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Organisational behaviour

Lecture 1
Learning points
1. What is diversity?
2. What are the common forms of discrimination in workplace?
3. Why is it important to manage workplace diversity?
4. How can organisations and managers manage diversity e昀昀ectively?

What is OB
 A 昀椀eld of study that investigates the impact that individuals, groups
and structure have on behaviour within organisations so knowledge
can be applied to improvement of organisation.

Goals of OB
 Employee productivity  a measure of e昀케ciency and e昀昀ectiveness.
 Absenteeism  failure to show to work.
 Turnover  voluntary and involuntary withdrawal
 Job satisfaction  attitude towards job
 Organisational citizenship behaviour  discretionary behaviour
excluding job requirements.
 Counterproductive workplace behaviour  intentional damaging
behaviour to organisation or people within.

Intuition
 Gut feeling
 Individual observation
 Common sense
Systematic study
 Looks at relationships
 Scienti昀椀c evidence
 Predicts behaviour

Few absolutes in OB
 Situational factors that make the main relationship between two
variable change.

Management functions
 Planning  de昀椀ne goals and how to work towards them
 Organising  plan ahead
 Leading  direct and coordinate
 Controlling  direct and coordinate Monitoring performance in
e昀昀ective way

Levels of diversity

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 Surface level diversity  di昀昀erences in easily perceived

characteristics such as age race gender
 Deep level diversity  di昀昀erences in personality, values and
preferences

Reducing stereotype threats

 Increase awareness of how stereotypes come about. E.g. through
unconscious bias
 Reduce di昀昀erential and preferential treatment through objective
assessments
 Ban stereotyped practices and messages
 Adopt transparent practices that signal value of all employees

Gender bias in performance attribution

 Women are given less credit for successful outcomes and blamed
more for failure
 Men typically attribute their success to innate qualities and skills
whereas women to external factors such as luck
 Because women get less credit con昀椀dence decreases.

Race and ethnicity

 Individuals slightly favour colleagues of their own ethnicity in
performance evaluation/payrise/promotion.
 Members of minorities report higher discrimination

Ability
 Refers to individual capacity to perform task within job
 2 broad types  intellectual + physical

Diversity management strategies

 Diversity management  process and programs which managers
make everyone more aware and sensitive to needs of others
 Attracting, selecting, developing, retaining diverse employees 
target underrepresented groups, ensure bias free hire and
promotion and develop positive climate.

E昀昀ective diversity programs

 Teach managers about legal framework for equal employment
opportunity and encourage fair treatment
 Teach how diverse workforce will be better to serve diverse
customers
 Foster personal development practices that bring out the skills and
abilities of all workers

Lecture 2
Learning points

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 Personality
 Big 5 model
 Myers-Briggs Indicator
 Personality traits relative to OB
 Situational strength and trait activation theories
 Values  Values vs personality

What is personality?
 Unique combo of emotional thought and behavioural pattern that
a昀昀ects how a person reacts to situations and interacts with others
Origins of personality
 Genetics  40%
 Life experience/environment  60%

The Big 昀椀ve model

1. Extraversion  Assertive social (high) and Reserved and quiet (low)
2. Agreeableness  Trusting, warm, cooperative (high) and cold,
antagonistic (low)
3. Openness to experience  creative, curious (high) and conventional
and comfortable with familiarity (low)
4. Conscientiousness  responsible, organised, dependable (high) and
easily distracted, disorganised (low)
5. Emotional stability  Anxious, depressed (low) and calm secure
con昀椀dent (high)

Myer Briggs type indicator

The dark triad

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 Machiavellianism  the degree to which people are pragmatic,

maintain emotional distance, and believe that ends justify means
 Know how to gain manipulate power
 Narcissism a person with a grandiose sense of self-importance
that is arrogant and requires excessive admiration
 Psychopathy  a person who lacks concern for others and lacks
guilt or remorse when their actions cause harm to others

Other personality traits relevant to OB

 Core self evaluation  Captures the extent to which individuals like
themselves and see themselves as capable and e昀昀ective in
workplace
 Self-Monitoring  measures ability to adjust behaviour to external
situational factors
 Proactive personality  describes individuals who are more prone to
take actions to in昀氀uence their environment
 Risk-Taking  Willingness to take chance

There are two theoretical perspectives on how situational factors

moderate the e昀昀ects of personality on behaviour in work settings.
1. Situation-strength theory
 The way personality translates into behaviour depends on strength
of situation.
 Clarity, consistency, constraints and consequences
 Organizations are strong situations because they impose rules,
norms and standards that govern behaviour
2. Trait activation theory
 Jobs in which certain big 5 traits are more relevant

Values
 Basic convictions that speci昀椀c mode of conduct or end-state of
existence is personally or socially preferable to an opposite or
converse mode of conduct or end state of existence
 Values distinguish good from bad, right from wrong

Value system
 Hierarchy ranking of individuals values In terms of their intensity

Values are important for organisations

 Are a foundation of attitudes and motivation
 In昀氀uence perception
 In昀氀uence behaviour

Classifying values
1. Terminal
 Desirable end states of existence

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 Goals one wishes to achieve in life

 E.g.  Exciting life, Equality, Self respect, family security
2. Instrumental values
 Preferable modes of behaviour
 Means of achieving ones terminal values
 E.g.  Ambitious, honest, loving, responsive, open minded

Linking personality and values to workplace

 People are attracted to and selected by places places that appear to
match their personality and values.

