needs a complement for the adjective to be clear. See also the word ‘shorter’ in example
b), it should be followed by ‘than’ and a noun or a noun clause to complete the comparison.

Functions of adjectival phrases

An adjectival phrase modifies a noun or a pronoun. Look at the italicized phrases below:
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1) Doreen asked a very difficult question.

2) This is quite an interesting group.
3) Juma has unusually long fingers.

Each of the italicized phases above tells us something about the subject of the sentence. The phrases
modify the nouns ‘question’, ‘group’ and ‘fingers’, respectively.

2.1.5. The prepositional phrase

A prepositional phrase consists of a preposition followed by its complements. The complement is usually
a noun, a pronoun, noun phrase or –ing form of a verb.

1) A church was built behind our school.

2) The lost sheep was captured across the road.
3) Jack and Jacqueline relax by singing.

The italicized expressions are prepositional phrases. Each of them has a preposition: behind, across, and
by.

Functions of a prepositional phrases

In general, a prepositional phrase expresses a relationship between the complement of the preposition and
some other constituent of the sentence. Prepositional phrases have two main functions: as modifiers of verbs
and nouns, and as complements of a restricted number of verbs, adjectives and nouns.

a) Prepositional phrases as modifiers

One of the key functions of prepositional phrases is to act as modifiers in a sentence. Consider the examples
below:

1) I saw Rose last week.

2) He is studying at the university.
3) The book on the table belongs to Eric.

The italicized prepositional phrases in example 1 and 2 above function as verb modifiers.

‘Last week’ is a time adverbial that tells us more about the time I saw Rose. ‘At the university’ is a place
adverbial that tells us more about the place where he is studying. In sentence 3, the phrase ‘on the table’
tells us where the book is.
 17

b) Prepositional phrase as complements

Prepositional phrases also function as complements of other phrases. Look at the following examples:

1) The winner of the prize posed for a photograph.

2) My son is suffering from a headache.

In example 1, the prepositional phrase ‘of the prize’ acts as complement of ‘the winner’ which is a noun
phrase. In example 2, the prepositional phrase ‘from a headache’ functions as a complement of the verb
phrase ‘is suffering’.

2.2. Clauses and sentences

2.2.1. Introduction

A sentence is a group of words that expresses a complete thought or idea. A sentence has two main parts:
the subject and the predicate. The subject is what the sentence is about, and the predicate is what is said
about the subject. In the sentences below, the subjects are italicized.

1) The student is going to school.

2) My friend did not go to the market.

In example 1 above, the subject is ‘the student’ and the predicate is ‘is going to school’. In example 2, the
subject is ‘my friend’ and the predicate is ‘did not go to the market’.

The five key elements of a sentence are: subject, verb, object, complement and adverbial. An object can
be a direct object or an indirect object. A complement can be a subject complement or an objectcomplement.
The combination of these elements gives the sentence patterns shown below. Study the sentences carefully.

1) The baby slept.

Subject verb
2) The boy walked home.
Subject verb adverbial
3) The girl ate the apple.
Subject verb direct object
4) The fruit seller gave the man a banana.
Subject verb indirect object direct object
 18

5) The team appointed James their chairperson.

Subject verb direct object object complement
6) She put the books in your bag.
Subject verb direct object adverbial
7) The student looks unwell.
Subject verb subject complement

2.2.2. Types of sentences

Sentences have several functions. The functions of the sentences in the examples below are given in brackets
and this leads us to classify them into four types of sentences: declarative, interrogative, imperative and
exclamatory sentences.

1) The Akagera River is the biggest river in Rwanda. (declares a fact)

2) Do you know how big the Akagera River is? (asks a question)
3) Tell me the time. (makes a request)
4) Go to school right now. (makes an order)
5) What a big river this is! (shows strong feelings)

Sentences that are used to declare a fact such as in example 1 above are called declarative sentences or
statements and they end with a period. Those that ask questions such as in example 2 are interrogative
sentences and they end with a question mark. Those that make requests, orders or give directives such in
examples 3 and 4 are called imperative sentences and end with a full stop. While those that express strong
feelings and surprise as in example 5 are called exclamatory sentences and they end with an exclamation
mark.

2.2.2.1. Declarative sentences

Declarative sentences are simply statements. They are the most basic and commonest sentence structures.
They are used to make statements of fact or to declare the way things are. Whenever we tell a person
something, we are making a statement. We also make statements in answers to questions.

