TRAINING TITLE

POWER PLANT OPERATION INSTRUCTION

INTRODUCTION
MPPCL can offer a program that will introduce students to Power Plant Operations. A versatile curriculum
can be developed to suit the desires of the students in order to gain knowledge of the Power Generation
Industry.

The operator training course outlined covers power plant machinery and equipment, including plant
operations, controls, process systems and water treatment.

Students who successfully complete the Power Plant Operator Training program can:

Understand the purpose and operation of the equipment used in the power plant.
Describe the functions of the equipment used in power distribution stations.
Explain the principles of operation of the steam generators and turbine.
Understand the distribution system and how it affects the Luzon grid.

As a prelude to the proposal, listed are virtues power generation companies look for in potential
candidates. Students should review the list and see if employment in the power industry is something that
they would be interested in.\

Technical and Functional Expertise:

Skills

The technical and functional skills listed below are based on general qualifications for Power
Plant Operators commonly recognized by most employers. Typically, you will not be required to
have all of the skills listed to be a successful performer.

1. Controlling operations of equipment or systems.

2. Repairing machines or systems using the needed tools.
3. Determining the kind of tools and equipment needed to do a job.
4. Determining causes of operating errors and deciding what to do about it.
5. Performing routine maintenance on equipment and determining when and what kind of
maintenance is needed.
6. Using scientific rules and methods to solve problems.
7. Conducting tests and inspections of products, services, or processes to evaluate quality or
performance.
8. Performing mechanical repairs.

Knowledge

The Knowledge of:

1. Practical application of engineering science and technology. This includes applying principles,
techniques, procedures, and equipment to the design and production of various goods and
services.
2. Machines and tools, including their designs, uses, repair, and maintenance.
3. Applicable rules and regulations for environmental control and other regulatory authorities.
4. Applicable standards and code associations.
5. American Society of Mechanical Engineers pressure vessel codes.
Abilities

The Ability to:

1. Quickly and accurately compare similarities and differences among sets of letters, numbers,
objects, pictures, or patterns, (reading P&ID’s)
2. Concentrate on a task over a period of time without being distracted.
3. Apply general rules to specific problems to produce answers that make sense.
4. Tell when something is wrong or is likely to go wrong. It does not involve solving the problem, only
recognizing there is a problem.
5. Read meters and gauges.

Tasks

1. Operates or controls machinery that generates electric power, using control boards or
semiautomatic equipment.
2. Compiles and records operational data.
3. Maintains and repairs electrical power distribution machinery and equipment, using hand tools.
4. Monitors control and switchboard gauges to determine electrical power distribution meets
specifications.
5. Adjusts controls to generate specified electrical power.

This training outline is an example of what skills and principles we can offer. The subjects outlined will be
assembled based on the assessment and purpose of the program. The student will go through classroom
training, verify through testing that the knowledge is gained and if the instruction meets the needs of the
course. During the interim students will conduct field observations, be assigned projects, conduct testing,
operate the power plant under supervision, conduct chemical analysis and/or visit other power facilities to
understand the different power plant technologies in use today.
TRAINING OUTLINE

Section 1: Basic Engineering Fundamentals -------- (Duration: 20 hrs) page

1.1 Water to Steam Process

1.1.1 Steam Tables
1.1.2 Types of Boiling
1.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion/Vaporization/Condensation
1.1.4 Sensible Heat
1.1.5 Saturated Steam
1.1.6 Steam Quality
1.1.7 Superheated Steam

1.2 Heat Transfer Process

1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Heat Transfer Modes
1.2.3 Main Factors Effecting Heat Transfer
1.2.4 Effects on Boiler Operation

1.3 Circulation System

1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Principles of Circulation
1.3.3 Forced Circulation
1.3.4 Circulation Ratio

1.4 Combustion of Fuels

1.4.1 Introduction
1.4.2 The combustion Process
1.4.3 Properties of Fuels
1.4.4 Fuel Analysis
1.4.5 Combustion Air
1.4.6 Conditions for Proper Combustion

1.5 Ash and Slag Characteristics

1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Ash Characteristics
1.5.3 Ash Fusibility
1.5.4 Base/Acid Ratio
1.5.5 Ash Behavior

Section 2: Steam Generator and Auxiliaries ------------ (Duration: 80 Hrs.)

2.1 General Overview

2.2 Description of Equipment
2.2.1 Pre-Boiler Circuits
2.2.2 Water and Steam Circuits
2.2.2.1 Description
2.2.2.2 Steam Drum Internals
2.2.2.3 Superheater and Reheater Steam Flow
2.2.2.4 Economizer
2.2.2.5 Appendix
 2.2.3 Air, Gas and Steam Circuits
2.3 Operation
2.4 System Protection and Interlocks

Section 3: Steam Turbine and Auxiliaries ---------------- (Duration: 80 Hrs.)

3.1 General Overview

3.2 Description of Equipment
3.3 Operation
3.4 System Protection and Interlocks

Section 4: Balance of Plant (Sub-System) ------------------- (Duration: 60 Hrs.)

4.1 Circulating Water System

4.1.1 General Overview
4.1.2 Description of Equipment
4.1.3 Operation
4.1.4 System Protection and Interlocks

4.2 Electrochlorination System

4.2.1 General Overview
4.2.2 Description of Equipment
4.2.3 Operation
4.2.4 System Control and Protection

4.3 Fresh Water Treatment System

4.3.1 General Overview
4.3.2 Description of Equipment
4.3.3 Operation
4.3.4 System Protection and Interlocks

4.4 Waste Water Treatment System

4.4.1 Introduction
4.4.2 Process
4.4.3 Specifics
4.4.4 P & I Diagrams

4.5 Ash Handling and Disposal System

4.4.1 General Overview
4.4.2 Description of Equipment
4.4.3 Operating Procedure
4.4.4 System Operation
4.4.5 System Interlocks and Set Points
4.4.6 Appendix

4.6 Coal Handling System

4.5.1 General Overview
4.5.2 Description of Equipment
4.5.3 Operation
4.5.4 System Protection and Interlocks
A : Over-all Training Concept includes the following:

1.0 Lecture
2.0 System Familiarization
3.0 System Operations (monitoring & control under the supervision of regular personnel))
4.0 Projects on assigned system

B: Prior to issuance of Certificate of Attendance or Completion, the trainees must undergo and require to
complete the following:

1.0 Written Examination ------- 25 %

2.0 Interview ----------------------- 25%
3.0 System/Process Walk down ----- 35%
4.0 Submission of Project and/or Training Completion Report ----- 15%

Total Training Duration: 240 Hrs.

SECTION 1: BASIC ENGINEERING
FUNDAMENTALS

1.1 WATER TO STEAM PROCESS

Table of Contents

1.1 Water to Steam Process

1.1.1 Steam Tables

1.1.2 Types of Boiling
1.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion/Vaporization/Condensation
1.1.4 Sensible Heat
1.1.5 Saturated Steam
1.1.6 Steam Quality
1.1.7 Superheated Steam
SECTION 1: Engineering Fundamentals
1.1 Water to Steam Process

1.1.1 Steam Tables

Water is the medium used to produce steam in a boiler. Water can exist in three (3)
physical states: A solid, liquid or gas (vapor), depending on its pressure and temperature.

Steam generation is only concerned with the liquid and vapor forms of water. Steam
results from adding sufficient heat to water to cause if to vaporize or turn into a gas.

This happens in two steps:

• The addition of heat to water sufficient enough to raise it to the boiling

temperature.

• A continuing addition of heat to change the state from water to steam.

Thermal capacity is the quantity of heat required to produce a unit change in temperature
for a given volume of a substance. Water has high thermal capacity. A huge amount of
heat is required to cause a temperature change in water. Water cools slowly in the
process of giving up absorbed heat. Water and steam are excellent heat transfer
mediums.

Specific heat is the term used to describe the thermal capacity of a substance relative to
water. It is the ratio of the amount of heat required to raise the temperature of one pound
(kilogram) of a substance by one degree Fahrenheit (Celsius) to that of water. It takes 1
BTU (or 4,1868 KJ) to raise the temperature of one pound (kilogram) of water by one
degree F (oC).

