LESSON 3 - LISTENING

Introduction

Listening is the process of receiving, constructing meaning from, and responding to spoken
and/or nonverbal communication. Listening is key to effective communication. Without the
ability to listen effectively, messages are easily misunderstood.

Difference between Listening and Hearing

Listening is different from hearing, as a communicator its therefore important to know the
difference between hearing and listening.

Hearing

It is the process wherein sound waves strike the eardrum and cause vibrations that are
transmitted to the brain.

Physical act: Requires only the reception of sound waves.

Mental process: Vibrations of sounds waves hit the eardrum and brain of an individual triggering
the electrochemical pulses that make the person feel the sensation of hearing the sound.

Involuntary action: Happens even if we don’t want to.

Listening

It occurs when the brain reconstructs these electrochemical impulses into a representation of
the original sound and then gives them meaning.

Active process and conscious act: Requires concentration and effort.

Mental and physical activity: We receive sounds that reach our eardrums (physical activity) and
we try to interpret, evaluate, react and respond to them (mental activity).

Helpful in decision making: Requires receiver to pay close attention and make sense of what they
hear.

Different listening styles

Content-Oriented Listening style

These listeners are most interested in the quality of messages they hear. They focus on whether
the message makes sense, what it means, and if it’s accurate. .They want to seek details and are
good at analyzing an issue from several perspectives. They give weight to the messages of
experts and other credible sources of information. Content-oriented listeners often enjoy ideas
for their own sake and willing to spend time exploring them through exchanges of ideas.
Advantages

This approach is valuable when the goal is to evaluate the quality of ideas and when there is
value at looking at issues from a wide range of perspectives.

It is especially valuable when the topic is a complicated one.

Disadvantages

This approach risks annoying people who don’t have the same sort of analytical orientation.

This approach can take more time than others may be willing to give, and challenge of ideas
that come with it can be perceived as overly critical or even hostile

People-Oriented listening style

These listeners are especially concerned with creating and maintaining positive relationships
with the speaker. They listen to the message in order to learn how the speaker thinks and how
they feel about their message They tune into others’ mood, they respond to the speaker’s
feelings as well as their ideas. People-oriented listeners are typically less judgmental about what
others have to say: They are more interested in understanding and supporting people than in
evaluating them.

Advantage

It is easy to become overly involved with other’s feelings.

Disadvantages

They lose their detachment and ability to assess the quality of information others are giving
in an effort to be friendly and supportive.

Less personally oriented communicators can view them as overly expressive and even
intrusive.

Action-Oriented listening style -Video

Action-oriented listening is also known as task-oriented listening. These listeners are more
concerned about what needs to be done (what the speaker wants). Consequently, they might
have less patience for listening to the reasons behind the task. These listeners are most concern
with the task at hand. Their main concern is to figure out what sort of response is required by
the message. They want to get to the heart of the matter quickly, and so they appreciate clear,
concise messages and often translate others’ remarks into well-organized mental outlines.
Advantage

It is the most appropriate when taking care of business as the primary concern: such
listeners keep focus on the job at hand and encourage others to be organized and
concise.

Disadvantages

Their no-nonsense approach isn’t always appreciated by speakers who lack the skill or
inclination to be clear and direct.

They seem to minimize emotional issues and concerns, which may be an important part of
business and personal transactions.

Time-oriented listening style

People using a time-oriented listening style are most concerned with efficiency and prefer a
message that gets to the point quickly. They view time as a scarce and valuable commodity.
Time-oriented listeners can become impatient with slow delivery or lengthy explanations. These
kind of listeners may be receptive for only a brief amount of time and may become impatient,
rude or hostile if they view the speaker as wasting their time or if the speaker expects a longer
focus of attention. Time-oriented listeners convey their impatience through eye rolling, shifting
about in their seats, checking their cell phones, and other inappropriate behaviors.

Advantage

This approach can be an asset when deadlines and other pressures demand fast action

Disadvantages

This listener can put off others when it seems to disregard their feelings.