Sometimes we make statements to say what things are not. These are negative sentences. Affirmative
sentences, on the other hand, express an agreement. Study the pairs of affirmative and negative sentences
below.
 19

Affirmative sentences Negative sentences

1.Students can wake up early every day. 1.Students cannot wake up early every day.
2.Jane was washing her clothes. 2.Jane was not washing her clothes.
3.We have finished our end-of-term examinations. 3.We have not finished our end-of-term
examinations.

Note that the difference between the affirmative and the negative sentences is the presence of not between
the auxiliary verb and the main verb. For example:

1) Anne should organize her party now.

2) Anne should not organize her party now.

In these sentences, should is the auxiliary verb while organize is the main verb. Sometimes we do not an
auxiliary verb in the affirmative sentence. In such cases, do, does or did are added to support the negative
particle, not. For example:

Affirmative sentences Negative sentences

1. I know you. 1. I do not know you.
2. Paul went to the market last week. 2. Paul did not go to the market last week.
3.Mary wakes up late every morning. 3.Mary does not wake up late every morning.

2.2.2.2. Interrogative sentences

An interrogative sentence is used to ask a question.

a) ‘Yes/No’ questions

Study the questions below.

1) Do you love baking?

2) Is the principal in the office?
3) Are you going for karate lessons?
4) Is this the library?
 20

Notice that all these questions require a ‘Yes’ or ‘No’ answer. Questions of this type are called ‘Yes/No’
questions. The difference between their structure and that of declarative sentences is illustrated in the table
below.

Declarative sentences Yes/No questions

1. The dogs should be fed. 1. Should the dogs be fed?
2. The doctor has left the hospital. 2. Has the doctor left the hospital?
3.The children have gone to school. 3.Have the children gone to school?
4.You can clear the bill. 4.Can you clear the bill?

Declarative sentences begin with subjects, but all ‘Yes/No’ questions begin with auxiliary verbs such as
should, has, have and can.

Sometimes the corresponding declarative sentence does not have an auxiliary verb. In such cases, the
appropriate tense and number form of the verb ‘do’ is added during the formation of the question. Look at
the examples below.

1) Declarative: The student wants to go to the dormitory.

Question: Does the student want to go to the dormitory?
2) Declarative: They know my uncle.
Question: Do they know my uncle?
3) Declarative: Dave left for Nairobi yesterday.
Question: Did Dave leave for Nairobi yesterday?

When the main verb in a sentence is one of the forms of ‘be’ –is, are, was, were, or am—this verb is
placed at the beginning of the ‘Yes/No’ question. For example:

1) Declarative: The car is old.

Question: Is the car old?
2) Declarative: Andrew was sick yesterday.
Question: Was Andrew sick yesterday?
 21

b) ‘Wh-’ questions

These are questions that begin with one of the ‘wh-’ words. These are the pronouns who, whom, whose,
what and which; and the interrogative adverbs when, where, why and how.

‘Yes’ or ‘No’ are not sufficient as answers to ‘wh-’ questions. These question seek specific information.

Look at the examples given below.

1) When did you receive the invitation?

2) Why didn’t you tell us?
3) What did your parents say about it?
4) How did you learn the organization?

Note that ‘how’ is a little different from the other question words, but it is categorized with them because
it has the same functions. It also has ‘w’ and ‘h’ in it and is a question word anyway!

‘Wh-’ questions require specific information for answers. The type of information required by the
different ‘wh-’ words is given in the table below.

Question word Required information

How? Manner/Way of doing something
What? Name of something or an action
When? Time
Where? Place
Why? Reason

In actual fact, in speech we often answer ‘wh-’ questions by giving just the required information. For
example:

Question Answer

1) How did you travel from Mombasa? By train.

2) What did you bring for me? An apple.

3) When did you arrive here? At seven in the evening.

 22

4) Where did you spend the night? At the railway station.

5) Why didn’t you come straight home? Because I was afraid of the dark.

In writing, however, responses to ‘Wh-’ questions need to be in complete sentences. For example:

1) When will you go back to Mombasa?

I will go back to Mombasa next week.
2) Why are they in such a hurry?
They are in a hurry because they have an appointment at nine o’clock.

Note carefully the order of words I ‘Wh-’ questions. A ‘Wh-’ question starts with the question word. This
is followed by an auxiliary verb (such as am, are, is, can, do, did, have, has, had, must, shall, should, will,
would or ought to). After this we have the subject (I, you, Amina, the child, and so on) and then the rest of
the sentence. At the end of the question there is a question mark.

