Hydrogen

216 languages
 Article
 Talk
 Read
 View source
 View history

Tools


















Appearance
hide
Text


 Small

Standard

Large
Width

Standard

Wide
Color (beta)

Automatic

Light
 Dark
Report an issue with dark mode

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

This article is about the chemical element. For other uses, see Hydrogen
(disambiguation).

Hydrogen, 1H

Purple glow in its plasma state

Hydrogen

Appearance Colorless gas

Standard atomic weight Ar°(H)

[1.00784, 1.00811][1]
1.0080±0.0002 (abridged)
[2]

Hydrogen in the periodic table

H
y
dr
o
g
e
n
Li B
th er
iu yll
m iu
m
S M
odag
iu ne
m si
u
m
P C Sc Tit V Ch
ot al an ani anro
as ci di um admi
si u u iu u
u m m mm
m
R St Yt Zir N M
ubro tri co io ol
id nti u niu bi yb
iu u m m u de
mm m nu
m
C B L C Pr N Pr S E G T D H E Th Y LuHa T Tu
ae arian er ase eo o a ur ad er ys ol rb uli tt tet fni anng
si u th iu od dy m m op olibi pr mi iu u er iu um ta ste
u m an m ym mi et ar iu ni u os u m m bi m lu n
m u iu u hi iu m u m iu m u m
m m mu m m m m
m

Fr R A T Pr Ur N Pl A C B C Ei F M N La Ru D Se
an ad cti h ota an ep ut m ur er ali ns er en o wr the u ab
ci iu ni o cti iu tu o er iu ke fo tei m delbeen rfo b or
u m u ri niu m ni ni ici m li rn ni iu evili ci rdi ni gi
m mum u u u u iu u m u u u um u u
m m mm mm m m mm mm
(none) ← hydrogen → helium

Atomic number (Z) 1

Group group 1: hydrogen
 and alkali metals
Period period 1
Block s-block
Electron 1s1
configuration
Electrons per shell 1
Physical properties
Phase at STP gas
Melting point (H2) 13.99 K (−259.16 °C,
−434.49 °F)
Boiling point (H2) 20.271 K
(−252.879 °C,
−423.182 °F)
Density (at STP) 0.08988 g/L
when liquid (at m.p.) 0.07 g/cm3 (solid: 0.0763 g
/cm3)[3]
when liquid (at b.p.) 0.07099 g/cm3
Triple point 13.8033 K, 7.041 kPa
Critical point 32.938 K, 1.2858 MPa
Heat of fusion (H2) 0.117 kJ/mol
Heat of vaporization (H2) 0.904 kJ/mol
Molar heat capacity (H2) 28.836 J/(mol·K)
Vapor pressure
P (Pa) 1 10 10 1k 10 100 k
0 k
at T (K 15 20
)

Atomic properties
Oxidation states −1,
0, +1 (an amphoteric oxid
e)
Electronegativity Pauling scale: 2.20
Ionization energies 1st: 1312.0 kJ/mol

Covalent radius 31±5 pm

Van der Waals radius 120 pm

Spectral
lines of hydrogen
Other properties
Natural occurrence primordial
Crystal structure hexagonal (hP4)
Lattice constants

a = 378.97 pm
c = 618.31 pm
(at triple point)[4]
Thermal conductivity 0.1805 W/(m⋅K)
Magnetic ordering diamagnetic[5]
Molar magnetic −3.98×10−6 cm3/mol
susceptibility (298 K)[6]
Speed of sound 1310 m/s (gas, 27 °C)
CAS Number 12385-13-6
1333-74-0 (H2)
History
Discovery Henry Cavendish[7]
[8]
(1766)
Named by Louis-Bernard Guyton de
Morveau
Antoine Lavoisier[9]
[10]
(1787)
Isotopes of hydrogen
  v
 e
Main isotopes Decay
abundance half-life (t1/2) mode product
1
H 99.9855% stable
2
H 0.0145% stable
3
H trace 12.32 y β− 3
He

Category: Hydrogen
 view
 talk
 edit
| references

Hydrogen is a chemical element; it has symbol H and atomic number 1. It

is the lightest element and, at standard conditions, is a gas of diatomic
molecules with the formula H2, sometimes called dihydrogen,[11] but more
commonly called hydrogen gas, molecular hydrogen or simply hydrogen.
It is colorless, odorless, tasteless,[12] non-toxic, and highly combustible.
Constituting approximately 75% of all normal matter, hydrogen is the most
abundant chemical substance in the universe.[13][note 1] Stars, including
the Sun, primarily consist of hydrogen in a plasma state, while on Earth,
hydrogen is found in water, organic compounds, as dihydrogen, and in
other molecular forms. The most common isotope of hydrogen (symbol 1H)
consists of one proton, one electron, and no neutrons.

In the early universe, the formation of hydrogen's protons occurred during

the first second following the Big Bang, with neutral hydrogen atoms only
forming approximately 370,000 years later during the recombination
epoch as the universe cooled and plasma had cooled enough for electrons
to remain bound to protons.[14] Hydrogen, typically nonmetallic except
under extreme pressures, readily forms covalent bonds with most
nonmetals, contributing to the formation of compounds like water and
various organic substances. Its role is crucial in acid-base reactions, which
predominantly involve proton exchange among soluble molecules. In ionic
compounds, hydrogen can take the form of either a negatively
charged anion, where it is known as hydride, or as a positively
charged cation denoted by the symbol H+. The cation, simply a proton
(symbol p), exhibits specific behavior in aqueous solutions and in ionic
compounds involves screening of its electric charge by
surrounding polar molecules or anions. Hydrogen's unique position as the
only neutral atom for which the Schrödinger equation can be directly solved
has significantly contributed to the foundational principles of quantum
mechanics through the exploration of its energetics and chemical bonding.
[15]

Historically, hydrogen gas was first produced artificially in the early 16th
century through the reaction of acids with metals. Henry Cavendish,
between 1766 and 1781, identified hydrogen gas as a distinct
substance[16] and discovered its property of producing water when burned—
hence its name derived from the Greek "water-former".

