UNIT II
FORM DESIGN
It is a design process of the material by forming it in different sizes
and shapes and manufacturing as a product using various manufacturing process it
is known as form design .it is same as the “DESIGN FOR MANUFACTURE”
same process is carried out in form design.
Design for manufacture or 'Manufacturability' or Form design concerns
the cost and difficulty of making the product. At a simple level manufacturability,
design for manufacture (DFM) at a part level, involves detail such as ensuring that
where a pin is to be assembled into a hole that is only slightly larger in diameter, then
it is much easier if the end of the pin or the entry to the hole (or both) are chamfered
or finished with a radius.
This applies whether the assembly is carried out manually or
automatically. This is a fine tuning process carried out once the product form has been
decided. Indeed automatic assembly would be very difficult / expensive if neither
component of a close fitting pair was chamfered. At a more complex level, product
form design tackles the more fundamental problem of deciding on the product
structure and form.
Design for Manufacturability (DFM)
Design for Manufacturability and Concurrent Engineering are like the 2 wings of
an eagle. Together they lift the speed and the accuracy of the product
development process to deliver highly manufacturable and quick to market
products.
Per definition Design for Manufacturability is the approach that designers follow to
concurrently develop the product and the manufacturing process together, while
paying special attention to the selection of the right material that will suit both the
product and the process.
2.1 WORKING PRINCIPLE
1. Reduce the number of parts by combing function, eg snap fasteners
2. Use a robust design
3. Use modular design
4. Design so assembly operations are in 1 direction
5. Design so it is only possible to assemble the components in the correct way
6. Use popular standard / preferred sizes
7. Minimise the use of fasteners
8. Eliminate or simplify adjustments
9. Avoid flexible components
10.Dimensions in each direction should be from 1 datum
11.Avoid sharp corners, use generous fillets and radii
12.Use simultaneous (or concurrent) engineering
13.Do not specify tolerances tighter than necessary
14.Do not specify surface roughness smoother than necessary.
1. Reducing the number of parts frequently reduces the weight of the product
which is advantageous. Eliminating the need for a separate housing or enclosure
can be beneficial. One method that has been successful in many cases is to replace
a fabricated sub - assembly, which may utilize many fasteners, with a single
casting (ref. M2). In some cases this has given weight savings as well as cost
savings.
2. A robust design is one that has been optimised so that variations from the
nominal specification cause a minimum loss of quality. To determine these optimal
values will normally necessitate experimental work on a prototype (ref. M1).
3. The assembly of products made up from 4 to 8 modules with 4 to 12 parts per
module can usually be automated most readily. It is also helpful to maintain a
generic configuration as far as possible into the assembly process and install
specialist modules as late as possible.
4. Assembly from 1 direction is beneficial whether manual or automated assembly
is to be used. Generally assembling top down, along the z axis, like making a
sandwich, is the best solution.
5. Designing so only correct assembly is possible is useful where semi - skilled
labour is used and it is also desirable if there are safety considerations if the
product were to be incorrectly assembled. Manufacturers of mains powered
consumer electrical appliances frequently supply them with a flex having a
moulded on supply plug. This minimises the danger of the consumer incorrectly
wiring a plug and suffering an electric shock.
6. Using standard sizes will reduce costs directly and reduced delivery times will
indirectly give savings. This will also reduce the cost of repairs and maintenance.
7. Fasteners can add significantly to costs, frequently the cost of installation will
greatly exceed purchase cost. If fasteners must be used then minimise the sizes and
types. Small fasteners and parts should be avoided.
8. Mechanical adjustments add to the cost of fabrication and cause assembly, test
and reliability problems. The need for adjustments can often be negated by using
dowel pins, detents, notches or spring mounted components. If a designer
understands why an adjustment has been recommended, a way of eliminating or
reducing the need can often be found.
9. Wiring and other flexible components are difficult to handle during assembly.
The use of rigid or process applied gaskets, circuit boards rather than electric
wiring helps to minimise this problem.
10. Dimensioning from 1 datum simplifies gauging and minimises errors in
tolerances. Dimensions should also be measured from points or surfaces on a
component, not points in space.
11. Using large radii is generally good practice for most processes, casting,
forming etc. as material flow is facilitated - and stress concentration is reduced.