The order of words in ‘Wh-’ questions is summarized in the table below.

Question word Auxiliary Subject Rest of the sentence

Why am I telling you all this?
How should you fold the shirt?
Where had Amina put the cakes?
When did the chairperson arrive at the kiosk?
Why could they not talk it over?

2.2.2.3. Imperative sentences

Read the instructions below, taken from a recipe book.

Melt the butter in an oven tray then toss chicken pieces into this to coat evenly. Mix the dry
ingredients then sieve and shake the mixture evenly over the chicken pieces. Bake in a shallow
baking dish at 200oC for 40 minutes.

There are five pieces of instruction in this extract.

1) Melt the butter.

2) Toss chicken pieces into the tray.
3) Mix the ingredients.
 23

4) Sieve and shake.

5) Bake in shallow baking dish.

Sentences that give instructions are called imperative sentences. There are four main uses of imperatives.

a) We can use them to give instructions as in the recipe.

b) We can use them to give advice.
1) Drive carefully.
2) Make sure the doors are locked before you leave.
3) Always find out who is at the door before you open it.
c) Imperatives can also be used to extend an invitation.
1) Come and see us when you are in Kigali City.
2) Sit down and have a cup of tea.
3) Join us for a walk if you are not busy.
d) We also use imperatives to give directives, commands or orders.
1) Do not come to school late again.
2) Listen to what your teacher is saying.
3) Never trust people you do not know.

One peculiar characteristic of imperatives is that the subject is not openly expressed. The subject of the
imperative sentence is understood to be the second person singular or plural.

(You) drive carefully.

2.2.2.4. Exclamatory sentences

Read the short conversation below.

Nancy: What a big bag you have here!

Pascal: Yes, it can carry ten loaves of bread.

Nancy: How lucky you are!

Pascal: you can borrow it. I will not go home for the mid-term break because my parents are out
of the country.

Nancy: What a pity! But I will make good use of the bag. You can be sure to get some chapattis
and even chicken when I get back.
 24

Pascal: How wonderful! I will look forward to that.

The sentences in italics in the conversation are exclamations. They are called exclamatory sentences.
They end in an exclamation mark and express wonder or surprise.

Here are other examples of exclamatory sentences.

1) What a big crowd came to the children’s event!

2) How delightful her manners are!
3) What a long time it lasted!
4) How I used to love swimming!

Exclamatory sentences make use of ‘Wh-’ words such as what and how and they are commonly used in
spoken language.

2.2.3. Sentence structure

2.2.3.1.The subject
 The subject part of a sentence tells whom or what the sentence is about. The complete subject is all
the words in the subject part.
1) All the children gathered around Grandfather.
2) My sister looked unhappy.
3) Paul talked about the film.
4) We propose to visit Deborah.
2.2.3.2. The predicate
 The predicate part of a sentence tells what the subject does or is. The complete predicate is all the
words in the predicate part.
1) Grandfather is a great story teller.
2) Bob learned many stories from his grandfather.

Note: Every sentence has two parts, a subject and a predicate. The subject and the predicate can be one
word or many words. For example:

Complete subject Complete predicate

Birds sing.
Many birds sing very well.
Grandfather begins.
Our grandfather begins to tell his story.
 25

2.2.4. Descriptive analysis of clauses

Clauses are sentence-like units that are part of a larger sentence. They have a structure similar to that of a
sentence. Each has a subject and a predicate. Each of the sentences below has two clauses. One of the
clauses is underlined to help you identify it.

1) The guest speaker spoke for only twenty minutes because we ran short of time.
2) The speaker who was invited to speak on HIV and AIDS provided us with a lot of information.

Clause Subject Predicate

1) a)The guest speaker spoke for only twenty The guest speaker spoke for only twenty
minutes minutes
b)because we ran short of time we ran short of time
2) a)The speaker provided us with a lot of The speaker provided us with a lot of
information information
b)who was invited to speak on HIV and who was invited to speak on HIV
AIDS and AIDS

2.2.5. Main and subordinate clauses

Clauses are classified into independent (main) clauses and dependent (subordinate) clauses. The main
clauses are those that can stand on their own as sentences and make complete meaning. For example: The
guest speaker spoke for only twenty minutes.

The subordinate clauses are those that have a subordinating conjunction at the beginning, such as:
because we ran short of time.