The majority of hydrogen production occurs through steam

reforming of natural gas, with a smaller portion derived from energy-
intensive methods such as the electrolysis of water.[17][18] Its primary
industrial uses include fossil fuel processing, such as hydrocracking,
and ammonia production, with emerging applications in fuel cells for
electricity generation and as a heat source.[19] When used in fuel cells,
hydrogen's only emission at the point of use is water vapor,[19] though
combustion can produce nitrogen oxides.[19] Hydrogen's interaction with
metals may cause embrittlement.[20]

Properties
Combustion
Combustion of hydrogen with the oxygen in the air. When the bottom cap is
removed, allowing air to enter at the bottom, the hydrogen in the container
rises out of top and burns as it mixes with the air.

The Space Shuttle Main Engine burning

hydrogen with oxygen, produces a nearly invisible flame at full thrust.
Hydrogen gas is highly flammable:

2 H2(g) + O2(g) → 2 H2O(l) (572 kJ/2 mol = 286 kJ/mol = 141.865

MJ/kg)[note 2]
The enthalpy of combustion is −286 kJ/mol.[21]

Hydrogen gas forms explosive mixtures with air in concentrations from

4–74%[22] and with chlorine at 5–95%. The hydrogen autoignition
temperature, the temperature of spontaneous ignition in air, is 500 °C
(932 °F).[23]
Flame
Pure hydrogen-oxygen flames emit ultraviolet light and with high oxygen
mix are nearly invisible to the naked eye, as illustrated by the faint
plume of the Space Shuttle Main Engine, compared to the highly visible
plume of a Space Shuttle Solid Rocket Booster, which uses
an ammonium perchlorate composite. The detection of a burning
hydrogen leak may require a flame detector; such leaks can be very
dangerous. Hydrogen flames in other conditions are blue, resembling
blue natural gas flames.[24] The destruction of
the Hindenburg airship was a notorious example of hydrogen
combustion and the cause is still debated. The visible flames in the
photographs were the result of carbon compounds in the airship skin
burning.[25]
Reactants
H2 is unreactive compared to diatomic elements such as halogens or
oxygen. The thermodynamic basis of this low reactivity is the very
strong H–H bond, with a bond dissociation energy of 435.7 kJ/mol.
[26]
The kinetic basis of the low reactivity is the nonpolar nature of H2 and
its weak polarizability. It spontaneously reacts
with chlorine and fluorine to form hydrogen chloride and hydrogen
fluoride, respectively.[27] The reactivity of H2 is strongly affected by the
presence of metal catalysts. Thus, while mixtures of H2 with O2 or air
combust readily when heated to at least 500 °C by a spark or flame,
they do not react at room temperature in the absence of a catalyst.
Electron energy levels
Main article: Hydrogen atom
 A depiction of a hydrogen atom with size of
central proton shown, and the atomic diameter shown as about twice
the Bohr model radius (image not to scale)
The ground state energy level of the electron in a hydrogen atom is
−13.6 eV,[28] which is equivalent to an ultraviolet photon of roughly
91 nm wavelength.[29]

The energy levels of hydrogen can be calculated fairly accurately using

the Bohr model of the atom, which conceptualizes the electron as
"orbiting" the proton in analogy to the Earth's orbit of the Sun. However,
the atomic electron and proton are held together by electromagnetic
force, while planets and celestial objects are held by gravity. Because of
the discretization of angular momentum postulated in early quantum
mechanics by Bohr, the electron in the Bohr model can only occupy
certain allowed distances from the proton, and therefore only certain
allowed energies.[30]

A more accurate description of the hydrogen atom comes from a

quantum mechanical analysis that uses the Schrödinger equation, Dirac
equation or Feynman path integral formulation to calculate
the probability density of the electron around the proton.[31] The most
complex formulas include the small effects of special
relativity and vacuum polarization. In the quantum mechanical
treatment, the electron in a ground state hydrogen atom has no angular
momentum—illustrating how the "planetary orbit" differs from electron
motion.
Spin isomers
Main article: Spin isomers of hydrogen
Molecular H2 exists as two spin isomers, i.e. compounds that differ only
in the spin states of their nuclei.[32] In the orthohydrogen form, the spins
of the two nuclei are parallel, forming a spin triplet state having a total

molecular spin ; in the parahydrogen form the spins are

antiparallel and form a spin singlet state having spin . The

equilibrium ratio of ortho- to para-hydrogen depends on temperature. At
room temperature or warmer, equilibrium hydrogen gas contains about
25% of the para form and 75% of the ortho form.[33] The ortho form is
an excited state, having higher energy than the para form by
1.455 kJ/mol,[34] and it converts to the para form over the course of
several minutes when cooled to low temperature.[35] The thermal
properties of the forms differ because they differ in their
allowed rotational quantum states, resulting in different thermal
properties such as the heat capacity.[36]

The ortho-to-para ratio in H2 is an important consideration in

the liquefaction and storage of liquid hydrogen: the conversion from
ortho to para is exothermic and produces enough heat to evaporate
most of the liquid if not converted first to parahydrogen during the
cooling process.[37] Catalysts for the ortho-para interconversion, such
as ferric oxide and activated carbon compounds, are used during
hydrogen cooling to avoid this loss of liquid.[38]
Phases
See also: Slush hydrogen
 Hydrogen gas is colorless and transparent,

here contained in a glass ampoule. Phase

diagram of hydrogen. The temperature and pressure scales
are logarithmic, so one unit corresponds to a 10× change. The left edge
corresponds to 105 Pa, which is about atmospheric pressure.[image reference needed]