However sharp corners are inevitable with some processes, eg 2 intersecting
machined surfaces and punch face - wall edge in a powdered metal component.
There is no cost advantage in preventing these sharp corners.
12. In simultaneous, or concurrent engineering, personnel from functions other
than design are involved in the design process, including manufacturing specialists.
This enables all aspects of a design to be considered at an early stage.
13. This can be critical, particularly for closer tolerance parts because as tolerances
become tighter, the rise in manufacturing costs is increasingly steep.
14 As for 13, The costs of generating smoother surfaces rise steeply.
MATERIAL FORM
Metals come in all forms. In the case of aluminum as an example, bar
stock and plate are the two most common forms from which machined parts are
made. The size and shape of the component may determine which form of material
must be used. It is common for engineering drawings to specify one form over the
other. Bar stock is generally close to 1/2 of the cost of plate on a per pound basis.
So although the material form isn't directly related to the geometry of the
component, cost can be removed at the design stage by specifying the least
expensive form of the material.
2.5 INFLUENCE OF MATERIALS ON FORM DESIGN
Factors may affect the manufacturability such as the type of raw
material, the form of the raw material, dimensional tolerances, and secondary
processing such as finishing.
MATERIAL TYPE
The most easily machined types of metals include aluminum, brass,
magnesium, and softer metals. As materials get harder, denser and stronger, such
as steel, stainless steel, titanium, and exotic alloys, they become much harder to
machine and take much longer, thus being less manufacturable. Most types of
plastic are easy to machine, although additions of fiberglass or carbon fiber can
reduce the machinability. Plastics that are particularly soft and gummy may have
machinability problems of their own.
MATERIAL FORM
Metals come in all forms. In the case of aluminum as an example, bar
stock and plate are the two most common forms from which machined parts are
made. The size and shape of the component may determine which form of material
must be used. It is common for engineering drawings to specify one form over the
other. Bar stock is generally close to 1/2 of the cost of plate on a per pound basis.
So although the material form isn't directly related to the geometry of the
component, cost can be removed at the design stage by specifying the least
expensive form of the material.
DIMENSIONAL TOLERANCES
A significant contributing factor to the cost of a machined component
is the geometric tolerance to which the features must be made. The higher the
tolerance required, the more expensive the component will be to machine. When
designing, specify the lowest tolerance that will serve the function of the
component. Tolerances must be specified on a feature by feature basis. There are
creative ways to engineer components with lower tolerances that still perform as
well as ones with higher tolerances.
DESIGN AND SHAPE
As machining is a subtractive process, the time to remove the material
is a major factor in determining the machining cost. The volume and shape of the
material to be removed as well as how fast the tools can be fed will determine the
machining time. When using milling cutters, the strength and stiffness of the tool
which is determined in part by the length to diameter ratio of the tool will play the
largest role in determining that speed. The shorter the tool is relative to its diameter
the faster it can be fed through the material. A ratio of 3:1 (L:D) or under is
optimum. If that ratio cannot be achieved, a solution like this depicted here can be
used. For holes, the length to diameter ratio of the tools are less critical, but should
still be kept under 10:1.
There are many other types of features which are more or less expensive to
machine. Generally chamfers cost less to machine than radii on outer horizontal
edges. Undercuts are more expensive to machine. Features that require smaller
tools, regardless of L:D ratio, are more expensive.
FINISHING PROCESSES produce the final appearance and feel of a product by
processes such as coating, painting, or polishing. This processes should be done
under standard parameters .
OTHER BASIC FACTORS
➢ Materials: materials typically used with the process
➢ Process variations: common variants of the basic process
➢ Economic factors: cycle time, minimum production quantity, material
utilization,tooling costs, labor costs, lead times, energy costs, equipment
costs
➢ Typical applications: examples of parts commonly made with this process
➢ Design aspects: general information on shape complexity, size range,
minimumthickness, draft angles, undercuts, and limitations on other features
➢ Quality issues: describes defects to watch out for, expected range of surface
finish,and process capability charts showing dimensional tolerances as a
function of dimension.
FORM DESIGN OF WELDED MEMBERS
DESIGN FOR WELDING
Welding is the most prominent process for joining large components into
complex assemblies or structures. It is an important area of the wider topic of
joining parts into assemblies.
JOINING PROCESSES
Technology has created a myriad of joining processes, Fig. 13.38. They
can be conveniently divided into permanent and nonpermanent joints.