Hofstedes framework
 A framework for cross-cultural psychology
 It shows how e昀昀ects of culture on the values of its people and how it
relates to their personality

Power distance
 is the degree to which people in a culture accept that power in
institutions and organizations is distributed unequally

Individualism vs Collectivism
 Individualism  is the degree to which people in a culture prefer to
act as individuals rather than as members of groups
 Collectivism  emphasizes a tight social framework in which people
expect others in groups in which they are a part to look after them
and protect them

Masculinity vs Femineity
 Masculinity  is the degree to which values such as the acquisition
of money and material goods prevail
 Femininity  is the degree to which people value relationships and
show sensitivity and concern for others

Uncertainty avoidance
 is the degree to which people in a country prefer structured over
unstructured situations

Long term vs short term orientation

 Long-term orientations  look to the future and value thrift and
persistence
 Short-term orientation  values the here and now; they accept
change more readily and don’t see commitments as impediments to
change

Lecture 3
Learning points

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 De昀椀ning attitudes
 How attitudes relate to behaviour
 Job satisfaction
 A昀昀ect, emotion, moods
 Sources of emotion and moods
 Emotional intelligence
 Implication for OB

Attitudes
 Re昀氀ect how we feel about something
 They re昀氀ect a behaviour disposition
Components to attitude
 Cognitive  opinion or belief segment
 A昀昀ective  the emotional or feeling
 Behavioural  a intention to behave certain way

Job satisfaction
 A positive feeling of a job results from an evaluation of its
characteristics
What causes it
 Engaging, interesting and variability
 Stimulating
 Pay

Job involvement
 The degree to which a person identi昀椀es psychologically with their
job, actively participates and considers their perceived performance
level important to self-worth
Employee engagement
 An individuals involvement and satisfaction with, and enthusiasm
for, the work he or she does.
Perceived organisational support
 The degree to which employees believe the organisational values
their contribution and cares about well being
Psychological empowerment
 Employee belief in degree to which they a昀昀ect their work
environment, their competency, the meaningfulness of their job and
their perceived autonomy in work

Outcome of job satisfaction

 Job performance
 Organisational citizenship behaviours
 Life satisfaction
 Productivity

Implication for managers

 q Managers should be interested in employees’ attitudes because
attitudes give warnings of potential problems and in昀氀uence
behaviour

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 q Evidence suggests improving employee attitudes will likely result

in improved organisational e昀昀ectiveness including higher customer
satisfaction and pro昀椀ts.
 q Measure employee job attitudes objectively and at regular
intervals
 q Evaluate the 昀椀t between the employees’ work interests and
intrinsic parts of the work
 q Consider high pay alone is unlikely to create a satisfying
workplace

EMOTION AND MOOD>>>

Lecture 4

 Perception  is a process by which individuals organize and

interpret their sensory impressions in order to give meaning to their
environment

 Attribution theory  suggests that when we observe an individual’s

behaviour, we attempt to determine whether it was internally or
externally caused.

 Distinctiveness  Does this person behave this way in di昀昀erent

situations?
 Consensus  Do other people behave the same way in similar
situations?
 Consistency  Does this person behave this way consistently (over
time)?

1. Fundamental Attribution Error  Tendency to underestimate the

in昀氀uence of external factors and overestimate the inf luence of
internal or personal factors when judging the behaviour of others.

2. Self-Serving Bias 
 Tendency for individuals to attribute their own successes to internal
factors and put blame for failures on external factors.
 Succeed: make dispositional attributions.
 Fail: make situational attributions.

3. Actor-Observer Bias
 Tendency to attribute one’s own actions to external causes while
attributing other people’s behaviours to internal causes.
 Actors and observers tend to focus on di昀昀erent causes for
behaviour:
 Actors make more situational attributions.
 Observers make more dispositional attributions.

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Lecture 5
Learning points
 Motivation
 Early and contemporary theories of it

Motivation
 The processes that account for an individuals intensity, direction
and persistence of e昀昀ort toward attaining a goal
 Intensity  How hard they work towards it
 Direction  what behaviours of activities do they choose
 Persistence  how long thery keep trying

Intrinsic motivation  Motivation due to internal factors

 Self desire to seek out new things
 Driven by an interest or enjoyment

Extrinsic motivation  Motivation due to external factors

 Rewards of good performance
 Attain an outcome

Early theories of motivation

1. Haslows hierarchy of needs theory

 Needs lower down in the hierarchy must be satis昀椀ed before
individuals can attend to needs higher up. From the bottom of the
hierarchy upwards, the needs are.
 Bottom  physiological (food, water, sleep), to safety (home,
income) to love (friendship family), to esteem (con昀椀dence,
achievement) to self actualisation  top
 Self actualisation  to become more and more what one is, to
become everything that one is capable of becoming

2. McClelland’s theory of needs

 Individuals di昀昀er in extent to which they posses each 3 needs.
 Need for power  control over others, dominance. Low a昀케liation
 Need for achievement  drive to succeed and excel in relation to a
set of standards
 Need for a昀케liation  desire friendly and close interpersonal
relationship.