Enthalpy is the measure of the total stored internal energy of a substance. Enthalpy is
commonly recorded in BTU/lb (MJ/kg) and, for water and steam it varies significantly with
pressure and temperatures. The steam tables list the values of various properties of
saturated water, saturated steam, and super heated steam over a wide range of pressures
and temperatures commonly utilized in the power industry (Figures 1-1 & 1-2).

The values of enthalpy represent the amount of heat transferred to, and contained in the
water/steam mixtures, from the combustor of fuels.

Example:

A boiler is designed to operate at a superheater outlet pressure of 2400 psig

(169.0kg/cm2). There is normally a 200 psi (14.0 kg/cm 2) pressure drop across the
SH, so that the pressure at the steam drum is 2600 psig (183 kg/cm2). The
enthalpy of the saturated steam leaving the drum under these conditions is
approximately 1080 BTU/lb. when the boiler is operated at a reduced pressure
such that the pressure is 2000 psig at the drum, the enthalpy of the saturated
steam is approximately 1136 BTU/lb. this represents a 50 BTU/lb increase in the
heat content of the saturated steam at the lower pressure. This higher heat
requirement must be made up in the form of additional fuel per pound of steam
produced.

The control point occurs at 3208.2 psig (21.11 MPA) with a corresponding
saturation temperature of 705.5oF (373.77oC). At this point, water and steam
properties are identical. In fact, the terms “water” or “steam” no longer apply since
the properties of the water vapor and liquid are the same. Instead, the term
cooking fluid” is used. Boilers that are designed to operate at pressures and
temperatures above the critical point are called the supercritical boilers.

Figure 1-1. Steam Table (Pressure)

Figure 1-2. Steam Table (Temperature)
1.1.2 Types of Boiling

There are two types of boiling that can occur in steam generators, Nucleate and Film
boiling.

Nucleate Boiling – this is the normal boiling process in a boiler in which water is raised to
the boiling point, and individual steam bubbles form as water comes in contact with the hot
tube surfaces (Fig.1-3). Under normal conditions working proper circulation, these bubbles
form and are swept away from the heated surface. Cool water replaces the bubbles,
wetting the tube surfaces, and thus keeping the water wall tube metal temperatures well
within allowable limits.

Film Boiling – this is an abnormal boiling condition and is present at times when
insufficient water flow or circulation exists. When this type of boiling process takes place,
the small steam bubbles form as water comes in contact with the hot tube surfaces. Low
flow velocities caused by inadequate circulation allow the small bubbles to join together
forming a film of steam which blankets the hot inner tube surface. Water wall tube metal
temperature increase and damage to the tubes can result. A term commonly used to
describe this condition in DNB, or “Departure Form Nucleate Boiling”.

Fig.1-3. Effects of DNB on Tube Metal Temperature

1.1.3 Latent Heat of Fusion/Vaporization/Condensation

Heat is the flow of thermal energy. When heat is added or removed, temperature
differentials are formed so that thermal energy can flow from one substance to another.
Latent heat and sensible heat describe two effects produced by heat transfer, not different
kinds of heat.

Latent heat describes an effect whereby a change of states occurs at a constant

temperature. The latent heat of fusion is defined as the amount of heat required to meet
one (1) pound (kilogram) of ice to one (1) pound (kilogram) of water (Figure 1-4). As
illustrated in figure 1-4, 144 BTUS (334.9) are needed to convert one (1) pound (kilogram)
of ice into one (1) pound (kilogram) of water at 32oF (0oC) and 14.696 psig (1,013.25 bar).
 Figure 1-4. Latent Heat of Fusion

RECIEVES FORMS
1 POUND 144 1 POUND
OF ICE AT BTU’S OF WATER
32oF FORMS GIVES UP AT 32oF

The latent heat of evaporization is defined as the amount of heat required to

change one (1) pound of steam (Figure 1-5). When additional heat is added to water
at its boiling point the temperature of the water remains constant, only the physical
state is changed. This is quantified in the steam tables by the column labeled hfg.

Figure 1-5. Latent Heat of Evaporization and Condensation

RECEIVES FORMS
1 POUND 1 POUND
970
OF WATER OF STEAM
BTU’S
AT 212oF FORMS AT 212oF
GIVES UP

One kilogram (pound) of water at 212oF (100oC) the boiling point of water at 14.7 psig
(1,013.25 bar) requires 970 BTUS (92,256 MJ) to change to one pound of steam at 212 oF
(100oC).

The latent heat of condensation refers to a condition whereby a pound of steam at

212oF (100oC) is cooled (heat is removed) to form a pound of water at 212 oF (100oC). The
energy is removed in going from a pound (kilogram) of steam to a pound (kilogram) of
water is 970 Btu’s/lb (2,256 MJ).

1.1.4 Sensible Heat

Sensible heat occurs when the flow of heat produce a temperature change and the
substance being heated does not go through a physical change of state. A kilogram
(pound) of water at 32OF (0OC) will absorb 180 Btu’s (418,68) to raise its temperature to
212OF (100OC) (Figure 1-6).
 Figure 1-6. Temperature – Heat Diagram for 1 Pound of Water Atmospheric Pressure

LATENT OF
VAPORIZATION
LATENT SENSIBLE
SENSIBLE SENSIBLE OR
HEAT OF HEAT
HEAT HEAT CONDENSATION
FUSION
300o
STEAM
SUPERHEATING

WATER
BOILING
STEAM
212o COOLING
200o
STEAM
CONDENSING
WATER
TEMP. HEATING
o
F

100o
WATER
ICE
COOLING
WARMING

ICE
MELTING

32o ICE
COOLING
WATER
FREEZING

16 14 180 970 42
4
BTU’s PER POUND OF WATER

Steam can also be sensibly heated although it must be removed from contact with the
water surface and heated separately. Adding heat to steam is called Superheating.

1.1.5 Saturated Steam

When water is heated to the boiling point in a closed vessel, the vapor released causes
the pressure to increase in the vessel. With the increase of pressure, the boiling
temperature of the water also increases (Figure 1.7). The temperature at which water boils
at a given pressure is termed the Saturation Temperature. For each saturation
temperature there is a corresponding saturation pressure.
 Figure 1-7. Saturation Temperature vs. Pressure

PRESSURE TEMPERATURE RELATIONSHIP

800

3208.2
700 3000 PSIA
PSIA CRITICAL
POINT

600 2000
1500 PSIA

1200 PSIA
TEMP oF

500 PSIA
600
PSIA
400 350
PSIA
110 PSIA
300

14.7
200 PSIA

10
PSIA
100

0
0 500 100 150 2000 250 300 3500
0 0 0 0
PRESSURE

1.1.6 Steam Quality

The quality of steam refers to the proportion, by weight, of “dry” vapor in a steam and
water mixture. Steam and quality is expressed in percentages. If a quality of steam
contains 90% steam vapor and 10% water moisture, the mixture has a quality of 90%.
Saturated steam is steam saturated with all the heat it can hold at the saturation
temperature. (Boiling point) is corresponding to the pressure.

Dry saturated steam vapor essentially contains no moisture, and is at saturated

temperature for the given pressure. Referring back to the steam tables, its total heat
content, or enthalpy (hg), is equal to the heat of the liquid (hf) plus the heat of vaporization
(hfg).
1.1.7 Superheated Steam

Superheated steam is steam that is heated above its corresponding saturation

temperature at a particular pressure. Superheating of steam takes place in the
superheater section of the boiler (Figure 1-8). Superheated steam contains no moisture,
and will not condense until its temperature has been lowered to the saturation temperature
for that pressure.

Figure 1-8. Superheating of Steam

Degree of superheat refers to the temperature difference in degrees Fahrenheit (Celsius)

between the steam at the superheater outlet, and its corresponding saturation temperature
at a given pressure.
Example:

Many turbine manufacturers require a minimum of 100 o of superheat before

admitting steam to the turbine “roll-off”. If roll-off occurs usually at 1000 psi of
pressure at the turbine inlet valves, the required steam temp must be Tsat @ 1000
psi + 100 = 544 100 = 644oF.
Superheated steam has three (3) advantages over steam that is not superheated.

• It increases efficiency of the turbine.