Also, an excessive focus on time can hamper the kind of thoughtful deliberation that some
jobs require.

NOTE: Choose a listening style that best suit the situation at hand. When your relationship with
the speaker needs attention, adopt the people-oriented approach. When clarity is the issue, be
an action-oriented listener. If analysis is called for, put on your content-oriented persona. And
when the clock is what matters most, become a model of time-orientation. One can also boost
their effectiveness by assessing their listening preferences of your conversational partners and
adopting your style to them.

LESSON 4 - LISTENING PART 2

Introduction
There are various aspects of listening. In the previous session, we defined listening as a process
of receiving and constructing meaning. We continue by introducing other aspects of listening.

In this lesson; you will watch the TWO videos before you proceed to read the rest of the
materials

Critical listening (evaluative listening)

It involves listening, analyzing, evaluating, questioning and testing information against other
information. It entails:

Careful thinking about what one hears.

Requires a high level of involvement and concentration.

useful when you are required to give your opinion or make decisions.

The SIER model of critical listening

The SIER model of critical listening

The four steps of critical listening:

Sense: Hearing the message

Interpret: Understanding the message

Evaluate: Assess the strengths and weaknesses of messages.

React: Giving feedback

SIER MODEL

Characteristics of a person who is not paying attention

Dozing off in the middle of a talk.

Fiddling and fumbling with things around.

Start talking to the person(s) next to them

Start day-dreaming.

Look outside the window or ceiling.

Have inappropriate sitting posture.

Different listening styles

Active listening strategies

 Have the desire to listen.

Focus on the reason for which you are listening.

Be open minded and willing to learn new ideas.

Postpone judgement.

Be mentally and physically alert.

Be observant to both verbal and no-verbal cues.

Predict and ask questions

Adopt the right sitting posture.

Reduce distractions

10. Be quiet

11. Maintain eye contact with the speaker

12. Have prior information and preparation about the topic before listening to it.

LESSON 5 - SPEAKING

Introduction

Have you ever thought of the way or manner in which you speak?

In this topic, we want to reflect on how we can enhance our speaking to effectively
communicate.

Listen to Audio 1: Speaking & Conversation 3:41 before proceeding to read the rest of the
materials

13. Take short notes of the speaker’s key points.

Elements of speaking skills

Elements of speaking skills

a) Vocabulary,

b) Grammar

c) Pronunciation,
d) Fluency

Importance of public speaking in academic life

Public speaking gives us the ability to devote time and attention to gaining knowledge in
academics.It equips us with the following skills

1) Organizational skills. are the abilities that let you stay focused on different tasks, and use
your time, energy, strength, mental capacity, physical space, etc. effectively and efficiently in
order to achieve the desired outcome. Organizational skills are an important part of composing a
speech. The ability to organize ideas is a skill you will employ before you ever write a speech. The
same is true for writing.

2) Writing skills. refers to the ability to convey one’s thoughts, feelings, information, ideas,
or any message through a well-constructed text .Many of the principles you use to compose
good speeches are the same as those you need to write well. The practice you gain preparing
speeches will improve your ability to express your ideas on paper. You will learn how to get your
audience’s attention, organize clearly and support your ideas or opinions. These aspects will
benefits in writing essay assignments and reports in your job.

3) Critical thinking skills. is the ability to think clearly and rationally, understanding the
logical connection between ideas. Public speaking skills and related listening skills provide
valuable tools for the critical analysis of ideas. By studying the use of supportive materials and
persuasive strategies, critically, you will be able to solve both academic and job related problems
and fulfil your duties as a citizen.

4) Research skills. skills refer to the ability to search for, locate, extract, organize, evaluate
and use or present information that is relevant to a particular topic. Public speaking will
introduce you to a variety of research materials, thus help you develop research skills. These will
be useful to you in a wide range of university and job related activities.