 Gaseous hydrogen
 Liquid hydrogen
 Solid hydrogen
 Metallic hydrogen
 Plasma hydrogen
Compounds
Main article: Hydrogen compounds
Covalent and organic compounds
While H2 is not very reactive under standard conditions, it does form
compounds with most elements. Hydrogen can form compounds with
elements that are more electronegative, such as halogens (F, Cl, Br, I),
or oxygen; in these compounds hydrogen takes on a partial positive
charge.[39] When bonded to a more electronegative element,
particularly fluorine, oxygen, or nitrogen, hydrogen can participate in a
form of medium-strength noncovalent bonding with another
electronegative element with a lone pair, a phenomenon
called hydrogen bonding that is critical to the stability of many biological
molecules.[40][41] Hydrogen also forms compounds with less
electronegative elements, such as metals and metalloids, where it takes
on a partial negative charge. These compounds are often known
as hydrides.[42]

Hydrogen forms many compounds with carbon called the hydrocarbons,

and an even more with heteroatoms that, because of their association
with living things, are called organic compounds.[43] The study of their
properties is known as organic chemistry[44] and their study in the context
of living organisms is called biochemistry.[45] By some definitions,
"organic" compounds are only required to contain carbon. However,
most of them also contain hydrogen, and because it is the carbon-
hydrogen bond that gives this class of compounds most of its particular
chemical characteristics, carbon-hydrogen bonds are required in some
definitions of the word "organic" in chemistry.[43] Millions
of hydrocarbons are known, and they are usually formed by complicated
pathways that seldom involve elemental hydrogen.

Hydrogen is highly soluble in many rare earth and transition

metals[46] and is soluble in both nanocrystalline and amorphous metals.
[47]
Hydrogen solubility in metals is influenced by local distortions or
impurities in the crystal lattice.[48] These properties may be useful when
hydrogen is purified by passage through hot palladium disks, but the
gas's high solubility is a metallurgical problem, contributing to
the embrittlement of many metals,[20] complicating the design of pipelines
and storage tanks.[49]
Hydrides
Main article: Hydride

A sample of sodium hydride

Compounds of hydrogen are often called hydrides, a term that is used
fairly loosely. The term "hydride" suggests that the H atom has acquired
a negative or anionic character, denoted H−, and is used when hydrogen
forms a compound with a more electropositive element. The existence
of the hydride anion, suggested by Gilbert N. Lewis in 1916 for group 1
and 2 salt-like hydrides, was demonstrated by Moers in 1920 by the
electrolysis of molten lithium hydride (LiH), producing
a stoichiometric quantity of hydrogen at the anode.[50] For hydrides other
than group 1 and 2 metals, the term is quite misleading, considering the
low electronegativity of hydrogen. An exception in group 2 hydrides
is BeH2, which is polymeric. In lithium aluminium hydride,
the [AlH4]− anion carries hydridic centers firmly attached to the Al(III).

Although hydrides can be formed with almost all main-group elements,

the number and combination of possible compounds varies widely; for
example, more than 100 binary borane hydrides are known, but only
one binary aluminium hydride.[51] Binary indium hydride has not yet been
identified, although larger complexes exist.[52]

In inorganic chemistry, hydrides can also serve as bridging ligands that

link two metal centers in a coordination complex. This function is
particularly common in group 13 elements, especially
in boranes (boron hydrides) and aluminium complexes, as well as in
clustered carboranes.[53]
Protons and acids
Further information: Acid–base reaction
Oxidation of hydrogen removes its electron and gives H+, which contains
no electrons and a nucleus which is usually composed of one proton.
That is why H+ is often called a proton. This species is central to
discussion of acids. Under the Brønsted–Lowry acid–base theory, acids
are proton donors, while bases are proton acceptors.

A bare proton, H+, cannot exist in solution or in ionic crystals because of

its strong attraction to other atoms or molecules with electrons. Except
at the high temperatures associated with plasmas, such protons cannot
be removed from the electron clouds of atoms and molecules, and will
remain attached to them. However, the term 'proton' is sometimes used
loosely and metaphorically to refer to positively charged
or cationic hydrogen attached to other species in this fashion, and as
such is denoted "H+" without any implication that any single protons exist
freely as a species.

To avoid the implication of the naked "solvated proton" in solution, acidic

aqueous solutions are sometimes considered to contain a less unlikely
fictitious species, termed the "hydronium ion" ([H3O]+). However, even in
this case, such solvated hydrogen cations are more realistically
conceived as being organized into clusters that form species closer
to [H9O4]+.[54] Other oxonium ions are found when water is in acidic
solution with other solvents.[55]

Although exotic on Earth, one of the most common ions in the universe
is the H+3 ion, known as protonated molecular hydrogen or the
trihydrogen cation.[56]
Isotopes
Main article: Isotopes of hydrogen

The three naturally-occurring isotopes of

hydrogen: Hydrogen-1, Hydrogen-2 (deuterium), and Hydrogen-3

(tritium) Hydrogen discharge (spectrum) tube

Deuterium discharge (spectrum) tube

Hydrogen has three naturally occurring isotopes, denoted 1
H, 2
H and 3
H. Other, highly unstable nuclei (4
H to 7
H) have been synthesized in the laboratory but not observed in nature.[57]
[58]

1

H is the most common hydrogen isotope, with an abundance of more
than 99.98%. Because the nucleus of this isotope consists of only a
single proton, it is given the descriptive but rarely used formal
name protium.[59] It is unique among all stable isotopes in having no
neutrons; see diproton for a discussion of why others do not exist.
2

H, the other stable hydrogen isotope, is known as deuterium and
 contains one proton and one neutron in the nucleus. Nearly all
deuterium in the universe is thought to have been produced at the
time of the Big Bang, and has endured since that time. Deuterium is
not radioactive, and does not represent a significant toxicity hazard.
Water enriched in molecules that include deuterium instead of normal
hydrogen is called heavy water. Deuterium and its compounds are
used as a non-radioactive label in chemical experiments and in
solvents for 1
H-NMR spectroscopy.[60] Heavy water is used as a neutron
moderator and coolant for nuclear reactors. Deuterium is also a
potential fuel for commercial nuclear fusion.[61]
3