• It prevents damaging low pressure (LP) turbine blade due to condensation.
• It is able to travel long pipe with little or no condensing.
 SECTION 1
1.2 HEAT TRANSFER PROCESS
Table of Contents

1.2 Heat Transfer Process

1.2.1 Introduction
1.2.2 Heat Transfer Modes
1.2.3 Main Factors Effecting Heat Transfer
1.2.4 Effects on Boiler Operation
1.2 Heat Transfer

1.2.1 Introduction

The process of transferring thermal energy can only occur from an area or material at one
temperature to an area or material at a lower temperature. Heat transfer is vital to the
operation of the power plant cycle and occurs in many locations throughout the plant.

These are few examples:

• Heat from the burning of fuel in the combustion process is transferred through
tube metal to the boiler water and steam.
• Heat from extraction steam is transferred through tube metal to incoming feed
water in a feed water heater.
• Heat from the turbine bearing lubrication oil is transferred through tube metal to
cooling water passing through the tubes of a cooler.

1.2.2 Heat Transfer Modes

Conduction – Heat is passed through a solid object when quickly moving molecules in the
hot portion collide with and give up some energy to slower molecules in the cooler portion.

Radiation – Electromagnetic waves from a heat producing source travel as light from the
sun, and strike a surface, giving up energy to the molecules in the surface. Burning fuels
give off radiant energy.

Convection – Heated fluid or vapor is moved to a cooler region by circulating resulting

from density differences between the hot and cold areas within the fluid or vapor.

1.2.3 Main Factors Effecting Heat Transfer

Differential temperature (T) refers to the temperature difference between a high

temperature source and a low temperature “sink”. A higher (T) will result in a greater
amount of heat transfer.

Thermal conductivity is an indication of how well a material absorbs and transfer heat. A
higher value of thermal conductivity nears a material is capable of transmitting heat at a
transfer rate than a material with a lower value of thermal conductivity.

Surface area is how much area of a low temperature sink is placed in contact with the
source at higher temperature. A larger exposed area will result in a high total heat transfer.

The Heat Transfer Cofficient is a function of the physical properties of the heat
transferring mediums such as gases, solids and metal tubes, and the gas velocity in the
boiler. Materials are selected and arranged in the boiler according to their rations heat
transfer properties.

Metals have good thermal conductivities. The number and arrangement of the tube
assembles placed in a boiler are selected to promote the proper tube surface area which
is exposed to the hot fluids and gases so that the correct amount of heat is transferred to
the water and steam to obtain design steam pressure and temperatures with design
combustion temperatures.

Fiberglass, silica lock and certain other refracting compound are used where heat transfer
is not desired. These material called insulators have low thermal conductivities and help
to reduce heat transfer.
1.2.4 Effects on Boiler Operation

Improper insulation in the form of ash and/or slag and internal tube deposits can be very
differential to boiler heat transfer. Ash deposits on the external surface of boiler tubes have
lower thermal conductivities than the tube metal (Fig.1-9). A higher differential temperature
is required to pass the proper amount of heat through the ash to the water or steam inside
the tubes (Figs. 1-10, 1-11, & 1-12).

Figure 1-9

Figure 1-10. Typical Temperature Profile Across Waterwall Tube Wall

FURNACE
TEMPERATURE
398oC
1536 oC
351oC
343oC

398oC – 351oC = 47oC T

 Figure 1-11. Temperature Profile Across Tube Wall With External Deposit

SLAG BUILD
UP

1092oC

FURNACE
TEMPERATURE
398oC
1536 oC
351oC
343o
C

Figure 1-12. Temperature Profile Across Tube Wall With Internal Deposit

INTERNAL
DEPOSIT
FURNACE
425oC TEMPERATURE
1536 oC
379o
C
351o
C oC
343

A higher fixing rate is necessary due to the insulation effect produced by ash or slag
accumulating on the tubes. This condition may produce higher gas temperatures, higher
steam temperatures and higher exit gas temperatures, which reduce boiler efficiency.
The reduction in the heat flow from the tube to the boiler water or steam due to inside tube
deposits increases the average tube metal temperature, which can lead to tube failures
from overheating (Fig. 1-13). Proper water treatment, effective sootblowing and following
the recommended boiler start up rate will increase the operating life of the boiler and
provide design heat transfer properties.

Figure 1-13. Temperature Limitations For Typical Tube Materials

MAXIMUM OUTSIDE SURFACE METAL TEMPERATURES

ASME Code Oxidation

Alloy Specifications Nominal Composition Limit oC

SA-213 Carbon Steel 454

SA-213 T-1 Carbon ½ Mo 482
SA-213 T-11 1 ¼ CR – ½ Mo 551
SA-213 T-22 2 ¼ CR – 1% Mo 579
SA-213 T-9 9 Cr – 1 Mo 634
SA-213 TP-204H 18 Cr – 8 Ni 704
SA-213 TP-347H 18 Cr – 10 Ni 704
 SECTION 1

1.3 CIRCULATION SYSTEM

Table of Contents

1.3 Circulation System

1.3.1 Introduction
1.3.2 Principles of Circulation
1.3.3 Forced Circulation
1.3.4 Circulation Ratio
 1.3 Circulation System

1.3.1 Introduction

Boiler Circulation is defined as the movement of water, steam and water mixture, or
steam through boiler tube circuits.

• Natural or Thermal Circulation

• Forced or “Controlled” Circulation

1.3.2 Principles of Circulation

In natural or thermal circulation boilers (Figures 1-14 & 1-15), circulation is

accomplished without the use of a circulating pump. The density difference between steam
and water (thermal head) is the doing force in a natural circulation boiler.

Figure 1-14. Natural Circulation Principle

FURNACE WALL
DOWNTAKES STEAM/WATER MIXTURE
SATURATED WATER

HEAT HEAT
A
 Figure 1-15. Schematic of Thermal Circulation Steam Generator

TO SUPERHEATER

STEAM DRUM

ECONOMIZER

FURNACE
WALLS

HEADER

On the “cold” side of a boiler operating at approximately 2000 psig (141 kg/cm 2), the
density of saturated water in the down takes (also called down comers) will be approx. 40
pounds per cubic foot (641 kg/cm3), based on the pressure in the steam drum and the
temperature of the boiler water/feed water mixture entering the downcomer.

The steam/water mixture density in the waterwalls will be approximately 33 pounds per
cubic foot (529 kg/cm3), increasing the fixing rate without increasing the pressure will
increase the proportion of the mixture which is steam bubbles, thus covering the average
density of the mixture. As boiler pressure increases, however, the difference between the
densities of water and steam, which is the motive force for fluid movement in natural
circulation boilers, becomes smaller (Fig.1-16)

This thermal head differential ranges between approximately 25 and 10 psi (1.8 and 0.7
kg/cm3), depending on the operating pressure of the boiler, with the greater differential
being possible in lower pressure boilers (Figures 1-16 & 1-17).
 Figure 1-16. Ratio of the Density to Steam vs. Pressure

24

16
DENSITY OFWATER
RATIO:
DENSITY OF STEAM
8

0
800 1600 2400 3000

PRESSURE, PSIA

Figure 1-17. Available Static Head In a 160 ft. High Boiler At A Constant
Circulation Ratio of 4.0

50 SATURATED
WATER
(DOWNTAKES)

4
8 PSI
0 AVAILABLE
STATIC HEAD
30 WITH
STATIC NATURAL
HEAD PSI CIRCULATION

2 STEAM WATER
0 MIXTURE (FURNACE
WALLS) DRUM OPERATING
PRESSURE TO GIVE 2600
10 PSIA AT THE
SUPERHEATER OUTLET

0
1800 220 260 3000
0 0
PRESSURE, PSIA

Boiler tubes depend on the velocity and quantity of water flowing through them to keep
them cool. This flow can be described by the following equation.
 Q = A x V or Flow = Area x Velocity

• Area: Natural circulation boilers must have large diameter tube to reduce the
resistances to flow and maintain adequate circulation and waterwall tube cooling.
• Velocity: The velocity relates to the force and the force is dependent on the
density differential (thermal head) and the total height of the boiler circuit.

The density differences provide the force for movement or circulation of water through the
furnace wall circuits. The factors which oppose circulation are:

• Friction between water and tube metal.

• Friction between water and scale deposits in tubes.
• Friction in tube bends.
• Friction in lower drums and headers.
• Friction around upper drum internals.
• Friction in the steam and water separating equipment.

If the circulation forces are insufficient to overcome frictional losses and cannot provide the
required cooling flow through a waterwall tube, the metal will overheat and a failure is
likely to occur.