5) Listening skills. is the ability to consciously receive, construct meaning from and respond
to spoken and/or nonverbal communication. Speaking and listening go hand in hand. Whenever
someone gives a speech, there is an audience to listen to it. By learning good speaking
techniques, you will prepare speeches that will be easier for an audience to listen and
understand. You will also learn how to listen to other speakers in order to hear all the key points.
6) Self-confidence. is the feeling of acceptance and trust in one’s skills and abilities The
belief that you can do things well and that other people respect you. Learning the art of public
speaking and how to give a speech in front of a group develops your self-confidence.

SPEECH

Speech Delivery Styles

There are four basic methods of speech delivery:

Manuscript,

Extemporaneous,

Impromptu/Adhoc,

Memorized,

Listen to Audio 1: Speech Delivery 2.50 which introduces manuscript, extemporaneous,

impromptu/ Adhoc, memorized speeches, before proceeding to read the rest of the materials.

Basic methods of speech delivery

1. Manuscript mode

Advantages

One cannot be misquoted since the original text is available.

One cannot forget what to say since everything is written.

One can do thorough research ahead of time to know what to deliver.

You can retain a copy of the speech.

Disadvantages

The speaker can pay more attention to the written speech than to the audience. Hence the
audience may feel left out.

It discourages eye contact with the audience.

It discourages response to the audience’s feedback. It is not interactive.

2. Extemporaneous mode
Advantages

It renders the speech much-needed spontaneity as the speaker can maintain his natural
speaking style.

Enables the speaker to maintain meaningful eye contact with the audience. This is possible
as he does not have to read the whole text. He simply looks at the notes for a point and
by glancing at it and knowing what to say, is able to elaborate on the point. This allows
the speaker to be in touch with the audience all the time as he speaks.

The speaker is able to adapt to the topics or situations for which he has not planned. E.g. If a
related question is asked by the audience.

When speaking extemporaneously, the speaker has all the opportunity to respond to the
cues from the audience and to decide whether to proceed with further explanations on
a given point or not.

Disadvantages

One might forget some of the supporting details.

Digression. Depending on the audience’s responses, one might digress from the main points,
that is, move from the main points.

One can easily be misquoted since most of the examples were not written.

One can go beyond the allocated time.

3. Impromptu mode

Advantages

You can be interactive.

You can respond to the audience.

You can maintain meaningful eye contact.

Disadvantages

You can be nervous since you were not prepared.

You can then stammer and make mistakes.

You might not have enough supporting details.

You can be misquoted.

4. Memorized mode
This entails a speaker writing the whole text of the speech and memorizing it.

Advantages

It allows the speaker enough eye contact with the audience.

You can have enough body movement and gestures.

Disadvantages

Memorized speeches take away from the speaker the freedom and freshness of speech
delivery.

It often lacks emphasis and proper force of impact as the speaker just gives back the text to
the audience verbatim.

It is rigid and does not allow the speaker flexibility to adapt to unexpected situations and
requirements or to change the content according to the reaction of the audience while
delivering his speech.

In case a speaker misses a word, the entire speech can be thrown into disarray and probably
come to a stop.

It transmits a sense of monotony and stifles creativity.

Types of speeches

Types of speeches

There are five different types of public speaking, each with its unique purpose and style. They
are:

1. Ceremonial Speeches

The type of public speaking is typically done for special occasions or events. The ceremonial
speech is usually short and aims to honor or celebrate someone or something. For example, a
keynote speech at graduation would be considered ceremonial. The key elements are:

Brevity: With ceremonial speeches, it is important to be concise and get to the point quickly.
Also, you want to avoid rambling since you likely have limited time.

Personal Touch: The speeches are often more personal. You may share a story or experience
to help drive home your point.

Purpose: The goal of ceremonial speaking is usually to honor someone or something. For
example, you may give a speech at a wedding to congratulate the newlyweds.
 Focused on the Audience: The speeches typically focus on the audience’s needs. For
example, you may give a speech at a retirement party that is light-hearted and funny.

2. Entertainment Speeches

Entertaining speaking is about using your public speaking skills to entertain the audience. This
can involve telling jokes, sharing stories, comedy sketches, poetry reading or even performing a
magic trick. If you’re giving an entertainment speech, your goal is to keep the audience
entertained from start to finish.