Note: Subordinate clauses cannot stand on their own as sentences. Observe how the clauses in column A
differ from those in column B below.

A B
1. He appeared worried although we assured him it was alright.
2. Belinda will tell her mother the truth. before it gets too late.

The clauses in A can stand on their own and make sense. Those in B cannot make sense on their own; they
depend on the main clauses.
 26

2.3. Classification of sentences

Sentences are classified into simple, compound, complex and compound-complex sentences.

This classification depends on the number of clauses a sentence has, and whether these clauses are all
independent (main) or whether they are a mixture of independent and subordinate clauses.

2.3.1. Simple sentences

A simple sentence is an independent clause that stands on its own. It has only one subject and one verb.
Sentences made up of one clause are called simple sentences. For example:

1) My friend didn’t go to the market.

2) I am listening to a very interesting English gospel song.
3) The next rally may be in South Africa.

A simple sentence expresses a single thought/idea and, therefore, it is made up of a single independent
clause. Simple sentences combine with other independent or subordinate clauses to form the other sentence
types.

2.3.2. Compound sentences

A conjunction is a word that joins words or groups of words.

A compound sentence contains two sentences that have been joined by a comma and the coordinating
conjunction and, or, or but.

1) Linda made her bed, and then she ate her breakfast.
2) We could go back home, or we could drive to town.
3) The chair is comfortable, but I like the sofa better.
4) The students were told to keep quiet, or they would risk spending an extra hour in school on
detention.

In the sentences above, the two clauses are linked by the conjunctions. Each of these clauses can stand alone
as a sentence. They are, therefore, independent clauses and the larger sentence is a compound sentence. A
compound sentence consists of two or more independent clauses. Here are other conjunctions that join
compound sentences: for, nor, so, yet.
 27

2.3.3. Complex sentences

Not all sentences with two clauses are compound sentences. Sometimes a sentence has two clauses, but
these clauses are not similar. Look at the examples below.

1) Although I have not drunk the juice, I am convinced that it is good.

2) When I get money, I will buy a novel.
3) I will sell my bicycle to you because I do not use it.

Each of the sentences above contains two clauses. The underlined clause can stand on its own as a sentence,
but the other clause is incomplete on its own.

Thus, each of these sentences is made up of an independent clause (underlined) and a dependent
(subordinate) clause. A sentence that is made up of an independent clause and at least one dependent clause
is called a complex sentence.

Many complex sentences contain conjunctions that tell where, why, how, when or under what conditions.
For example: Fred always brushes his teeth after he eats candy.

Where When Why How

Where When As As
Wherever Before Because As if
After since As though
While Although
Since Even though
Until

2.3.4. Compound-complex sentences

A sentence made up of two or more independent (main) clauses, and one or more dependent clause(s), is
called compound-complex sentence. For example:

1) Today there are numerous small parties, which are mainly organized along ethnic lines, and this
threatens the unity of the nation.
2) I am still shocked by the events which followed the 2007 national elections and I will help those
who are now living in camps.
 28

3) It seems only yesterday that multiparty politics was reintroduced in Kenya and politicians left
KANU to join other parties.

Each of the three sentences contains two clauses which can stand alone as independent sentences, and one
underlined clause which cannot stand on its own. For example let’s analyze sentence one.

a) Today, there are numerous small parties

b) Which are mainly organized along ethnic lines
c) This threatens the unity of the nation.

Note that clauses a) and c) are independent (main) clauses, but b) must rely on another clause to bring
out its complete meaning. It is subordinate clause.

2.4. Reduction of basic sentence structures

2.4.1. Substitution

When we join clauses to make complex or compound sentences, we avoid repetition by replacing some
items that are the same in the two clauses with different items. This process, substitution, is the replacement
of one item with another in a text.

Consider the examples below.

1) I would like a cup of black tea. Give her the same, please.
2) I saw my friend at four o’clock on Wednesday afternoon. I told her then that we would not be
attending the party.
3) They beat the drum with great and energy. They also dance like that.

In the pairs of sentences above, the italicized phrase in the first sentence is part of the meaning of the second
sentence. To avoid repetition, it replaced with another word or phrase. In example1, a cup of blacktea is
replaced by the same in the second sentence. At four o’clock on Wednesday afternoon in example 2 is
replaced by then in the second sentence. In example 3, with great energy is replaced by like that in the
second sentence.