Nonpermanent joints are used when the assembly must be taken apart for
maintenance, repair, or recycling. Bolts and screws 59 and snap fits 60 (especially
in plastic parts) are most common.
Other nonpermanent joining methods are shrink and press fits, snap
rings, pins, and various types of mechanical quick-release mechanisms like clamps
and clips.
Permanent mechanical joining methods include riveting, stitching, and
stapling of thin materials, and seams produced in sheet metal by making tight
bends. Sometimes a sealer such as polymer or solder is used to make the seam
impermeable.
The majority of processes for making permanent joints involve melting,
either the melting (fusion) of two metals at a joint (welding) or the addition of a
molten material at a temperature where the metals at the joint have not melted
(brazing. soldering, and adhesive bonding).
An extensive PRIMA selection matrix and data sheets have been
developed forjoining processes. 61
WELDING PROCESSES
SOLID-STATE WELDING
In solid-state welding, welding is carried out without melting either of the
materialsto be joined. The oldest welding process is the solid-state method called
forgewelding .
It is the technique used by the blacksmith in which two pieces of steel or
iron
are heated and forged together under point contact. Slag and oxides are squeezed
out, and interatomic bonding of the metal results. In the modern version of forge
welding, steel pipe is produced by forming sheet into a cylinder and welding the
edges together by forge-seam welding in which either the sheet is pulled through a
conical die or the hot strip is passed between shaped rolls.
As the name implies, cold-welding processes are carried out at room
temperature without any external heating of the metal. The surfaces must be very
clean, and the local pressure must be high enough to produce substantial cold-
working. The harmful effect of interface films is minimized when there is
considerable relative movement of the surfaces to be joined. The movement is
achieved by passing the metal through a rolling mill or subjecting the interface to
tangential ultrasonic vibration. In explosive bonding there is very high pressure
and extensive vorticity at the interfaces.
Diffusionbonding takes place at a temperature high enough for diffusion
to occur readilyacross the bond zone. Hot roll bonding is a combination of
diffusion bonding and rollbonding.
Friction welding (inertia welding) utilizes the frictional heat generated
when two bodies slide over each other.
Flow chart shows the classification of joining process
In the usual way of doing friction welding, one part is held fixed and the
other part (usually a shaft or cylinder) is rotated rapidly and, at the same time,
forced axially against the stationary part.
The friction quickly heats the abutting surfaces and, as soon as the proper
temperature is reached, the rotation is stopped and the pressure is maintained until
the weld is complete. The impurities are squeezed out into a fl ash, but essentially
no melting takes place. The heated zone is very narrow, and therefore dissimilar
metals are easily joined.
LIQUID-STATE WELDING (FUSION WELDING)
In the majority of welding processes a bond between the two materials is
produced by melting, usually with the addition of a fi ller metal. In welding, the
workpiece materials and the fi ller material in the joint have similar compositions
and melting points.
By contrast, in soldering and brazing, the fi ller material has a much
different composition that is selected to have a lower melting point than the
workpiece materials.
Resistance welding utilizes the heat generated at the interface between
two metal
parts when a high current is passed through the parts. Spot welding is used
extensively to join metal sheets by melting them at discrete points (spots) under
pressure from the electrodes. Rather than produce a series of spots, an electrode in
the form of a roller often is used to produce a seam weld. If the part to be welded
contains small embossed projections, they are easily softened under the electrode
and pushed back to produce the weld nugget.
Heat for welding comes from chemical sources or high-energy beams.
Gas welding, especially the reaction between oxygen and acetylene to produce an
intense flame, has been used for many years. Thermite welding uses the reaction
between Fe 2 O 3 and Al, which produces Fe and an intense heat. The process is
used to weld heavy sections such as rails. Energy from a laser beam is used to
produce welds in sheet metal.
Its advantage over an electron beam is that a vacuum is not required.
Each form of energy is limited in power, but it can be carefully controlled. Laser
beam and electron beam welding lend themselves to welding thin gauges of
hardened or high- temperature
materials.