H is known as tritium and contains one proton and two neutrons in its
nucleus. It is radioactive, decaying into helium-3 through beta
decay with a half-life of 12.32 years.[53] It is radioactive enough to be
used in luminous paint to enhance the visibility of data displays, such
as for painting the hands and dial-markers of watches. The watch
glass prevents the small amount of radiation from escaping the case.
[62]
Small amounts of tritium are produced naturally by cosmic rays
striking atmospheric gases; tritium has also been released
during nuclear weapons tests.[63] It is used in nuclear fusion reactions,
[64]
as a tracer in isotope geochemistry,[65] and in specialized self-
powered lighting devices.[66] Tritium has also been used in chemical
and biological labeling experiments as a radiolabel.[67]
Unique among the elements, distinct names are assigned to its isotopes
in common use. During the early study of radioactivity, heavy
radioactive isotopes were given their own names, but they are no longer
used, except for deuterium and tritium. The symbols D and T (instead
of 2
H and 3
H) are sometimes used for deuterium and tritium, but the symbol P was
already used for phosphorus and thus was not available for protium.[68] In
its nomenclatural guidelines, the International Union of Pure and Applied
Chemistry (IUPAC) allows any of D, T, 2
H, and 3
H to be used, although 2
H and 3
H are preferred.[69]
The exotic atom muonium (symbol Mu), composed of an antimuon and
an electron, can also be considered a light radioisotope of hydrogen.
[70]
Because muons decay with lifetime 2.2 µs, muonium is too unstable
for observable chemistry.[71] Nevertheless, muonium compounds are
important test cases for quantum simulation, due to the mass difference
between the antimuon and the proton,[72] and IUPAC nomenclature
incorporates such hypothetical compounds as muonium chloride (MuCl)
and sodium muonide (NaMu), analogous to hydrogen
chloride and sodium hydride respectively.[73]
Thermal and physical properties
Table of thermal and physical properties of hydrogen (H2) at
atmospheric pressure:[74][75]

Dyna
Specif Kinema Therma
Densit mic Thermal
ic tic l showPran
Temperat y viscosi conductiv
heat viscosit diffusiv dtl
ure (K) (kg/m^ ty ity (W/m
(kJ/kg y ity Number
3) (kg/m K)
K) (m^2/s) (m^2/s)
s)

History
Discovery and use
Main article: Timeline of hydrogen technologies
Robert Boyle

Robert Boyle, who discovered the reaction

between iron filings and dilute acids
In 1671, the Irish scientist Robert Boyle discovered and described the
reaction between iron filings and dilute acids, which results in the
production of hydrogen gas.[76][77]

Having provided a saline spirit [hydrochloric acid], which by an

uncommon way of preparation was made exceeding sharp and piercing,
we put into a vial, capable of containing three or four ounces of water, a
convenient quantity of filings of steel, which were not such as are
commonly sold in shops to Chymists and Apothecaries, (those being
usually not free enough from rust) but such as I had a while before
caus'd to be purposely fil'd off from a piece of good steel. This metalline
powder being moistn'd in the viol with a little of the menstruum, was
afterwards drench'd with more; whereupon the mixture grew very hot,
and belch'd up copious and stinking fumes; which whether they
consisted altogether of the volatile sulfur of the Mars [iron], or of
metalline steams participating of a sulfureous nature, and join'd with the
saline exhalations of the menstruum, is not necessary to be here
discuss'd. But whencesoever this stinking smoak proceeded, so
inflammable it was, that upon the approach of a lighted candle to it, it
would readily enough take fire, and burn with a blewish and somewhat
greenish flame at the mouth of the viol for a good while together; and
that, though with little light, yet with more strength than one would easily
suspect.

— Robert Boyle, Tracts written by the Honourable Robert Boyle

containing new experiments, touching the relation betwixt flame and
air...
The word "sulfureous" may be somewhat confusing, especially since
Boyle did a similar experiment with iron and sulfuric acid.[78] However, in
all likelihood, "sulfureous" should here be understood to
mean combustible.[79]
Henry Cavendish
In 1766, Henry Cavendish was the first to recognize hydrogen gas as a
discrete substance, by naming the gas from a metal-acid
reaction "inflammable air". He speculated that "inflammable air" was in
fact identical to the hypothetical substance called "phlogiston"[80][81] and
further finding in 1781 that the gas produces water when burned. He is
usually given credit for the discovery of hydrogen as an element.[7][8]
Antoine Lavoisier

Antoine Lavoisier, who identified the element

that came to be known as hydrogen
In 1783, Antoine Lavoisier identified the element that came to be known
as hydrogen[82] when he and Laplace reproduced Cavendish's finding
that water is produced when hydrogen is burned.[8] Lavoisier produced
hydrogen for his experiments on mass conservation by reacting a flux of
steam with metallic iron through an incandescent iron tube heated in a
fire. Anaerobic oxidation of iron by the protons of water at high
temperature can be schematically represented by the set of following
reactions:

1) Fe + H2O → FeO + H2
2) Fe + 3 H2O → Fe2O3 + 3 H2
3) Fe + 4 H2O → Fe3O4 + 4 H2
Many metals such as zirconium undergo a similar reaction with
water leading to the production of hydrogen.[83]
19th century
François Isaac de Rivaz built the first de Rivaz engine, an
internal combustion engine powered by a mixture of hydrogen
and oxygen in 1806. Edward Daniel Clarke invented the
hydrogen gas blowpipe in 1819. The Döbereiner's
lamp and limelight were invented in 1823.[8]

Hydrogen was liquefied for the first time by James Dewar in

1898 by using regenerative cooling and his invention,
the vacuum flask.[8] He produced solid hydrogen the next year.
[8]

Hydrogen-lifted airship

The Hindenburg over New York

City in 1937
The first hydrogen-filled balloon was invented by Jacques
Charles in 1783.[8] Hydrogen provided the lift for the first
reliable form of air-travel following the 1852 invention of the
first hydrogen-lifted airship by Henri Giffard.[8] German
count Ferdinand von Zeppelin promoted the idea of rigid
airships lifted by hydrogen that later were called Zeppelins; the
first of which had its maiden flight in 1900.[8] Regularly
scheduled flights started in 1910 and by the outbreak of World
War I in August 1914, they had carried 35,000 passengers
without a serious incident. Hydrogen-lifted airships were used
as observation platforms and bombers during the war.