1.3.3 Forced Circulation

In forced circulation boilers, circulation through the waterwall tubes is provided by an

external mechanical force such as a circulating pump located in the down corner circuit
from the steam drum (Figure 1-18). Circulating pumps provide additional head to
supplement the existing thermal head. This ensures adequate cooling or circulation
through the boiler at all times. Boilers of this type are designed to operate at higher
pressures than natural circulation boilers.

Adequate cooling flow can also be achieved by establishing a high rate of through flow.
This is usually accomplished using the boiler feed pumps. During start-up, the feed pumps
provide feedwater flow at a minimum prescribed rate into and through the boiler circuits.
Excess flow beyond what is needed to meet steam requirements must be discharged,
usually to the condenser.
 Figure 1-18. Typical Forced Circulation System

DRUM

ECONOMIZER

FEEDWATER

FURNACE
WALLS

PUMPS

DISTRIBUTING DRUMS

1.3.4 Circulation Ratio

A circulation ratio is defined as the height of water entering a circuit (such as the
downcomers), divided by the weight of steam in the water/steam mixture leaving the
circuits.

• Low Load Circulation Ratio: Because circulation is dependent on the thermal

head, which is dependent on boiler pressure, the flow of water into the downcomer
increases as load decreases. At low loads (50% of MCR or loss) the circulation
ration will be much higher since there is less steam being generated.
 • High Load Circulation Ratio: For every 1000 lbs (4536 kg) of water entering the
downcomer, there could be as much as 20,000 lb (9072 kg) of steam leaving the
waterwalls, equaling a circulation ratio of 5 to1, or simply “5”. Departure from
Nucleate Boiling (DNB) can occur if the circulation ratio or individual tube flow is
not sufficient to sweep away small steam bubbles forming on the inside surface of
the tubes. Steam pockets form over large areas of the tube inner diameter,
creating an insulating film barrier to normal heat transfer (Figure 1-19).

Figure 1-19. Typical Temperature Profile Across Tube Wall During Film Boiling

557oC
FILM 509o
BOILING
C
FURNACE
TEMPERATURE
1536 oC

343oC

Results of DNB can include:

• Overheated tube failures.

• Rapid accumulation of waterside tube deposits.
• Uncontrollable drum level as large steam pockets are released.
• Turbulence inside the drum can lead to carry over of water leaving with the steam.
 SECTION 1
1.4 COMBUSTION OF FUELS
Table of Contents

1.4 Combustion of Fuels

1.4.1 Introduction

1.4.2 The Combustion Process

1.4.3 Properties of Fuels

1.4.3.1 Fuel Oils
1.4.3.1.1 Properties of Fuel Oils
1.4.3.1.2 Preparation of Fuel Oils
1.4.3.2 Gaseous Fuels
1.4.3.3 Coal
1.4.3.3.1 Properties of Coal
1.4.3.3.2 Preparation of Coal

1.4.4 Fuel Analysis

1.4.4.1 Proximate Analysis
1.4.4.2 Ultimate Analysis
1.4.4.3 Analysis Terminology

1.4.5 Combustion Air

1.4.6 Conditions for Proper Combustion

1.4.6.1 Heat
1.4.6.2 Air Requirements
1.4.6.3 Complete Combustion of Carbon
1.4.6.4 Incomplete Combustion of Carbon
1.4.6.5 Combustion of Hydrogen

1.4.7 Formation of Pollutants

1.4.7.1 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)
1.4.7.2 Sulfur Oxides (SOX)

1.4.8 SUMMARY: The Three “T’s”

1.4 Combustion of Fuels

1.4.1 Introduction

Combustion is defined as the rapid chemical combination of oxygen with the combustible
elements of a fuel resulting in the release of heat energy and light.

Oxidation is the simplest form of combustion. Oxygen combines with elements such as
iron to form the oxide we know as rust. When silver tarnishes, or copper takes on a
greenish coating, this process is a very slow form of combustion.

Spontaneous combustion is a process where under some conditions maybe self-starting.

Typically, in spontaneous combustion, carbon combines slowly with oxygen in the air
along with any moisture that may be present producing a chemical reaction and giving off
heat. If the heat does not dissipate fast enough, the temperature rises and the reaction
speeds up until it eventually becomes a burning fire.

1.4.2 The Combustion Process

Normally, the combustion process begin when heat (ignition energy) is applied to a fuel in
the presence of oxygen. In the combustion process, the compounds and elements are
burned to carbon dioxide and water vapor.

Flammability of a fuel depends on how easy it is to turn it into a gas (unless it is in a

gaseous form already). Nothing truly burns until it is a gas.

Vaporizing a substance into a gas depends on:

• Fuel size and type

• Quantity of fuel present
• Heat available for ignition
• Amount of oxygen present

There are three factors or conditions necessary for combustion (Fig.1-20)

• Fuel (a combustible material)

• Oxygen in sufficient quantity to support combustion.
• Sufficient heat to bring the fuel to its ignition temperature and keep it there.

These three requirements are all necessary for combustion to occur. If anyone is removed,
we will no longer have a fire.

A fraction of a second after a particle of fuel enters a combustion chamber and is exposed
to heat, its temperature rises, the moisture is evaporated, and volatile matter distills off and
ignites. A sufficient quantity of air is introduced in the combustion zone and is mixed with
the fuel, to burn the gases distilled off. Secondary air, introduced around and with the fuel,
sweeps around and scrubs the hot carbon particles and gradually burns them into
combustion products. The chemical energy of each fuel particle is transformed to thermal
energy to be absorbed by the surrounding air causing it to expand within the combustion
chamber.
 Figure 1-20. The Combustion of Triangle

Heat Oxygen
Fire

Fuel

1.4.3 Properties of Fuels

To be classified as a fuel, a material must contain elements that combine rapidly with
oxygen to produce combustion. All fossil power plant fuels, i.e. coal, oil, gas, even refused
derived fuel (RDF), contain the two principal combustible constituent of carbon and
hydrogen (Fig.1-21). Most fuels also contain some amounts of combustible sulfur and
nitrogen. In combustion, the carbon and hydrogen are the major elements, which burn to
form carbon dioxide and water vapor.

Although sulfur is combustible and contributes slightly to the heating value of the fuel, its
presence is generally detrimental because it forms gaseous compounds during the
combination process which can later create corrosive compounds in the presence of
water. Sulfur dioxide (SO2) and Sulfur trioxide (SO3) are two such compounds which form
acids when mixed with water. These compounds can have a very damaging effect on back
end air pre heaters, duet work, and fans if gas temperatures permit water vapor and sulfur
compounds to mix. Other elements contained in fuels maybe considered as impurities,
which can affect the quantity and corrosive properties of ash accumulations.
 Figure 1-21. Combustible and Noncombustible Constituent of Fuel

Flue Gas

CO2

Oxygen
CO

Carbon SO2

Dry Oxygen Dry

Dry + Fuel Gas
Air Hydrogen
Nitrogen
Sulphur Nitrogen

Oxygen

Nitrogen Water Vapor

Ash
Water Vapor Refuse
Water
Carbon

Ash

1.4.3.1 Fuel Oils

1.4.3.1.1 Properties of Fuel Oils

Like all fossil fuels, oil is formed through geological change of vegetal matter. The greater
the geological changes the greater amount of carbon will be found in the oil.