To pull off an entertaining speech, you must have a strong stage presence and keep a straight
face even when things aren’t going as planned. You also need to be able to think on your feet
and improvise if necessary. The key considerations should be:

Preparation: Ensure you have plenty of material to work with and know your material inside
out.

Delivery: Be engaging, energetic, and animated.

Content: Ensure your material is appropriate for the audience and keeps them entertained
from start to finish.

Adaptation: If things go off-script, be prepared to improvise and keep the audience

engaged.

Mindfulness: Be aware of your body language and use it to your advantage.

3. Demonstrative Speeches

With demonstrative speaking, the speaker shares a skill or knowledge with the audience to
teach them how to do something. This type of public speaking can be seen in classrooms,
training events, or business settings. The key elements of demonstrative speaking are:

Subject Understanding: Ensure you understand the subject matter inside and out before
trying to teach it to others.

Simplicity: Keep your language and explanations clear and concise.

Visual Aids: Use props, charts, or other visuals to help explain your points.

Organization: Have a well-organized presentation so your audience can follow along easily.

Interaction: Ask questions, get input from the audience, and encourage discussion.

4. Informative Speeches

This type of public speaking is designed to educate the audience about a particular topic by
sharing facts learned through experience, observation, writing, and reading. It involves providing
information interestingly and engagingly. Types of informative presentations are; briefings,
explanations, and training. For example, you might use informative speeches when giving a
speech about the history of your company or explaining how a new product works.

When crafting an informative speech, it’s important to remember that less is more. You don’t
want to overwhelm your audience with too much information. Instead, focus on one key point
and use examples and stories to illustrate your point. Also, you need to:

Facilitate Conversations: Make sure to encourage questions and discussion from the
audience. This will help ensure they are engaged and understand the material better.

Make It Visual: People are more likely to remember information if it is presented visually. So,
use charts, graphs, and other visuals to supplement your speech.

Make It Interesting: No one wants to listen to a boring speech. So, make to add some
elements of suspense, humor, and emotion to keep your audience engaged.

Build Credibility: For your audience to believe what you’re saying, you need to be an expert
on the topic. Do your research and be sure to cite your sources.

5. Persuasive Speeches

This type of public speaking is designed to convince the audience to see your point of view or
take action. Their goal is to persuade, change, create, or reinforce attitudes or behavior.
Persuasive speaking involves crafting a well-reasoned argument and delivering it engagingly.
Types of persuasive speeches include; sales presentations, proposals, motivational speeches,
goodwill speeches (speaking to an audience to promote interest or support for their
organization), political campaigns, negotiations, and conflict management. For example, you
might use persuasive speeches when giving a sales presentation or trying to convince your boss
to give you a raise.

For your ideas to be convincing, you’ll need to do your research. This means understanding your
audience, what they care about, and what objections they might have to your point of view.
You’ll also need to anticipate their questions and have strong evidence to support your claims. To
sound convincing, the following elements are a must:

The tone of Voice: You’ll need to sound confident without being arrogant. Be sincere and
honest about your beliefs.

Body Language: Make sure your body language is open and friendly. Avoid crossing your
arms or tapping your foot, this makes you seem impatient or uninterested.

Facial Expressions: Smile when appropriate and maintain eye contact with your audience
members. Frowning or looking away will make you seem unapproachable or
disinterested.
 Craft Your Plan: To persuade your audience, you’ll need a well-crafted plan. This means
having a strong introduction, clear main points, and a powerful conclusion in your
persuasive speech.

Practice: As with any public speaking situation, practice makes perfect. The more you
rehearse, the more confident you’ll feel when it’s time to take the stage.

Introduction to Reading

Reading means recognizing letters and groups of letters as symbols that stand for particular
sounds. The sounds, in turn, form words that express ideas in written or printed form.

Watch Video 1:The reading process 4:12 and listen to Audio 1: Types of Reading 3:08 before
proceeding to read the rest of the materials.