2.4.2. Ellipsis

Repetition can also be avoided by leaving out words and phrases that have already been expressed. We
call this ellipsis. Look at the following sentences. They show how ellipsis helps us to avoid repetition when
we combine sentences.
 29

1) a) These men are hard-working.

b) These women are hard-working.
c) These men and (these) women are hard-working.

2) a) The next rally may be in South Africa.

b) The next rally may be in Morocco.

c) The next rally may be in South Africa or (in) Morocco.

3) a) I enjoy visiting Mombasa.

b) I wouldn’t like to live there.

c) I enjoy visiting Mombasa but (I) would not like to live there.

In all (c) sentences, the words in brackets—these, in and I—can be left out when the conjunctions and, or
and but are used. These words are left out to avoid unnecessary repetition. Thus, ellipsis is the omission of
words or phrases whose meaning is obvious from the context. This happens a lot in speech.

Consider the examples below.

1) John asked for one of the pens, but I wanted none (of the pens).
2) Some of the water which falls as rain flows on the surface as streams. Some (of the water)
evaporates. The rest (of the water) sinks into the ground and is known as ground water.
3) Joan brought some avocadoes and Catherine (brought) some pineapples.
4) Isaac had not been invited to the evening party, although Moses had (been invited to the evening
party).
5) I was not expecting to enjoy the game, but I did (enjoy the game).
6) I wanted to do the work first, but I don’t think I will be able to (do the work first).
7) You are welcome to dance if you would like (to dance).
8) He admitted that he had broken the cup, but he said he didn’t mean to (break it).

The words and phrases enclosed in brackets can be left out without an alteration (change) in meaning.This
is a strategy that writers use to avoid unnecessary repetition.
 30

2.5. Advanced study of syntax

2.5.1. Analysis sentence structure
1) Definition of syntax

 Syntax is the study of the rules governing the way words are combined to form sentences in a
language.

⚫ Any speaker of any human language can produce and understand an infinite number of
possible sentences.

⚫ Thus, we can’t possibly have a mental dictionary of all the possible sentences.

⚫ Rather, we have the rules for forming sentences stored in our brains.

⚫ Syntax is the part of grammar that pertains to a speaker’s knowledge of sentences and their
structures.

2) Properties of syntactic knowledge:

 Humans can understand and produce an infinite number of sentences they never heard before.

⚫ Some purple flies are starting to dance on microwave.

 Humans can determine the grammatical relations in a sentence.

⚫ Mary hired Bill. Vs. Bill hired Mary.

3) Syntax and meaning

 Sentences are composed of discrete units that are combined by rules. These rules explain how
speakers can store infinite knowledge in a finite space-brain.
 The rules of syntax combine words into phrases and phrases into sentences.
 They specify the correct word order for a language.
⚫ For example, English is a Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) language.
The President nominated a new Supreme Court justice.
Instead of: President the new Supreme justice Court a nominated.

4) Generative grammar

 Noam Chomosky (1950s) defines the syntactic structure of a language.

 Generative= a very explicit system of rules specifying what combinations of basic elements
results in well-formed sentences.

 Productivity of language

⚫ Phrase structure rules

⚫ Transformational rules
 31

5) Phrase structure rules

 Some words seem to belong together:
The crazy man Is jumping off the bridge
 Groups of words that belong together are called constituents.
 The components that determines the properties of the constituent is the head, and the
constituent can be referred to as a phrase: e.g. noun phrase.
 If we look at phrases, some patterns emerge:
The instructor = NP
Det N
A friend = NP
Det N
Some homework = NP
Det N
Two classes = NP
Det N
 Some more patterns:
Call the instructor = VP
V Det N
Meet a friend = VP
V Det N
Do some homework = VP
V Det N
Skip two classes = VP
V Det N
 And yet more patterns:
with the instructor = PP
Prep Det N
from a friend = PP
Prep Det N
with some homewok = PP
Prep Det N
after two classes =PP
Prep Det N
 Generate a lot of sentences from a small number of rules.
 The structure of phrase will consist of one or more constituents in a certain order.
 What does a NP consist of?
⚫ “Noun phrases have a Det and a N”
NP Det + N
 Run a marathon eat the food
V Det N V Det N
 Go to the store talk with a teacher
V Prep Det N V Prep Det N
 32

 Take your sister to the library

V Det N Prep Det N
 “Verb phrases have a V, (sometimes) an NP, and (sometimes) a PP”
 VP V (NP) (PP)

6) The main phrase structure rules

1. S NP VP
2. NP Det N, Pro, NP
3. VP V (NP) (PP) (Adv)
4. PP P NP
5. AP A (PP)

7) Phrase structure rules & tree diagrams / x-bar theory

⚫ NP (Det) N
⚫ PP P NP
The boy NP

Det N

The Boy

The boy in the yard

NP

Det N PP

P NP

Det N

The boy in the yard

 33

 VP V (NP) (PP)

 S NP VP

took the money (VP)

VP

V NP

Det N

took the money

took the money from the bank

VP

V NP PP

Det N P NP

Det N

took the money from the bank

 34

 Examples:

1) The old tree swayed in the wind.