The thermal energy produced from an electric arc has been utilized
extensively in welding. Most electric arc welding is done with an arc struck
between a consumable electrode (the filler or weld rod) and the workpiece. A
coating is applied to the outside surface of the metal electrode to provide a
protective atmosphere around the weld pool. The electrode coating also acts as a
flux to remove impurities from the molten metal and as an ionizing agent to help
stabilize the arc. This is the commonly used shielded metal arc process . Since the
electrode coating is brittle, only straight stick electrodes can be used. That restricts
the process to a slow hand operation.
If the flux coating is placed inside a long tube, the electrode can be
coiled, and then the shielded arc process can be made continuous and automatic. In
the submerged arc process the consumable electrode is a bare fi ller wire, and the
flux is supplied from a separatehopper in a thick layer that covers the arc and the
weld pool.
In the electroslag process the electrode wire is fed into a pool of molten
slag that sits on top of the molten weld pool. Metal transfer is from the electrode to
the weld pool through the molten slag.
This process is used for welding thick plates and can be automated. In
the gas metal arc (MIG) process the consumable metal electrode is shielded by an
inert gas such as argon or helium. Because there is no fl ux coating, there is no
need to remove the slag deposit from the weld bead after each pass.
In nonconsumable electrode welding an inert tungsten electrode is used.
Depending on the weld design, a fi ller rod may be required. In gas tungsten arc
welding (TIG welding), argon or helium is used. The process produces high-
quality welds in almost any material, especially in thinner-gauge sheet. The two
most common welding methods are the metal arc process for welding large
structures like ships, pipelines, and bridges, and TIG welding for smaller machine
structures and thin sheet.
LIQUID-SOLID-STATE WELDING
In this class of welding processes the temperature generated is not high
enough to melt the metals to be joined. Brazing uses low-melting-point alloys of
copper, gold, or silver to bond steel, cast iron, and aluminum alloys. Low-melting-
point solders are used in joining copper and aluminum wires and in joining
electronic components in printed circuit boards. To create a good bond in either
brazing or soldering, a flux must be added to clean oxide films from the metal
surfaces, prevent further oxidation during heating, and assist in the wetting of the
metal surfaces.
The materials used in brazing and soldering are much weaker than the
base metals they join. They can only create a strong bond if there is excellent
bonding of the filler metal with the base metal, and if the joint thickness is the
proper amount. To achieve good bonding, the base metal must be free of oxides
and organics, and the filler metal must completely wet the base metal surfaces.
Since filler metal is inherently weaker than the
base metal, it gets its strength from the constraint imposed by the thicker and
stronger base metal plates.
If the filler layer is too thick, the filler metal properties will control and
the joint strength will be weak. If the filler layer is too thin, then there may be
difficulty drawing in the liquid by capillary action. Typically the optimum joint
thickness is about 5 to 10 mm.
Adhesive bonding uses a liquid polymer as the filler material. It can be
used to join plastics, metals, or ceramics in applications where the stresses are
rather low.
Adhesive bonding depends solely on adhesion forces to provide the bond.
Thus, the surfaces must be very clean, although some surface roughness can be
advantageous
to increase the surface area. The adhesive must completely wet the surface to give
complete coverage, and as with soldering and brazing, the joint gap must be small
and well controlled. The technology of adhesive bonding has advanced rapidly and
today is used to bond surfaces in aircraft and automotive products.
WELDING DESIGN
To design a weldment, consideration must be given to the
selection of materials, the joint design, the selection of the welding process, and
the stresses that must be resisted by the design. The welding process subjects the
workpiece at the joint to a temperature that exceeds the melting point of the
material. Heat is applied locally andrapidly to create a miniature casting in the
weld pool. Often successive weld passesare laid down. The base metal next to the
weld bead, the heat-affected zone (HAZ),is subjected to rapid heating and cooling,
so the original microstructure and properties of the base metal are changed, Fig.
13.39. The fi gure shows coarse columnar grains characteristic of a casting in the
weld joint. Into the base metal the elongated
Fig shows the sketch of the grain structure in the section through an electrical arc
welding in rolled metal plates.
cold-worked grains have re-crystallized and formed a large grain size near the
original joint boundary, falling off in grain size throughout the region of the HAZ
because of the difference in temperature and time that they have seen.
Considerable opportunity for defects exists unless the welding process is properly
carried out.