The principal constituent of oil are carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, sulfur, nitrogen, moisture
and some ash depending on the type of oil being fued (Fig.1-22). Fuel oils burn with only
traces of non-combustible and little if any ash.
 Figure 1-22. Typical Analyses and Properties of Fuel Oils

Typical Analyses and Properties of Fuel Oils*

Grade No. 1 No. 2 No. 3 No. 4 No. 5
Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Fuel Oil Fuel Oil

Type Distillate Distillate Very Light Light Residual

(Kerosene) Residual Residual

Color Light Amber Black Black Black

API gravity, 60oF 40 32 21 17 12

Specific gravity, 60/60oF 0.8251 0.8654 0.9279 0.9529 0.9861
Lb/U.S. gallon, 60oF 6.870 7.206 7.727 7.935 8.212
Viscos., Centistokes,100oF 1.6 2.68 15.0 50.0 360.0
Viscos., Saybolt Univ., 100oF 31 35 77 232 ...
Viscos., Saybolt Furol, 122oF ... ... ... ... 170
Pour point, oF Below zero Below zero 10 30 65
Temp. for pumping, oF Atmospheric Atmospheric 15 min. 35 min. 100
oF
Temp. for atomizing Atmospheric Atmospheric 25 min. 130 200
Carbon residue, % Trace Trace 2.5 5.0 12.0
Sulfur, % 0.1 0.4-0.7 0.4-1.5 2.0 max. 2.8 max.
Oxygen and nitrogen, % 0.2 0.2 0.48 0.70 0.92
Hydrogen, % 13.2 12.7 11.9 11.7 10.5
Carbon, % 86.5 86.4 86.10 85.55 85.70
Sediment and water, % Trace Trace 0.5 max. 1.0 max. 2.0 max.
Ash, % Trace Trace 0.02 0.05 0.08
Btu/gallon 137,000 141,000 146,000 148,000 150,000

* Courtesy Exxon Corporation

Viscosity is a measure of a fluid’s resistance to flow. Heavier fractions of fuel oils (#6,
Bunker “C”, or residuals) have very high viscosities at room temperature, and therefore
require some amount of preheating t permit flow and pumping. Lighter fractions (#2, Diesel
and Kerosene) flow easily at room temperatures and require little or no heating to reduce
its viscosity. It should be noted that heating any fuel oil above 250 OF does not significantly
reduce the viscosity. To heat fuel oil above this range can become a factor in the reduction
of the overall total plant efficiency and may result in pluggage of heaters.

Flash point to the lowest temperature that oil will flash when in contact with an ignition
source. Fire point is the lowest temperature that oil will continue to burn. These values are
extremely important when heavier grades of fuel oil are transported from the storage tank
to the burner.
Specific gravity is the ratio between the weight of a volume of oil at 60 OF and the weight of
an equal volume of water at 60OF.

Heating value may be expressed in Btu/gallon at 60OF or in Btu/lb. the heating value per
gallon of oil increases with specific gravity because there is more weight (mass) per
gallon.

Sulfur and ash in fuel oil has potential for corrosive due to the high hydrogen content in the
fuel oil (10.5% - 13.2%) and the resulting high water vapor content in the products of
combustion. A given amount of sulfur in the fuel oil (0.05%) has a potential of doing more
damage than he same amount of sulfur in a solid fuel such as coal (Fig.1-21).

1.4.3.1.2 Preparation of Fuel Oils

Fuel oil must be atomized into small particles which will increase the surface area of fuel in
contact with air (oxygen) to permit a complete combustion process, thereby minimizing
fuel loss and maximizing heat release. Atomization is usually achieved by mixing the oil
with either steam or air under pressure, and then releasing the mixture through a spray
nozzle into the furnace environment. The steam or air rapidly expands as it exits the spray
nozzle, breaking the oil into very fine droplets.

Viscosity of the oil is crucial for effective atomization (Fig.1-23). Lighter grades of oils
(such as #2) contain greater percentages of hydrogen, and flow freely at ambient
temperatures so that very little preparation other than filtering is required heavier grades of
oils (such as #6) are actually a mixture of heavy and light fractions, and must be heated to
reduce the viscosity to appoint where it may be pumped, and then heated to a temperature
suitable for atomization.
 Figure 1-23. Viscosity or Temperature Chart for Fuel Oils

1.4.3.2 Gaseous Fuels

There are many different types of gaseous fuels, but they all tent to share a few desirable
characteristics (Fig.1-24). no special treatment is necessary to prepare hot gas fuels for
combustion in a conventional burner. Gaseous fuels are free of ash products and are
inherently easy to mix with air for complete combustion.
 Figure 1-24.

Combustion Constant of Dry Gases at 60oF and 30 In. Hg

CO2 H2O
O2 Reqd/
Reqd/ Reqd/
Cu Ft Cu Ft Cu Ft Densuty
of Dry of Dry of Dry
Chemical of Dry Gas. _HHV of Dry Gas_
Gas. Gas. Gas.
Formula Cu Ft Cu Ft Cu Ft Cu Ft Btu/Cu Ft * Btu/Lb

Gas O2 ... ... ... 0.08461 ... ...

Oxygen N2 ... ... ... 0.07439 ... ...
Nitrogen (atmospheric) ... ... ... ... 0.07655 ... ...
Carbon dioxide CO2 ... ... ... 0.1170 ... ...
Water vapor H2O ... ... ... 0.04758 ... ...
Hydrogen H2 0.5 ... 1.0 0.005327 325 60.991
Hydrogen sulfide H2S 1.5 1.0 ** 1.0 0.09109 647 7.100
Carbon monoxide CO 0.5 1.0 ... 0.07404 321 4.323

Saturated Hydrocarbons
Methane CH4 2.0 1.0 2.0 0.04246 1014 23.896
Ethane C2H6 3.5 2.0 3.0 0.08029 1789 22.282
Propane C3H8 5.0 3.0 4.0 0.1196 2573 21.523
Butane C4H10 6.5 4.0 5.0 0.1582 3392 21.441
Pentane C5H12 8.0 5.0 6.0 0.1904 4200 22.058

Unsaturated
Hydrocarbons or
Illuminants
Ethylene C2H4 3.0 2.0 2.0 0.07421 1614 21.647
Propylene C3H6 4.5 3.0 3.0 0.1110 2383 21.464
Butylene C4H8 6.0 4.0 4.0 0.1480 3190 21.552
Pentylene C5H10 7.5 5.0 5.0 0.1852 4000 21.600
Acetylene C2H2 2.5 2.0 1.0 0.06971 1488 21.344
Benzene C6H6 7.5 6.0 3.0 0.2060 3930 19.068
Toluene C7H6 9.0 7.0 4.0 0.2431 4750 19.537

Characteristics of Typical Natural Gases at 60oF and 30 In. Hg, Dry

A at Zero
Excess
% by Volume Density _HVV_
Air.
Btu/Cu
CO2 N2 H2S CH4 C2H6 C3H6 C4H10 C5H12 Lb/Cu Ft Btu/Lb Lb/106 Btu
Ft

77.7
5.50 ... 7.00 5.56 2.40 1.18 0.63* 0.05621 1061 18.880 738
3
32. 52.5
3.51 0.50 3.77 2.22 2.02 3.44* 0.06610 874 13.220 729
00 4
26.2 0.7 ... 59.2 13.9 ... ... ... 0.06747 849 12.580 732
87. 10.5
0.17 ... 1.64 ... ... ... 0.07120 136 1.907 732
69 0
 0.6 99.2
0.20 ... ... ... ... ... 0.04491 1006 22.410 732
0 0
0.6
... ... ... 79.40 20.00 ... ... 0.08812 1935 21.960 735
0
0.5
... ... ... 21.80 77.70 ... ... 0.11079 2389 21.560 738
0

There are however, some undesirable characteristics of gas fuels. They can be
dangerously explosive iif mixed in proper proportions with air in the presence of an ignition
source. Also, when compared to oil or a solid fuel such as coal, the high hydrogen content
produces greater quantities of water vapor in the product of combustion. This leads to a
greater loss of heat from the furnace and a resulting reduction in overall boiler efficiency.

1.4.3.3 Coal

1.4.3.3.1 Properties of Coal

While coal is a plentiful and relatively inexpensive fuel for use in power plants, it requires
additional considerations in the areas of handling, preparation and firing. Unlike fuel oils
and natural gases, coal characteristics can vary significant depending on the geological
and geographical location of the wire.

Coals are classified according to several properties (Fig.1-25). Based on physical

characteristics which include volatile content, heating values and agglomerating
characteristics a coal is ranked and is classified as either Anthracite, Bitumenous, Sub-
bitumenous or lignite. Anthracite coals are the hardest, have a very low moisture and
volatile content, and are consequently very slow to ignite. Bitumenous and sub-
bitumenous coals are the most commonly used in power plants because of their
abundance and favorable guiding and firing characteristics.

Lignite is plentiful also, but usually contains large quantities of moisture and ash, and
therefore requires special considerations for preparation and firing the furnace.