SQ4R Reading Strategy

SQ4R Reading Strategy

SQ4R is a method that identifies the components of active reading and provides a guide for
navigating among them. SQ4R prompts a reader to survey, question, read, respond, record, and
review material. This method can be used for reading any type of material at any stage of your
research assignment.

Survey

The first step in the SQ4R method of active reading is to survey or scan a resource, keeping in
mind your topic and the purpose. The purpose of surveying is to gain a general sense of the
authors’ ideas and their relationship to the topic.

For this step:

Examine the chapter and section titles, headings and subheadings. For a book, scan the table
of contents.

Read introductions, conclusions, abstracts and chapter summaries. The first sentence of
each paragraph typically provides a framework.

Take note of any bold or italic print.

Observe graphics, diagrams, charts, tables, formulae and boxed inserts.

Surveying materials is an important first step in reading. It can assist you in getting organized by
helping to determine the appropriateness of a resource, but it is a particularly important first
step with texts that you plan to read closely. Surveying provides a framework for understanding
a resource.

Question

As you read your materials, ask yourself questions continuously. Think about the purpose of your
reading and pose questions to help guide you deeper into your reading. The questions you ask
will vary from simple to complex, but it is particularly important to ask questions that will help
you make connections within the reading, connections among different readings and
connections with your topic.

Read

Read to find possible answers to your questions. Reading actively helps you concentrate and stay
engaged.

For each resource:

Break the material into appropriate and manageable sections.

Examine closely the first sentence of every paragraph to gain an idea of what will be
discussed.

Look for the answers to your questions within the text and note any new questions that
arise.

Respond

As you read, you will have a variety of reactions to the text – excitement, confusion, annoyance,
etc. Take these reactions as opportunities for further reflection and questioning.

Ask yourself what, specifically, in the text leads you to react in a particular way. The answer can
assist you in determining the best strategy for deepening your understanding.

Strategies may include:

rereading for further clarification

revisiting and reworking your original questions. It may help to review what questions you
were hoping to answer with the text and where your reading is leading you.

elaborating on both your original questions and those that have emerged while reading

Remember that the process of active reading is recursive and, therefore, you are likely to move
back and forth between “Question” and “Respond” as you read the text.
Record

As you develop your understanding of the text and your responses to it, you will want to keep
track of the ideas that emerge and how they relate to the paper you are writing. Make note of
the relevant ideas from the text and your thoughts about them in your own words.

Some strategies for recording ideas include:

highlighting key passages (only in texts you own)

writing in the margins your reactions to the material and how it relates to your assignment
(only in texts that you own)

making separate notes to capture your own ideas and record relevant passages

using online mechanisms for notating electronic documents

Your notes serve primarily as a summary or synthesis of main ideas, a starting point for
future reference and reflection, and a way back into the reading for key quotes or
concepts. Be sure to note the source, including page numbers of ideas or quotes.

Review

Review your questions and the notes you have made. Compare the information in the text you
have just read with your knowledge of the topic from other readings and/or classes.

When reviewing, pose critical questions such as the following:

What is the evidence or reasoning put forward in support of the claims?

What objections could be raised to the ideas and arguments put forth by the author? Do you
agree or disagree with these arguments, or have alternatives?

What does the author want you to think? What’s left out?

Review the requirements of your assignment and what you have read in order to identify
gaps. If necessary, find more materials relevant to your work.

The importance of SQ4R

It makes reading a conscious effort.

It enables a reader to think constructively along similar lines as the writer.

The prediction or the question formulation stage is both a sign and an aid to understanding.

The stages improve one’s concentration and retention ability.

 Reading is organized into stages and therefore, it takes less time and less effort and it is
more effective.

Common poor reading habits

Poor reading habits cost a reader their valuable time. They make a reader not truly understand
what they are trying to read, leading to miscommunication and misinformation. Listed below are
a variety of bad reading habits.

1. Vocalization (Sounding out)

This is reading aloud, which wastes time and slows down the reading process. Henry Pearson
(1981) has observed that reading aloud takes at least twice as long as reading silently.