MATERIAL BEHAVIOR AND SELECTION
Since fusion welding is a melting process, controls appropriate to
producing quality castings must be applied. Reactions with the atmosphere are
prevented by sealing
off the molten pool with an inert gas or a slag or by carrying out the welding in a
vacuum chamber. The surfaces of the weld joint should be cleaned of scale or
grease before welding is undertaken. The thermal expansion of the weld structure
upon heating, followed by solidification shrinkage, can lead to high internal tensile
stresses that can produce cracking and/or distortion. Rapid cooling of alloy steels
in welding can result in brittle martensite formation and consequent crack
problems.
As a result, it is common to limit welding to carbon steels with less than
0.3 percent carbon or to alloy steels in which the carbon equivalent 63 is less than
0.3 percent carbon.
When steels with 0.3 to 0.6 percent carbon must be used because their
high strength is required, welding without martensite cracking can be performed if
the weld joint is preheated before welding and postheated after the weld bead has
been deposited.
These thermal treatments decrease the rate of cooling of the weld and
heat-affectedzone, and they reduce the likelihood of martensite formation.
Material selection for welding involves choosing a material with high
weldability. Weldability, like machinability, is a complex technological property
that combines many more basic properties. The melting point of the material,
together with the specific heat and latent heat of fusion, will determine the heat
input necessary to produce fusion. A high thermal conductivity allows the heat to
dissipate and therefore requires a higher rate of heat input. Metals with higher
thermal conductivity result in more rapid cooling and more problems with weld
cracking.
Greater distortion results from a high thermal expansion, with higher
residual stresses and greater danger of weld cracking. There is no absolute rating of
weldability of metals because different
Fig shows basic weld type joints
welding processes impose a variety of conditions that can affect the way a material
responds.
WELD JOINT DESIGN
The basic types of welded joints are shown in Fig. 13.40. Many
variations of these basic designs are possible, depending on the type of edge
preparation that is used. A square-edged butt joint requires a minimum of edge
preparation. However, an important parameter in controlling weld cracking is the
ratio of the width of the weld bead to the depth of the weld.
It should be close to unity. Since narrow joints with deep weld pools
are susceptible to cracking, the most economical solution is to spend money
shaping the edges of the plate to produce a joint design with a more acceptable
width-to-depth ratio. Ideally, a butt weld should be a full-penetration weld that fills
the joint completely throughout its depth. When the gap in a butt joint is wide, a
backings trip is used at the bottom of the joint. Fillet welds are the welds most
commonly used in structural design. They are inherently weaker than full-
penetration butt welds.
A fillet weld fails in shear. The design of welded
structures calls for specialized expertise that is discussed in machine design texts
and books on welding design.
DISTORTION IN WELDING
Distortion is ever-present in welding since it involves the rapid
application of heat
to a localized area, followed by the rapid removal of the heat. One of the best ways
to eliminate welding distortion is to design the welding sequence with thermal
distortion in mind. If, because of the geometry, distortion cannot be avoided, then
the forces that produce the shrinkage distortion should be balanced with other
forces provided by fixtures and clamps. Shrinkage forces can also be removed after
welding by post welding annealing and stress-relief operations. Distortion can be
minimized by specifying in the design only the amount of weld metal that is
absolutely required. Over-welding adds not only to the shrinkage forces but also to
the costs.
DFM GUIDELINES FOR WELDING
The following are some general considerations applicable in designing a
weldedpart.
➢ Welded designs should reflect the flexibility and economy inherent in the
welding process. Do not copy designs based on casting or forging.
➢ In the design of welded joints, provide for straight force flowlines. Avoid the
useof welded straps, laps, and stiffeners except as required for strength. Use
the minimum number of welds.
➢ Weld together parts of equal thickness whenever possible.
➢ Locate the welds at areas in the design where stresses and/or deflections are
least critical.
➢ Carefully consider the sequence with which parts should be welded together
and include that information as part of the engineering drawing.
➢ Make sure that the welder or welding machine (for automatic welding) has
unobstructed access to the joint so that a quality weld can be produced.
Whenever possible, the design should provide for welding in the fl at or
horizontal position, not overhead.
COST OF JOINING
We can adapt the cost of manufacture model presented to cover the
cost of joining parts. The cost of joining per unit assembly or subassembly, C join ,
is given by
2.8 FORM DESIGN CASTINGS
Fig shows the classification of casting process
Fig shows the shrinkage details to minimize shrinkage cavity formation