Figure 1-25. Typical Coal Analysis

COALS OF THE U.S.A. PROGRESSIVE STAGES OF TRANSFORMATION OF

VEGETAL MATTER INTO COAL
(as received)

VALUE Btu/lb
MOISTURE

ANALYSIS ON DRY BASIS

HIGH HEAT

FUEL
(dry)

CLASSIFICATI LOCALITY PROXIMATE ULTIMATE

ON
V.M. F.C. Ash S H C N O
Wood 46.9 78.1 20.4 1.5 .. 6.0 51.4 0.1 41.0 8840
Peat Minnesota 64.3 67.3 22.7 10.0 0.4 5.3 52.2 1.8 30.3 9060
Lignite North Dakota 36.0 49.8 38.1 12.1 1.8 4.0 64.7 1.9 15.5 11040
Lignite Texas 33.7 44.1 44.9 11.0 0.8 4.6 64.1 1.2 18.3 11080
Subbituminous
Wyoming 22.3 40.4 44.7 14.9 3.4 4.1 61.7 1.3 14.6 10600
C
Subbituminous
Wyoming 15.3 39.7 53.6 6.7 2.7 5.2 67.3 1.9 16.2 12100
B
Subbituminous
Wyoming 12.8 39.0 55.2 5.8 0.4 5.2 73.1 0.9 14.6 12900
A
Bituminous High
Colorado 12.0 38.9 53.9 7.2 0.6 5.0 73.1 1.5 12.6 13060
Volatile C
Bituminous High
Ilinois 8.6 35.4 56.2 8.4 1.8 4.8 74.6 1.5 8.9 13390
Volatile B
Bituminous High
Pennsylvania 1.4 34.3 59.2 6.5 1.3 5.2 79.5 1.4 6.1 14400
Volatile A
Bituminous
West Virginia 3.4 22.2 74.9 2.9 0.6 4.9 86.4 1.6 3.6 15180
Medium Volatile
Bituminous Low
West Virginia 3.6 16.0 79.1 4.9 0.8 4.8 85.4 1.5 2.6 15000
Volatile
Semi-anthracite Arkansas 5.2 11.0 74.2 14.8 2.2 3.4 76.4 0.5 2.7 13140
Anthracite Pennsylvania 5.4 7.4 75.9 16.7 0.8 2.6 76.8 0.8 2.3 12740
Meta-anthracite Rhode Island 4.5 3.2 82.4 14.4 0.9 0.5 82.4 0.1 1.7 11620

A boiler designed for coal firing is specifically sized and configured according to the
expected properties of the proposed design coal (Fig.1-26). Some variations of coal quality
can usually be absorbed by the design, however significant changes in rank or properties
within a rank may result in significant changes to performance or required operating
produces.

Figure 1-26. Effect of Coal Rank on Furnace Sizing

WxD 1.08 x 1.06D 1.16W x 1.08D 12.6W x 1.24D 1.29W x

1.26D

2.1h
1.45
1.52h H
1.30
1.15h 1.17h H
h
H 1.05 1.07
H H

EASTERN MIDWESTERN WILCOX YEGUA-JAKSON NORTHER

BITUMINU BITUMINUS SEAM SEAM N PLAINS
S SUB- LIGNITE
BITUMINUS TEXAS LIGNITE
 1.4.3.3.2 Preparation of Coal

While coal can be burned in small chunks on a stoker, many large coal-fired utility stations
are burning pulverized coal in suspension. The coal is ground to a face-powder
consistency and is transported by air through piping from the pulverizer up to and into the
furnace. The powder consistency produces particle sizes which are quickly heated, ignited
and burned in the furnace. The pulverized coal stream is very fluid, and therefore mixes
very well in the furnace with combustion air.

Part of the pulverization process is devoted to the evaporation of moisture from the coal
(Fig.1-27). A portion of this moisture is inherent in the coal seam, while some is picked up
as “surface moisture” during mining, transportation and storage. The moisture flash dried
by hot air in pulverizer so that the particles of coal entering the furnace are ready for
heating and ignition.
Figure 1-27. Moisture in Coal

MOISTURE IN COAL

1.6 SURFACE MOISTURE(S)

2.6 INTERNAL OR SEAM MOISTURE ()
3.6 TOTAL MOISTURE ( S +  )

MINE
OUTLET
PLANT PULVERIZER PULVERIZER
INLET INLET OUTLET

S S

 %  % 
%


%
1.4.4 Fuel Analysis

1.4.4.1 Proximate Analysis

The proximate analysis determines the physical characteristics of a fuel such as the
percentage of moisture volatile material, fixed carbon, ash, and higher heating value. The
proximate analysis gives an indication of the behavior of the fuel in the combustion
chamber, and the best method of firing such a fuel.

1.4.4.2 Ultimate Analysis

A more detailed chemical analysis is known as an ultimate analysis. An ultimate analysis

is required to carry out combustion calculations by chemically breaking down the fuel into
its element, such as carbon, nitrogen, oxygen, hydrogen, and sulfur. By knowing the
amounts of carbon, hydrogen and sulfur contained in a fuel, the requirements for oxygen
and the quantity of combustion products can be calculated.

1.4.4.3 Analysis Terminology

The measure content of a fuel normally refers to the water from natural resources which is
entrained in a fuel. Moisture is detrimental from two aspects.

• It delays the heating and ignition of the fuel.

• Once vaporized off the fuel, it carries heat away.

The volatile matter is that portion of a fuel which consists of combustible liquids or gases,
such as methane, hydrogen and other hydrocarbons which can be driven off by only light
heating of the fuel. Since the quantity of volatile matter indicates the amount of gaseous
fuel present, it affects firing mechanics. The speed with the fuel and air mixture ignites in
the combustion chamber and also affected by the quantity of volatiles present. Heat
release by burning volatiles accelerates the heating of fixed carbon to the ignition point.
Fixed carbon is the combustible residue left after the volatile matter is driven off.

The higher heating value (HHV) defines the amount of heat energy released when the
fuel is burned. This energy indicated in Btu/lb. The heating value affects the firing rate or
quantity of fuel being burned in the furnace. The higher heating value does not take into
consideration the amount of heat which will be used to evaporate the water vapor formed
when the hydrogen in the fuel burns. Actual heat available in a combustion chamber will
therefore be slightly less.

The ash content of a fuel refers to the solid mineral constituents that are not combustible,
and therefore do not contribute to the overall heating value of true fuel. The ash in the
unburned fuels consists of many compounds which frequently change their composition
and characteristics when exposed to the heat and oxygen in the fire. The percentage
(amount), properties and chemical analysis of the ash in a fuel must be taken into
consideration in the design of a furnace and the selection of ash handling equipment.

The agglomerating characteristics of coal describe how particles of the coal respond when
exposed to rapid heating. A particle of coal which forms more a “ball” with very few pits or
fissures burns more slowly since the surface area available for contact with air and
combustion is reduced. This could be known as an agglomerating coal. A particle of non-
agglomerating coal either breaks down further or forms pits and fissures which enhance
the combustion characteristics due to the increased surface area.
 1.4.5 Combustion Air

Air is the usual source of oxygen for combustion. The volumetric composition of air is
approximately 21% oxygen. Oxygen is the only active element in air is necessary for
combustion. The large percentage of nitrogen in air, 78% by volume, performs no useful
function in the combustion process. Some nitrogen will oxidize at high combustion
temperatures, in the presence of free oxygen, forming NO X (nitrogen oxide) emission.
These NOX emissions are considered a form of air pollution due to their effect on the
natural moisture and carbon monoxide compounds in the atmosphere.
Air for combustion is normally provided to the furnace by the Forced Draft (FD) Fans. The
air is usually heated using heat extracted from exiting flue gas (Fig.1-27). Preheating the
air reduces the thermal losses associated with the exiting flue gases and acids in providing
a more stable combustion zone. On units firing pulverized coal, a portion of the air FD Fan
supply may be directed to the pulverizer for drying and transport of the coal up to the
furnace. Some systems include dedicated Primary Air (PA) Fans to meet the requirements
or drying and transport air for the pulverizer. Primary air is counted as part of the air
required for the combustion, although it seldom constitutes more than 15-20% of the total
air delivered to the furnace.