The first non-stop transatlantic crossing was made by the

British airship R34 in 1919. Regular passenger service
resumed in the 1920s and the discovery of helium reserves in
the United States promised increased safety, but the U.S.
government refused to sell the gas for this purpose.
Therefore, H2 was used in the Hindenburg airship, which was
destroyed in a midair fire over New Jersey on 6 May 1937.
[8]
The incident was broadcast live on radio and filmed. Ignition
of leaking hydrogen is widely assumed to be the cause, but
later investigations pointed to the ignition of
the aluminized fabric coating by static electricity. But the
damage to hydrogen's reputation as a lifting gas was already
done and commercial hydrogen airship travel ceased.
Hydrogen is still used, in preference to non-flammable but
more expensive helium, as a lifting gas for weather balloons.
Deuterium and tritium
Deuterium was discovered in December 1931 by Harold Urey,
and tritium was prepared in 1934 by Ernest Rutherford, Mark
Oliphant, and Paul Harteck.[7] Heavy water, which consists of
deuterium in the place of regular hydrogen, was discovered by
Urey's group in 1932.[8]
Hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator
The first hydrogen-cooled turbogenerator went into service
using gaseous hydrogen as a coolant in the rotor and the
stator in 1937 at Dayton, Ohio, owned by the Dayton Power &
Light Co.[84] This was justified by the high thermal conductivity
and very low viscosity of hydrogen gas, thus lower drag than
air. This is the most common coolant used for generators 60
MW and larger; smaller generators are usually air-cooled.
Nickel–hydrogen battery
The nickel–hydrogen battery was used for the first time in 1977
aboard the U.S. Navy's Navigation technology satellite-2 (NTS-
2).[85] The International Space Station,[86] Mars Odyssey[87] and
the Mars Global Surveyor[88] are equipped with nickel-hydrogen
batteries. In the dark part of its orbit, the Hubble Space
Telescope is also powered by nickel-hydrogen batteries, which
were finally replaced in May 2009,[89] more than 19 years after
launch and 13 years beyond their design life.[90]
Role in quantum theory

Hydrogen emission spectrum lines

in the four visible lines of the Balmer series
Because of its simple atomic structure, consisting only of a
proton and an electron, the hydrogen atom, together with the
spectrum of light produced from it or absorbed by it, has been
central to the development of the theory of atomic structure.
[91]
Furthermore, study of the corresponding simplicity of the
hydrogen molecule and the corresponding cation H+2 brought
understanding of the nature of the chemical bond, which
followed shortly after the quantum mechanical treatment of the
hydrogen atom had been developed in the mid-1920s.

One of the first quantum effects to be explicitly noticed (but not

understood at the time) was a Maxwell observation involving
hydrogen, half a century before full quantum mechanical
theory arrived. Maxwell observed that the specific heat
capacity of H2 unaccountably departs from that of
a diatomic gas below room temperature and begins to
increasingly resemble that of a monatomic gas at cryogenic
temperatures. According to quantum theory, this behavior
arises from the spacing of the (quantized) rotational energy
levels, which are particularly wide-spaced in H2 because of its
low mass. These widely spaced levels inhibit equal partition of
heat energy into rotational motion in hydrogen at low
temperatures. Diatomic gases composed of heavier atoms do
not have such widely spaced levels and do not exhibit the
same effect.[92]

Antihydrogen (
H
) is the antimatter counterpart to hydrogen. It consists of
an antiproton with a positron. Antihydrogen is the only type of
antimatter atom to have been produced as of 2015.[93][94]
Cosmic prevalence and distribution

NGC 604, a giant region of ionized

hydrogen in the Triangulum Galaxy
Hydrogen, as atomic H, is the most abundant chemical
element in the universe, making up 75 percent of normal
matter by mass and more than 90 percent by number of
atoms. (Most of the mass of the universe, however, is not in
the form of chemical-element type matter, but rather is
postulated to occur as yet-undetected forms of mass such
as dark matter and dark energy.[95])

Hydrogen is found in great abundance in stars and gas

giant planets. Molecular clouds of H2 are associated with star
formation. Hydrogen plays a vital role in
powering stars through the proton-proton reaction in case of
stars with very low to approximately 1 mass of the Sun and
the CNO cycle of nuclear fusion in case of stars more massive
than the Sun.[96]
States
Throughout the universe, hydrogen is mostly found in
the atomic and plasma states, with properties quite distinct
from those of molecular hydrogen. As a plasma, hydrogen's
electron and proton are not bound together, resulting in very
high electrical conductivity and high emissivity (producing the
light from the Sun and other stars). The charged particles are
highly influenced by magnetic and electric fields. For example,
in the solar wind they interact with the
Earth's magnetosphere giving rise to Birkeland currents and
the aurora.