NP VP

Det Adj N V PP

P NP

Det N

The old tree swayed in the wind.

2) The children put the toy in the box.

NP VP

Det N V NP PP

Det N P NP

Det N

The children put the toy in the box.

 35

3) The small boy saw George with a crazy dog recently.

NP VP

Art adj N V NP PP Adv

Prep NP

Art Adj N

The small boy saw George with a crazy dog recently.

8) Deep and surface structure

 Deep structure is an abstract level of structural organization in which all the elements
determining structural interpretation are presented.

⚫ Sentences that have alternative interpretations

⚫ Sentences that have different surface forms but have the same underlying meaning.

 Surface structure is how the sentence is actually represented.

 How superficially different sentences are closely related?

• Peter broke the window.

• The window was broken by Peter

• Peter who broke the window.

• Was the window broken by Peter?

 Difference in their surface structure = difference in syntactic forms

 BUT they have the same ‘deep’ or underlying structure.

 36

9) Structural ambiguity

 How superficially similar sentences are different? (multiple meanings)

 E.g. Annie hit the man with an umbrella.

 Same surface structure but different deep structure.

 The boy saw the man with a telescope.

 The question is: what is the scope of “with the telescope?” Does it modify only “the man” or
Does it modify “saw the man?”

Examples:

1) The boy saw the man with the telescope.

NP VP

Det N V NP PP

Det N P NP

Det N

The boy saw the man with the telescope.

Meaning: Using the telescope, the boy saw the man.

 37

2) The boy saw the man with the telescope.

NP VP

Det N V NP

Det N PP

P NP

Det N

The boy saw the man with the telescope.

Meaning: The boy saw the man. The man had a telescope.

10) Recursion

 Rules can be applied more than once in generating sentences.

 E.g. repeat prepositional phrase more than once.

⚫ The gun was on the table near the window in the bedroom in the pink house.

 Put sentences inside sentences.

⚫ This is the cat that ate the rat that ate the cheese that was sold by the man that lived in the city
that was on the river…

 No end to recursion- produce longer complex sentences.

 [Mary helped George]. (A sentence)

 [Cathy knew] that [Mary helped George]. (a sentence within a sentence)

 [John believed] that [Cathy knew] that [Mary helped George].

 The word that introduces the complement phrase.

 38

11) Complement phrase

 Cathy knew that Mary helped George.

 That= Complementizer (C) introducing complement phrase (CP)

 The CP comes after the VP

 S NP VP

 VP V CP

 CP C S

NP VP

V CP

C S

NP VP

V CP

C S

NP VP

V NP

NP NP NP

John belived that Cathy knew that Mary helped George.

 39

12) Transformational rules

S S

NP VP Adv NP VP

V NP Adv V NP

Mary saw George recently. Recently Mary saw George.

Exercises

1. Rewrite the following sentences with phrase structure rules.

1) The dog is barking.

2) Peter told the truth.

3) The wicked witch spilled the potion.

4) The runner with the best time won the prize.

5) Maria diagnosed the patient with thermometer.

2. Draw labeled tree diagram for the following English phrases. (Hint: what part of speech is the
leader for the phrase?)

1) Ancient pyramids

2) In the early evening

3) The handsome man

4) Drove a car

5) This big book of poems with the white cover

 40

3. Draw phrase structure of the following sentences:

1) The puppy found the child.

2) The hot sun melted the ice.

3) The house on the hill collapsed in the wind.

4) A girl laughed at the monkey.

5) The boat sailed up the river.

4. Draw two phrase structure trees representing the two meanings of the sentence:

The magician touched the child with the wand.

The end!

 Thank you so much for your kind attention.

 I hope you have learnt a lot in this course and you will find it the most powerful weapon in
your every day speaking and writing English.

 I wish you all the best in your life.

 Remember education is what remains after one has forgotten what one has learned in school.

 Ciao!