Figure 1-28. Supply of Air to Furnace and Pulverizer

BALANCE AIR TEMPERATURE

HEATER CONTROL
DRAFT DAMPER
FURENACE

-1.0”
w.c

BAROMETER FLOW
DAMPER DAMPER

SUCTION
FD FAN
PULVERIZER WITH
EXHAUSTER
TO
STACK

ID FAN
 1.4.6 Conditions for Proper Combustion

1.4.6.1 Heat

Heat must be present to cause ignition. Ignition is raising a substance to the minimum
temperature at which combustion becomes self-sustaining. The temperature at which this
occurs is known as the ignition point. Until this point is reached an external source of
ignition energy is needed. Ignition energy for lightning off main oil guns is provided by
smaller ignitors.

When the main fuel (oil or coal) is being fired, some form of support ignition energy must
remain in service until the heat input from the main fuel is sufficient to support its own
ignition. The support ignition energy may come from warm-up oil guns or from adjacent
elerations of main fuel.

Failure to maintain the required amount of ignition energy can result in heat being
absorbed away from the flame at a rate faster than it is being produced. Under these
conditions, the flame can become unstable and collapse, resulting in a furnace “blackout”.

1.4.6.2 Air Requirements

Fuel entering a furnace requires a definite quantity of air to compete combustion. This is
the “theoretical air” required for complete combustion under perfect conditions. However,
because of the imperfect conditions existing on the boiler, it is necessary to use more air
than the theoretical amount to ensure complete combustion. The amount of air required
above the theoretical air amount is called “excess air”. Excess air percentage can range
from less than 10% for oil and up to 20-30% firing coal. Generally, the oxygen content of
the flue gases in the back pass is monitored and used as an indicator of excess air.
Typically, these values for O2 will be controlled at 1-3% for oil and 4-6% when firing coal.
Visual observations of the furnace and stack should be combined with these readings to
obtain optimum conditions.

The success of the combustion process at any value of excess air is nearly dependent on
the proper mixing of the fuel and air. As less excess air is introduced more intense mixing
must be provided.

1.4.6.3 Complete Combustion of Carbon

Combustion is a chemical process. When oxygen in the air is mixed with the carbon,
hydrogen and sulfur in the fuel in definite proportions at the ignition temperature, they will
combine to form fire (Fig.1-28). This process can be described by the following chemical
equations.

Figure 1-29. Common Chemical Reactions of Combustion

Heat of Combustion
Combustible Reaction Pounds
(High Btu/lb of Fuel)
Carbon (to Co) 2C + O2 = 2CO 24 lbs + 32 lbs = 56 lbs 4000
Carbon (to CO2) C + O2 = CO2 12 + 32 = 44 14,100
Carbon Monoxide 2CO + O2 = 2CO2 56 + 32 = 88 4,345
Hydrogen 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O 4 + 32 = 36 61,100
Sulfur (to SO2) S + O2 = SO2 32 + 32 = 64 3,980
Methane CH4 + 2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O 16 + 64 = 80 23,875
Acetylene 2C2H2 + 5O2 = 4CO2 + 2H2O 52 + 160 = 212 21,500
Ethylene C2H4 + 3O2 = 2CO2 + 2H2O 28 + 96 = 124 21,635
Ethane 2C2H6 + 7O2 = 4CO2 + 6H2O 60 + 224 = 284 22,325
Hydrogen Sulfide 2H2S + 3O2 = 2SO2 + 2H2O 68 + 96 = 164 7,100

For complete combustion of carbon:

C + O2 → CO2

Carbon + oxygen yields carbon dioxide.

12 + 32 → 44 (atomic weights)

12 + 32 = 44
12 12 12

1 lb + 2.67 lbs = 3.67 lbs CO2 per 1.0 lb carbon burned.

We need 2.67 pounds of oxygen to burn 1 pound of carbon and get 3.67 lbs of carbon
dioxide as combustion products. Since oxygen present in air is relatively small, it takes 4.3
pounds of air to provide one pound of oxygen 4.3 x 2.47 = 11.5 pounds of air are needed
to burn 1 pound of carbon.

When a sufficient quantity of a particular fuel is burned so that one pound of carbon is
burned to carbon dioxide, it results in a heat output of approximately 14,100 BTU.

1.4.6.4 Incomplete Combustion of Carbon

Incomplete combustion occurs when a portion of the fuel remains unburned because of
insufficient air or poor air-fuel mixing.

For incomplete combustion:

2C + O2 → 2CO

Carbon + insufficient oxygen yields carbon monoxide.

24 + 32 →56 (atomic weights)

24 + 32 = 56
24 24 24

Divide to get pounds of carbon monoxide per pound of carbon.

1 lb + 1.33 lb = 2.33 lb of carbon monoxide per 1.0 lb of carbon burned.

When 1 lb of carbon is burned to carbon monoxide, the amount of oxygen is only 1/2 of that
required for complete combustion. The heat released for incomplete combustion of 1
pound of carbon is about 4000 BTU/lb. the heat loss from incomplete combustion to
carbon monoxide is 14,100 BTU/lb – 4000 BTU/lb = 10,100 BTU/lb. the net loss for each
pound of carbon incompletely burned shows the importance of completely burning the
combustible gases before they are allowed to exit the combustion zone.

1.4.6.5 Combustion of Hydrogen

When burning hydrogen, another combustible element found in fuel, water vapor is formed

2 H2 + O2 → 2H2O

Hydrogen + oxygen yields water

4 + 32 → 36 (atomic weights)

4 + 32 = 36 divide to get pounds of water per pound of hydrogen.

4 4 4

1 lb + 8 lb = 9lb of water per 1.0 lb of hydrogen burned.

When one pound of hydrogen is burned to completion 61,100 BTU of heat are released.

1.4.7 Formation of Pollutants

If the combustion process created only the reactions previously mentioned there would be
no need for the control of undesirable by – products of combustion or what we know as
environmental pollutants.

1.4.7.1 Nitrogen Oxides (NOX)

One of the concerns regarding power plant is the formation of nitrogen oxides, or NO X
emissions. Even though large quantities of nitrogen are supplied with the combustion air,
the principal source of nitrogen in the formation of NO X is the fuel itself. Once NOX
compounds are formed, further reactions, principals with water, create acids which are
corrosive. The sequence of chemical reactions which occurs in the formation of nitric acid
are as follows:

2 N + 5 O + H2O → 2 NO + 3 O + H2O → 2 HNO

(nitric oxide) (nitric acid)

It is therefore environmentally necessary to control the formation of NOX compounds.

The formation of the nitric oxide can be retarded during the combustion process by
reducing the temperature at which combustion occurs. During combustion the normal
temperatures can reach up to 3500 OF (1980 OC). At this temperature, the volume of nitric
oxide produced in the combustion gas will be 0.01%. If the combustion temperature is
lowered the amount of the nitric oxide will be substantially redued. By maintaining the
combustion temperature below 2800 OF (1585 OC) at the burner, the volume of nitric oxide
produced during the combustion process will be reduced to below the maximum limit of 20
parts per million (0.002%). This minimum may in some cases, be obtained by
redistributing the combustion air flow or injecting a non-combustible gas (flue gas) around
the burner to cool the combustion process.
 1.4.7.2 Sulfur Oxides (SOX)

In a similar fashion, the formation of sulfur acid is another common by product of the
combustion process. Once reaction forming sulfur acid as follow:

H2S + 4 O → SO3 + H2O → H2SO4

(sulfur oxide) (sulfur acid)

The formation of sulfur acid cannot be economically retarded in the combustion process.
Therefore, the most common way to minimize the sulfur oxide products at an installation is
to burn low sulfur fuels. Otherwise, expensive back end flue gas clean up equipment is
required.

1.4.8 SUMMARY: The Three “T’s”

With proper ratios of fuel and air, an efficient and complete combustion process can occur
of the following. Three conditions are pounded (Fig.1-29):

• Time – Adequate time must be provided in the furnace to begin and complete the
combustion process. Only products of combustion should be leaving the furnace –
not burning particles, unburned fuel, or incompletely burned fuel.
• Temperature – The temperature of the furnace atmosphere must be kept above
ignition temperature. Adequate heat must be available to ignite and sustain the
combustion process.
• Turbulence – Turbulence provides more effective mixing of fuel and air and
promotes even heat distribution for fuel ignition and flame stability.

Figure 1-30. The Three T’s of Good Combustion

TIME

-To heat, ignite, and completely burn the fuel.