Hydrogen is found in the neutral atomic state in the interstellar

medium because the atoms seldom collide and combine. They
are the source of the 21-cm hydrogen line at 1420 MHz that is
detected in order to probe primordial hydrogen.[97] The large
amount of neutral hydrogen found in the damped Lyman-alpha
systems is thought to dominate
the cosmological baryonic density of the universe up to
a redshift of z = 4.[98]

Under ordinary conditions on Earth, elemental hydrogen exists

as the diatomic gas, H2. Hydrogen gas is very rare in the
Earth's atmosphere (around 0.53 ppm on a molar basis[99])
because of its light weight, which enables it to escape from the
atmosphere more rapidly than heavier gases. However,
hydrogen is the third most abundant element on the Earth's
surface,[100] mostly in the form of chemical compounds such
as hydrocarbons and water.[53]

A molecular form called protonated molecular hydrogen (H+3)

is found in the interstellar medium, where it is generated by
ionization of molecular hydrogen from cosmic rays. This ion
has also been observed in the upper atmosphere of the
planet Jupiter. The ion is relatively stable in the environment of
outer space due to the low temperature and density. H+3 is
one of the most abundant ions in the universe, and it plays a
notable role in the chemistry of the interstellar medium.
[101]
Neutral triatomic hydrogen H3 can exist only in an excited
form and is unstable.[102] By contrast, the positive hydrogen
molecular ion (H+2) is a rare molecule in the universe.

Production
Main article: Hydrogen production
Many methods exist for producing H2, but three dominate
commercially: steam reforming often coupled to water-gas
shift, partial oxidation of hydrocarbons, and water electrolysis.
[103]

Steam reforming

Inputs and outputs of steam

reforming (SMR) and water gas shift (WGS) reaction of natural
gas, a process used in hydrogen production
Hydrogen is mainly produced by steam methane
reforming (SMR), the reaction of water and methane.[104]
[105] [106]
Thus, at high temperatures (1000–1400 K, 700–1100 °C
or 1300–2000 °F), steam (water vapor) reacts with methane to
yield carbon monoxide and H2.
CH4 + H2O → CO + 3 H2
Steam reforming is also used for the industrial preparation
of ammonia.

This reaction is favored at low pressures, Nonetheless,

conducted at high pressures (2.0 MPa, 20 atm or 600 inHg)
because high-pressure H2 is the most marketable product,
and pressure swing adsorption (PSA) purification systems
work better at higher pressures. The product mixture is
known as "synthesis gas" because it is often used directly
for the production of methanol and many other
compounds. Hydrocarbons other than methane can be
used to produce synthesis gas with varying product ratios.
One of the many complications to this highly optimized
technology is the formation of coke or carbon:

CH4 → C + 2 H2
Consequently, steam reforming typically employs an
excess of H2O. Additional hydrogen can be recovered
from the steam by use of carbon monoxide through
the water gas shift reaction (WGS). This process
requires an iron oxide catalyst:[106]

CO + H2O → CO2 + H2
Hydrogen is sometimes produced and consumed in
the same industrial process, without being separated.
In the Haber process for the production of ammonia,
hydrogen is generated from natural gas.[107]
Partial oxidation of hydrocarbons
Other methods for CO and H2 production include
partial oxidation of hydrocarbons:[108]

2 CH4 + O2 → 2 CO + 4 H2
Although less important commercially, coal can
serve as a prelude to the shift reaction above:[106]

C + H2O → CO + H2
 Olefin production units may produce substantial
quantities of byproduct hydrogen particularly
from cracking light feedstocks
like ethane or propane.[109]
Water electrolysis

Inputs and outputs

of the electrolysis of water production of
hydrogen
The electrolysis of water is a conceptually
simple method of producing hydrogen.

2 H2O(l) → 2 H2(g) + O2(g)

Commercial electrolyzers use nickel-based
catalysts in strongly alkaline solution.
Platinum is a superior catalyst but is
expensive.[110]

Electrolysis of brine to yield chlorine also

produces hydrogen as a co-product.[111]
Methane pyrolysis
Hydrogen can be produced by pyrolysis of
natural gas (methane).

This route has a lower carbon footprint than

commercial hydrogen production processes.
[112][113][114][115]
Developing a commercial
methane pyrolysis process could expedite
the expanded use of hydrogen in industrial
and transportation applications. Methane
pyrolysis is accomplished by passing
methane through a molten metal catalyst
containing dissolved nickel. Methane is
converted to hydrogen gas and
solid carbon.[116][117]
CH4(g) → C(s) + 2 H2(g) (ΔH° = 74 kJ/mol)
The carbon may be sold as a
manufacturing feedstock or fuel, or
landfilled.

Further research continues in several

laboratories, including at Karlsruhe
Liquid-metal Laboratory [118] and at
University of California – Santa Barbara.
[119]
BASF built a methane pyrolysis pilot
plant.[120]
Thermochemical
More than 200 thermochemical cycles
can be used for water splitting. Many of
these cycles such as the iron oxide
cycle, cerium(IV) oxide–cerium(III) oxide
cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine
cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid
sulfur cycle have been evaluated for their
commercial potential to produce
hydrogen and oxygen from water and
heat without using electricity.[121] A
number of laboratories (including
in France, Germany, Greece, Japan, and
the United States) are developing
thermochemical methods to produce
hydrogen from solar energy and water.[122]
Laboratory methods
H2 is produced in laboratories, often as a
by-product of other reactions. Many
metals react with water to produce H2,
but the rate of hydrogen evolution
depends on the metal, the pH, and the
presence of alloying agents. Most
commonly, hydrogen evolution is induced
by acids. The alkali and alkaline earth
metals, aluminium, zinc, manganese,
 and iron react readily with aqueous
acids. This reaction is the basis of
the Kipp's apparatus, which once was
used as a laboratory gas source:

Zn + 2 H+ → Zn2+ + H2
In the absence of acid, the evolution
of H2 is slower. Because iron is widely
used structural material, its anaerobic
corrosion is of technological
significance:

Fe + 2 H2O → Fe(OH)2 + H2
Many metals, such as aluminium,
are slow to react with water
because they form passivated
oxide coatings of oxides. An alloy
of aluminium and gallium,
however, does react with water.
[123]
At high pH, aluminium can
produce H2:

2 Al + 6 H2O + 2 OH− → 2 [Al(OH)4]− + 3 H2

Some metal-containing
compounds react with acids to
evolve H2. Under anaerobic
conditions, ferrous
hydroxide (Fe(OH)
2) can be oxidized by the

protons of water to
form magnetite and H2. This
process is described by
the Schikorr reaction:
3 Fe(OH)2 → Fe3O4 + 2 H2O + H2
This process occurs during
the anaerobic corrosion
of iron and steel in oxygen-
free groundwater and in
reducing soils below
the water table.
Biohydrogen
H2 is produced by
hydrogenase enzymes in
some fermentation.[124]
Wells
There is a well in Mali and
deposits in several other
countries, such as France.[125]

Applications
See also: Hydrogen
economy

S
ome projected uses in the
medium term, but analysts
disagree[126]
Petrochemical industry
Large quantities of H2 are
used in the "upgrading"
of fossil fuels. Key
consumers
of H2 include hydrodesulfuriz
ation, and hydrocracking.
Many of these reactions can
be classified
as hydrogenolysis, i.e., the
cleavage of bonds by
hydrogen. Illustrative is the
separation of sulfur from
liquid fossil fuels:[103]
R2S + 2 H2 → H2S + 2 RH
Hydrogenation
Hydrogenation, the
addition of H2 to various
substrates is conducted
on a large scale. The
hydrogenation of N2 to
produce ammonia by
the Haber–Bosch
process consumes a few
percent of the energy
budget in the entire
industry. The resulting
ammonia is used to
supply the majority of the
protein consumed by
humans.[127] Hydrogenatio
n is used to
convert unsaturated
fats and oils to saturated
(trans) fats and oils. The
major application is the
production
of margarine. Methanol is
produced by
hydrogenation of carbon
dioxide. It is similarly the
source of hydrogen in the
manufacture
of hydrochloric acid. H2 is
also used as a reducing
agent for the conversion
of some ores to the
metals.[128]
Coolant
Main article: Hydrogen-
cooled turbo generator
Hydrogen is commonly
used in power stations as
a coolant in generators
due to a number of
favorable properties that
are a direct result of its
light diatomic molecules.
These include
low density, low viscosity,
and the highest specific
heat and thermal
conductivity of all gases.
Energy carrier
Elemental hydrogen is
widely discussed in the
context of energy as an
energy carrier with
potential to help the
decarbonisation of
economies and mitigate
greenhouse gas
emissions.[129][130] This
therefore requires
hydrogen to be produced
cleanly in quantities to be
supplied in sectors and
applications where
cheaper and more
energy-efficient mitigation
alternatives are limited.
These include heavy
industry and long-
distance transport.
[129]
Hydrogen is a ''carrier''
of energy rather than an
energy resource,
because there is no
naturally occurring source
of hydrogen in useful
quantities.[131]

Hydrogen can be
deployed as an energy
source in fuel cells to
produce electricity or via
combustion to generate
heat.[19] When hydrogen is
consumed in fuel cells,
the only emission at the
point of use is water
vapour.[19] Combustion of
hydrogen can lead to the
thermal formation of
harmful nitrogen oxides.
[19]
The overall lifecycle
emissions of hydrogen
depend on how it is
produced. Nearly all of
the world's current supply
of hydrogen is created
from fossil fuels.[132][133] The
main method is steam
methane reforming, in
which hydrogen is
produced from a
chemical reaction
between steam
and methane, the main
component of natural
gas. Producing one tonne
of hydrogen through this
process emits 6.6–9.3
tonnes of carbon dioxide.
[134]
While carbon capture
and storage (CCS) could
remove a large fraction of
these emissions, the
overall carbon footprint of
hydrogen from natural
gas is difficult to assess
as of 2021, in part
because of emissions
(including vented and fugi
tive methane) created in
the production of the
natural gas itself.[135]

Electricity can be used to

split water molecules,
producing sustainable
hydrogen, provided the
electricity was generated
sustainably. However,
this electrolysis process
is currently more
expensive than creating
hydrogen from methane
without CCS and the
efficiency of energy
conversion is inherently
low.[130] Hydrogen can be
produced when there is a
surplus of variable
renewable electricity,
then stored and used to
generate heat or to re-
generate electricity.
[136]
Hydrogen created
through electrolysis using
renewable energy is
commonly referred to as
"green hydrogen."[137] It
can be further
transformed into synthetic
fuels such
as ammonia and methan
ol.[138]
Innovation in hydrogen
electrolysers could make
large-scale production of
hydrogen from electricity
more cost-competitive.
[139]
There is potential for
hydrogen produced this
way to play a significant
role in decarbonising
energy systems where
there are challenges and
limitations to replacing
fossil fuels with direct use
of electricity.[129]

Hydrogen fuel can

produce the intense heat
required for industrial
production of steel,
cement, glass, and
chemicals, thus
contributing to the
decarbonisation of
industry alongside other
technologies, such
as electric arc
furnaces for steelmaking.
[140]
However, it is likely to
play a larger role in
providing industrial
feedstock for cleaner
production of ammonia
and organic chemicals.
[129]
For example,
in steelmaking, hydrogen
could function as a clean
energy carrier and also
as a low-carbon catalyst,
replacing coal-
derived coke.[141] Hydroge
n used to decarbonise
transportation is likely to
find its largest
applications in shipping,
aviation and, to a lesser
extent, heavy goods
vehicles, through the use
of hydrogen-derived
synthetic fuels such
as ammonia and methan
ol and fuel cell
technology.[129] For light-
duty vehicles including
passenger cars,
hydrogen is far behind
other alternative fuel
vehicles, especially
compared with the rate of
adoption of battery
electric vehicles, and may
not play a significant role
in future.[142]