2. Sub-vocalization

This is where the reader makes a conscious effort not to move his/her lips but his/her internal
organs, larynx, or vocal codes are mechanically being used. This is the tendency to internally
pronounce the words in your mind.

3. Finger-reading, pointing at the words and head movement

These habits not only affect the rate of reading but also affect comprehension, since they
prevent the reader from grasping full phrases and clauses, therefore hindering him/her from
understanding the ideas expressed fully.

4. Narrow recognition span and poor rhythmic eye movement

Recognition span is the number of words that a reader can recognize while eyes are fixed at one
point. Fixations are the stops that a reader takes, in order to take in a word or a phrase and then
move on to the next. A narrow recognition span wastes time and energy and therefore affects
one’s rate and comprehension. Efficient readers take in several words per fixation, which should
be at least a phrase. Thus, rhythmically, eyes should move systematically from the middle of one
phrase to another.

5. Regression (back-tracking while reading)

This is glancing back and re-reading words, phrases, and sentences that have already been read.
It is a characteristic of either poor reading or lack of concentration. It affects comprehension
because it interrupts the reading process. An efficient reader should move forward at all times.

Definition of writing:
Writing is an expression of language in form of symbols such as letters, words and sentences.
Writing can also be defined as an art that uses characters or signs or symbols in script or impress
or imprint information either using a pen, pencil or typing. The primary purpose of writing is
communication. Writing is a long-life skill that when used clearly can help a person to express
ideas convincingly to others and can determine your success at the university and in professional
life

Importance of writing skills

1. Improves imagination and creativity.

2. Enhances communication skills.

3. Increases knowledge.

4. Improves confidence.

5. Assists in academic success.

6. Serves as a record for future.

7. Helps in getting a job.

8. Improves connection and focus with oneself.

Continue studying the material and learn more on the reasons why we write and tips for good
writing (End of video)

Reasons why we write:

To express ourselves.

Inform the reader.

Persuade a reader.

To create a literary work.

To entertain

To evaluate

To argue

Tips for good writing

Make simple, short & precise sentences that are easy to read & understand.

Stay away from the excessive stuffing of words.

 Avoid the use of jargon while paying attention to grammar & spellings.

Do not use repetitive sentences as it may confuse the reader.

Instead of passive form, always use the active voice of the verb.

Don’t delay in writing instead get it done now.

Review your previous work & examine how you’ve grown up your skills till now.

Brush up on the basic principles of writing skills by starting writing anything roughly.

Try to imitate your favorite writers & authors.

Outline, edit, simplify & improve your writing tasks.

Take your time to analyze what all you’ve read.

Develop your skills & abilities by reading more & more.

Accept your mistakes as first attempts are always wrong.

Join a workshop, meet up, consult adults or else take a writing class.

Write something every day.

Ask your friend to read what you’ve written and also provide you with feedback.

Do good research on the topic you need to write.

Do the practice of writing daily.

ESSAY WRITTING

Introduction:

In the introduction section of the essay, the writer is expected to give the definitions of terms
used in the writing, the areas to be covered in the essay, and the order in which they will be
presented in the essay. Further, the writer should give the scope of the essay, outline the
method to be used, identify the issues involved and state the main school of thought and
indicate the problems and difficulties involved.

The Main Body:

The main body of the essay can take many different forms. It may include the issues in the
outline.

Conclusion:
It is not usual to introduce new information in the conclusion part of the essay. In conclusion
refer back to the title to demonstrate to your reader that you are still dealing with the topic
under discussion. Link your final sentence to the question in the topic.

What to consider when writing:

The topic

The purpose

The audience being addressed.

The writer

The content

The time and length

The medium and genre

The tone and style

The level of the language and clarity

5.0 Plagiarism
Avoid plagiarism. Plagiarism is using the work of others without acknowledging your source of
information or inspiration. It includes using words more or less exactly as they have been used in
articles, books, lectures, TV programs or from other sources, using other people’s ideas or
theories without saying who they are, or paraphrasing what you read or heard without stating
where it came from.