TEMPERATURE

-To ignite and sustain combustion

TURBULENCE

-To place the fuel in contact with oxygen

 SECTION 1
1.5 ASH AND SLAG CHARACTERISTICS
Table of Contents

1.5 Ash and Slag Characteristics

1.5.1 Introduction
1.5.2 Ash Characteristics
1.5.3 Ash Fusibility
1.5.4 Base/Acid Ratio
1.5.5 Ash Behavior
1.5 Ash and Slag Characteristics

1.5.1 Introduction

Ash is incombustible mineral matter that remains after a fuel has been burned completely.
Oil leaves a small quantity, and coal leaves a comparatively large amount.

The physical and chemical properties of the ash can give an indication of how the ash will
behave in the furnace.

1.5.2 Ash Characteristics

The ash in coal undergoes various changes during the combustion process, and the ash
content of a coal determines the following:

• The amount of deposits produced.

• Nature of ash and slag and how effectively the deposits are removed from the
boiler heat absorbing surfaces. “Slagging” and “Fouling” are two forms of ash
formed in the boiler furnace when burning coal.
• Slag – Fused deposits or re-solidified molten material that forms primarily on
furnace walls and surfaces exposed to radiant heat or excessively high gas
temperatures.
• Fouling – Bounded (sintered or cemented) ash deposits that form primarily on
convection heat absorbing surfaces such as superheater and reheater tubes.

1.5.3 Ash Fusibility

Ash Fusibility is a term used to describe a laboratory test that determines the melting
point of an ash compound. The ash fusibility temperatures determine how an ash deposit
forms in the furnace and how easy it is to remove from the heat absorbing furnaces. Ash
fusibility temperatures indicate tendencies toward slagging.

Ash Fusibility affects boiler furnace conditions and operation. If particles of ash reach heat
absorbing surfaces in the boiler at a temperature below the softening (initial deformation)
temperature of the ash, the ash will remain as dust. This ash will either fall to the ash pit or
be carries out of the furnace area, no bonding results.

If ash particles meet heat absorbing surfaces at a temperature near the softening
temperature of the ash, the resulting deposit will be porous. The deposit will be easy to
remove with sootblowers, due to a weak bond between tube surfaces and deposit. The
ash deposits may fall off of furnaces from its own weight.

If ash particles reach heat absorbing surfaces at temperatures higher than the softening
temperature of the ash, the deposit formed will be a fused mass and condense on the
cooler metal surfaces. This material is tightly bounded and difficult to remove with
sootblowers.

As this material builds up on itself, its insulating properties further increase the surface
temperature of the deposit. Then the ash fluid temperature is reached producing a molten
slag run off. Such a deposit is even more difficult to dislodge with sootblowers.
Figure 1-31. Ash Fusibility Temperatures

1 2 3 4 5
IT ST HT FT

1. Cone Before Heating

2. IT (or ID) Initial Deformation Temperature
3. ST Softening Temperature (H=W)
4. HT Hemispheric Temperature (H=1/2W)
5. FT Fluid Temperature

1.5.4 Base/Acid Ratio

The base/acid ratio is an index for measuring the potential for chemical interactions
between the acidic and basic minerals contained in ash. These chemical interactions form
compounds (salts) with different melting temperatures than the original minerals found in
the ash (Fig.1-32).

There are many ratios and indexes that can predict how ash will react in the furnace. This
is an index for determining the slagging potential of a coal ash, and hence how effectively
it is removed.

The ratios indicate that ash fusibility changes with amounts and types of elements
contained in ash and coal. The temperature at which ash becomes molten (fluid
temperature) can range from 2000-3000oF. When firing coal, the boiler furnace will be
approximately 2200oF in the burner zone.

The various levels of elements contained in coal ash can influence bonding strength that
the deposits have on heat absorbing surfaces. How effectively the deposits are removed
depend upon operation of ash handling equipment, sootblowers, boiler efficiency and
availability.
 Figure 1-32. Properties of Coal-Ash

Chemical Melting
Element Oxide Melting Temp (oF) Compound
Property Temp (oF)
Si SiO2 3120 Acidic Na2SiO3 1610
Al Al2O3 3710 Acidic K2SiO3 1790
Ti TiO2 3340 Acidic Al2O3 • Na2O • 6SiO2 2010
Fe Fe2O3 2850 Basic Al2O3 • K2O • 6SiO2 2100
Ca CaO 4570 Basic FeSiO3 2090
Mg MgO 5070 Basic CaO • Fe2O3 2280
Na Na2O Sublimes at 2330 Basic CaO • MgO • 2SiO2 2535
K K2O Decomposes at 660 Basic CaSiO3 2804

1.5.5 Ash Behavior

Ash behavior in the furnace is related to the following:

• Mineral content of coal

• Combustion Rates
• Particle Fineness
• Fuel and Air Ratios
• Flame Temperatures

All of the above are in turn related to various operating conditions in the power plant.

Operating parameters for effective ash handling:

When burning coal, particular attention should be paid as to the rate of slag accumulation
on furnace walls.

Note:

Furnace observations should made regularly to check firing conditions and ash
accumulations.

Significant changes in furnace performance can result from excessive ash and/or slag
accumulation. Furnace conditions affect boiler heat absorption rates:

• An increase in draft loss through the unit.

• An increase in desuperheating water flow.
• An imbalance between superheater and reheater temperatures.
• Abnormal spread in temperature across the unit.
• Load upsets and over firing the unit.
Operating parameters used for controlling deposits are:

Sootblowers, excess air, fuel fineness and unit load.

• Sootblowers – the sole function of sootblowers is to keep the various heat

absorbing surfaces of the boiler clean and deposit free.
• Excess Air – ash compounds melt at a higher temperature in an oxygen rich
atmosphere. I slagging is a problem, furnace deposits maybe reduced by
increasing the amount of excess air. The higher the fusion temperature or
melting point of ash, the drier the slag in the furnace, and the easier it is to
remove. To have good, efficient combustion there must be sufficient excess air.
 Slagging may be reduced by increasing secondary air flow to fuel and auxiliary
air compartments.
• Fuel Fineness – if coal particle size is increased, chances for complete
combustion decrease. High carbon levels > 1% in bottom ash, indicates
incomplete combustion. Since only fuel exposed to air (oxygen) can burn, large
particles require more time to burn, and may drop out of the fireball or stick to
the walls before burning completely. Bituminous coals should have a fineness of
68-72% than 200 mesh.
• Load – at full load more coal is burned so more ash is produced. The higher the
heat input to the furnace, the greater is the potential for heavy slagging and
fouling to occur. The last report to reduce slagging and heavy fouling is to curtail
load. This is not always possible because of electrical generation requirements.
Reducing load will chill deposits or slag formations making them easier to
remove.

Note:

Changing anyone of these parameters will not necessarily climinate operating

problems completely. Though these variables influence boiler performance,
each one requires testing and experience to establish the best way of operating
the unit.

Ash and Slag Accumulations in the Furnace

Fly ash is entrained in the flue gas which leaves the furnace. As these gases pass over
the boiler heat absorbing surfaces on the way to the stack, fly ash becomes deposited
on various sections, depending on the temperatures of the ash particles and the
surfaces. Approximately 80% of the total ash formed during the combustion process
leaves the furnace is fly ash. Approximately 20% falls down to the furnace bottom ash
hopper.

Ash Handling System

The ash remaining after the burning of coal can vary in properties and amount
depending on the source of the coal being burned. The percentage of ash determined
during laboratory testing of a coal sample is combined with the expected total coal
consumption at full load (or peak) to size the ash handling system. As an example, a unit
burning 200,000 lb/hr of coal with an ash content of 6% will produce 12,000 lb/hr of ash
material. Figure 4 shows the different ash collection points. Usually, a conservative
factor is also included to allow for higher ash contents in poorer coals which may be
delivered in the future. If a pulverizer is worn or out of adjustment for the coal being
burned so that the coal particle fineness entering the furnace excessively coarse, the
amount of material to be handled could increase significantly as the coarse particles
drop out of the fireball or do not complete the combustion process. This results in a high
“carbon loss” as unburned fuel is thrown away with the ash products.
Figure 1-33. Relationship of Ash Properties and Furnace Cleanability
 Figure 1-34. Ash Collection Points

Gas

Coal

Economizer
Hopper
Flyash
Electrostatic
Pulveriz Precipitator
er
(ESP) - Fly
Air Heater Ash
Hopper
Flyash
Pyrites
Bottom Ash