Disadvantages of
hydrogen as an energy
carrier include high costs
of storage and
distribution due to
hydrogen's explosivity, its
large volume compared
to other fuels, and its
tendency to make pipes
brittle.[135]
Semiconductor industry
Hydrogen is employed to
saturate broken
("dangling") bonds
of amorphous
silicon and amorphous
carbon that helps
stabilizing material
properties.[143] It is also a
potential electron
donor in various oxide
materials, including ZnO,
[144][145]
SnO2, CdO, MgO,[146]
ZrO2, HfO2, La2O3, Y2O3, Ti
O2, SrTiO3, LaAlO3, SiO2,
Al2O3, ZrSiO4, HfSiO4,
and SrZrO3.[147]
Niche and evolving uses

 Shielding gas:
Hydrogen is used as
a shielding
gas in welding method
s such as atomic
hydrogen welding.[148]
[149]

 Cryogenic research:
Liquid H2 is used
in cryogenic research,
including superconduc
tivity studies.[150]

 Buoyant lifting:
Because H2 is lighter
than air, having only
7% of the density of
air, it was once widely
used as a lifting gas in
balloons and airships.
[151]

 Leak detection: Pure

or mixed with nitrogen
(sometimes
called forming gas),
hydrogen is a tracer
 gas for detection of
minute leaks.
Applications can be
found in the
automotive, chemical,
power generation,
aerospace, and
telecommunications
industries.[152] Hydroge
n is an authorized
food additive (E 949)
that allows food
package leak testing,
as well as having anti-
oxidizing properties.[153]

 Neutron
moderation: Deuteriu
m (hydrogen-2) is
used in nuclear fission
applications as
a moderator to
slow neutrons.
 Nuclear fusion fuel:
Deuterium is used
in nuclear
fusion reactions.[8]
 Isotopic labeling:
Deuterium compounds
have applications in
chemistry and biology
in studies of isotope
effects on reaction
rates.[154]

 Rocket
propellant: Liquid
hydrogen and liquid
oxygen together serve
as cryogenic
 propellants in liquid-
propellant rockets, as
in the Space Shuttle
main
engines. NASA has
investigated the use
of rocket
propellant made from
atomic hydrogen,
boron or carbon that is
frozen into solid
molecular hydrogen
particles that are
suspended in liquid
helium. Upon
warming, the mixture
vaporizes to allow the
atomic species to
recombine, heating
the mixture to high
temperature.[155]
 Tritium
uses: Tritium (hydroge
n-3), produced
in nuclear reactors, is
used in the production
of hydrogen bombs,
[156]
as an isotopic label
in the biosciences,
[67]
and as a source
of beta
radiation in radiolumin
escent paint for
instrument dials and
emergency signage.[62]
Biological
reactions
Further
information: Biohydrogen
and Biological hydrogen
production (Algae)
H2 is a product of some
types of anaerobic
metabolism and is
produced by
several microorganisms,
usually via
reactions catalyzed by iro
n- or nickel-
containing enzymes calle
d hydrogenases. These
enzymes catalyze the
reversible redox reaction
between H2 and its
component two protons
and two electrons.
Creation of hydrogen gas
occurs in the transfer of
reducing equivalents,
produced
during pyruvate fermentat
ion, to water.[157] The
natural cycle of hydrogen
production and
consumption by
organisms is called
the hydrogen cycle.
[158]
Bacteria such
as Mycobacterium
smegmatis can utilize the
small amount of
hydrogen in the
atmosphere as a source
of energy when other
sources are lacking,
using a hydrogenase with
small channels that
exclude oxygen and so
permits the reaction to
occur even though the
hydrogen concentration is
very low and the oxygen
concentration is as in
normal air.[99][159]

Hydrogen is the most

abundant element in the
human body in terms of
numbers of atoms of the
element but the third
most abundant element
by mass. H2 occurs in the
breath of humans due to
the metabolic activity of
hydrogenase-containing
microorganisms in
the large intestine and is
a natural component
of flatus. The
concentration in the
breath of fasting people
at rest is typically less
than 5 parts per
million (ppm) but can be
50 ppm when people with
intestinal disorders
consume molecules they
cannot absorb during
diagnostic hydrogen
breath tests.[160]

Water splitting, in which

water is decomposed into
its component protons,
electrons, and oxygen,
occurs in the light
reactions in
all photosynthetic organis
ms. Some such
organisms, including the
alga Chlamydomonas
reinhardtii and cyanobact
eria, have evolved a
second step in the dark
reactions in which
protons and electrons are
reduced to form H2 gas
by specialized
hydrogenases in
the chloroplast.[161] Efforts
have been undertaken to
genetically modify
cyanobacterial
hydrogenases to
efficiently
synthesize H2 gas even in
the presence of oxygen.
[162]
Efforts have also been
undertaken with
genetically modified alga
in a bioreactor.[163]

Safety and
precautions
Main article: Hydrogen
safety

Hydrogen

Hazards

GHS labelling:

Pictograms
 Signal word Danger

Hazard H220
statements

Precautionary P202, P210, P271, P377, P

statements
403[164]

NFPA
704 (fire diamo
nd)

0
4
0
Hydrogen poses a
number of hazards to
human safety, from
potential detonations and
fires when mixed with air
to being an asphyxiant in
its pure, oxygen-free
form.[165] In addition, liquid
hydrogen is
a cryogen and presents
dangers (such
as frostbite) associated
with very cold liquids.
[166]
Hydrogen dissolves in
many metals and in
addition to leaking out,
may have adverse effects
on them, such
as hydrogen
embrittlement,[167] leading
to cracks and explosions.
 Hydrogen gas leaking
[168]

into external air may

spontaneously ignite.
Moreover, hydrogen fire,
while being extremely
hot, is almost invisible,
and thus can lead to
accidental burns.[169]

Even interpreting the

hydrogen data (including
safety data) is
confounded by a number
of phenomena. Many
physical and chemical
properties of hydrogen
depend on
the parahydrogen/orthohy
drogen ratio (it often
takes days or weeks at a
given temperature to
reach the equilibrium
ratio, for which the data is
usually given). Hydrogen
detonation parameters,
such as critical
detonation pressure and
temperature, strongly
depend on the container
geometry.[165]