Causes of plagiarism

Willingness of the student to plagiarize- copying published information into a paper without
source attribution for the purpose of claiming the information as their own, or turning in
material written by another student. Such students are guilty of academic misconduct.

Students may fear failure or fear taking risks in their own work.

Students may have poor time management skills or they may plan poorly for the time and
effort required for research-based writing and believe they have no choice but to
plagiarize.
 Students may view the course, the assignment, the conversations of academic
documentation, or the consequence of cheating unimportant.

Lecturers may present students with assignments so generic or not practical that students
may believe that they are justified in looking for documented responses.

Instructors and institutions may fail to report cheating when it occurs, or may not enforce
appropriate penalties

How to Avoid Plagiarism

Write your essay in your own words

Note exactly where you read the information you put in your essay

In your written work, show where your ideas and information came from. You can use APA –
American Psychological Association, where you use the authors’ name, year and page
number

Make clear where you are using a direct quotation

Write a full reference at the end of a researched term paper for any reference you used
inside the term paper

Clarify the task

Collect and record information

Organize and plan

Reflect and evaluate

Write an outline plan

Write your first draft

Write final draft i.e. edit and check your final draft, keep redrafting until you are happy with your
work then write your final reference list.

Citation

A citation is a way of showing that certain information, in a written work, came from another
source

Importance of Citation:

To give readers the information needed to locate sources.

 To give an author credit and acknowledgement for the information provided.

To provide support for your arguments. To demonstrate to readers that you have done some
research (you are not just making these things up).

Knowing the source of information helps fellow students or professors engage in a

conversation with the original author about the validity of sources, or it may point the
way for students to take advantage of information they have not encountered before

Ways to cite

Three ways to cite:

Direct quotation

Paraphrasing

Summarizing

1.) Direct quotation

This is word for word quote. Direct quotes are identical to the original text, using a narrow
segment of the soured. They must match the source document word for word and must be
attributed to the original. You can quote part or all of an author’s sentence; select the part that
is most useful for your purpose. Short direct quotations are quotations with less than 40 words.
Short quotations should have double quotation marks. Long citations more that 40 words do not
use quotation marks. Instead, use block quotation. Show the surname of the author(s), the year
of publication and page in brackets.

Direct quote at the beginning of the sentence: “Taking time to bond with students is the first
step in classroom management” (MacFarlane, 2004, p. 90).

Direct quote in text: Mac Falane (2004) notes that allowing “time to bond with students is
the first step in classroom management” (p. 90).

Only about 10% of the final copy should consist of direct quoted material. Therefore, it is
important to limit the amount of source material copied while taking notes.

2.) Paraphrasing

This involves putting another person’s ideas into your own words; it does not just mean changing
a word or two in the original. It refers to genuinely expressing the author’s point in one’s own
words so there is no need for double quotation marks. A paraphrase must also be attributed to
the original source
Single author: Kimaiyo (2016)

Two authors: Kilonzo and Onkware (2020)

For example: MacFarlane (2004) indicates that smoother organization of a classroom is possible
when teachers take the time to connect with their class (p. 90), although this is not always the
case.

True classroom control can start when a teacher connects with the students (MacFarlane, 2004,
p. 90).

3.) Summarizing

This means putting the main ideas into your own words, including only the main points; they
provide a broad overview of the source’s main concept. It is also important to attribute
summaries to the original source

Conventions in Writing References:

The reference list comes at the end of your work:

Start the reference on a new page

List alphabetically by author’s name

If you use more than one work by same author, and published in the same year, label these
as a, b, c, e.g. 2018a, 2018b, 2018c

Put the information in the following order - author, year, title, location of publisher and
publisher

Use italics for the title of books or journals. Some books show that you can underline the
titles, but in most cases, underlining of titles is used for Modern Language Association
(MLA)

You can use quotation marks for the article in a journal and normal typing but use italics for
the journal.

Include all the resources you actually referred to, including audio visual materials and not
dictionaries.

Don’t include in reference list, the materials that you did not use in your assignment

WRITING CVs & ORGANIZING MEETINGS

WRITING CVs

Curriculum Vitae ( CV)

The CV is the display window of a person’s ability when applying for a job. This topic introduces
the learners on how to write good CV that sell his/her skills to a prospective employer.

HOW TO WRITE A GOOD CV

What is a CV?

Your CV, short for curriculum vitae, is a personal marketing document used to sell yourself to
prospective employers. It should tell them about you, your professional history and your skills,
abilities and achievements. Ultimately, it should highlight why you’re the best person for the job.

A CV is required when applying for a job. In addition to your CV, employers may also require a
cover letter and a completed application form.

Writing a Successful CV. When applying for a new position, your CV will convey an important first
impression to your potential employer...

Personal details. This section should include your name and contact information only.

Personal profile. ...

Work history. ...

Education. ...

Skills. ...

Hobbies/interests. ...

Referees.

Name, professional title and contact details

The first part of your CV, positioned at the top of the page, should contain your name,
professional title and contact details. Under no circumstances should you title your CV with
‘curriculum vitae’ or ‘CV’ as it’s a waste of valuable space. Treat your name as the title instead.

When it comes to your contact details, your email address and phone number(s) are essential.
Include your full address on your CV.
A personal profile, also known as a personal statement, career objective and professional profile,
is one of the most important aspects of your CV. It’s a short paragraph that sits just underneath
your name and contact details giving prospective employers an overview of who you are and
what you’re all about.

You should tailor your profile to every job you apply for

Highlight specific qualities that match you to the role.

Aim to keep your personal statement short and sweet, and no longer than a few sentences.

Answer the following questions:

Who are you?

What can you offer the company?

What are your career goals?

As a general rule, the most important information should be at the top of the first page.
Remember that a recruiter spends a very short amount of time scanning your CV. That means
that on the first half of page you need a high-impact profile, containing the relevant key words
for your industry and sector. Plus, some information about your current (or most relevant) job or
qualification.

Education and Qualifications: The dates you were there, followed by the qualifications and
grades you achieved. Like your experience section, your education should be listed in reverse
chronological order. Include the name of the institutions and If you have recently left education,
you may write your degree, A-levels or GCSEs (or equivalents) like so:

Institution name – Dates attended (from – to)

Qualification/subject – Grade

Institution name

Course/Program

Dates

Grade

WRITING CVs & ORGANIZING MEETINGS

Research project

If you have a degree, you could list a few of the most relevant modules, assignments or projects
underneath.
For professionals that are a little further along in their careers, or have many certificates in their
repertoire, you can lay your qualifications out in this way:

Experience and Employment History

Your employment history section gives you a chance to outline your previous jobs,
internships and work experience.

List your experience in reverse chronological order as your recent role is the most relevant to
the employer. e.g.

2015 to date

2010- 2015

When listing each position of employment:

State your job title,

The employer

The dates you worked and a line that summarises the role.

Then bullet point your key responsibilities, skills and achievements.

It helps to choose the duties most relevant to the job you’re applying for, especially if it’s a long
list. If you have many years’ worth of experience, you can reduce the detail of old or irrelevant
roles. If you have positions from more than 10 years’ ago

mmm yyyy – mmm yyyy

Company Name, Location

Role Title

Outline---------------------------------------------------------------------

Key responsibilities----------------------------------------------------------------------

Key achievements/projects----------------------------------------------------------------------

Additional sections

There is a range of additional sections that may strengthen your CV and highlight your skills.
Here are just a few you can include if you have room:
 Key skills: If you’re writing a functional CV, or have some abilities you want to show off to
the employer immediately, insert a key skills section underneath your personal profile.
You should aim to detail four to five abilities at most.

Hobbies and interests: If you feel that your CV is lacking, you can boost your document by
inserting a hobby and interests’ section at the end. Draw on interests that make you
stand out or are relevant to the job.

Membership to Professional Organizations

AMWIK-Association of Media Women in Kenya

CPA Kenya

EACA-East African Communication Association

PRSK-Public Relations Society of Kenya

Consultancies

References:

Have 2 or 3 referees