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3. Herzbergs two factor theory

 employee satisfaction has two dimensions: “hygiene” and
motivation.
 Job satisfaction  comes from motivator needs
 Job dissatisfaction  when hygiene needs not met
 Hygiene factors  salary, bene昀椀ts, work conditions
 Motivator factors  achievement, recognition, advancement.

Contemporary theories of motivation

1. Goal setting theory

 goals that are clear, speci昀椀c, and challenging are more motivating
than vague goals or easy goals.
 Di昀케cult goals = higher performance
 Speci昀椀c goals = increase performance
 Feedback = higher performance

2. Self e昀케cacy theory

 An indivudals belief that they are capable of performing a task to
produce speci昀椀c outcome.
 Arousal  energised state
 Verbal persuasion  occurs when con昀椀dence is attained
 Enactive  relevant experience to job or task
 Vicarious modelling  more con昀椀dent when you see someone to the
task.

3. Reinforcement theory
 behaviors are shaped by their consequences, and that individual
behaviors can be changed through reinforcement, punishment and
extinction.
 Behaviour is motivated by consequences
 Reinforcement  anything that increases/decreases repetition of
behaviour
 4 aspects  positive, negative, extinction or punishment \

4. Adams equity theory

 Employees are motivated by a desire to be treated fairly
 Employees compare their job inputs and outcomes with those of
others and then respond to eliminate any inequalities
 comparison with coworkers
 if equity achieved = high motivation

5. Vrooms expectancy theory

 The strength of a tendency to act in a certain way depends on the
strength of an expectation that the act will be followed by a given
outcome and on the attractiveness of that outcome to the individual

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 A person will NOT be highly motivated if any of the following

conditions exist:
 High instrumentality & positive valence but low expectancy: A
person believes that he can’t perform well enough to achieve the
positive outcomes that he knows the company provides to good
performers.
 High expectancy & high instrumentality but negative valence: He
knows that he can do the job and is fairly certain what the ultimate
outcomes will be (e.g., a promotion and a transfer). However, he
does not want those outcomes or believes other negative outcomes
outweigh the positive outcomes
 High expectancy & positive valences but low instrumentality: He
knows that he can do the job and wants several important outcomes
(e.g., a favorable performance evaluation, a raise, a promotion). But
he believes that no matter how well he performs, the outcomes will
not be forthcoming.

6. Self determination theory

 Allocating extrinsic rewards for behaviour that has been previously
intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease the overall level of
motivation if the rewards are seen as controlling.
 Autonomy  feeling of choosing the task because you wanted not
had to
 Competence  feeling you can master the task
 Relatedness  connected to others

Lecture 6
Learning points
 Applied motivation
 Job design 
 Rewarding employees 
 Employee performance 

 Job design  process of de昀椀ning the way work will be performed

and the task, toles and responsibilities required.

Job characteristic model

 Skill variety  degree to which job requires multiple activities
 Feedback  carrying out activities generates clear info about
e昀昀ectiveness of performance
 Autonomy  job provides worker freedom, independence and
discretion in scheduling work and determining the procedures for
carrying it out.
 Task signi昀椀cance  a job a昀昀ects the lives or work of others
 Task identity  job requires completion of work

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Skill variety
 High . E.g motor mechanic who services European cars
 Low  involes little variation in tasks. E.g. spray painter.

Task identity
 High  For a cabinet maker who designs a piece of furniture, selects
the wood, builds the object and 昀椀nishes it to perfection, his job will
score high on task identity
 Low  For a worker who just operates a factory machine to make
table legs, her job will score low on this dimension

Task signi昀椀cance
 High  The job of a nurse handling the diverse needs of patients will
score high on task signi昀椀cance
 The job of a cleaner sweeping 昀氀oors in a hospital will score low on
this dimension

Autonomy
 High  One salesperson schedules her own work and decides how
she approaches a customer; her job will score high on this
dimension
 Low  The other salesperson has to follow standard scripts to
approach customers; his job will score low on this dimension

Feedback
 High  A job of assembling iPods and testing them to see whether
they operate properly will score high on this dimension.
 Low  A factory worker who assembles iPods but then routes them
to a quality-control inspector for testing and adjustments receives
low feedback from his activities

Main ways that jobs can be redesigned to enhance motivation

 Job rotation  Repetitive jobs provide little variety, autonomy, or

motivation Periodic shifting from one task to another, also referred
to as cross-training

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 job enlargement Increase the number of tasks performed by a

worker to add greater variety to activities, thus reducing monotony

 Job enrichement  Increase the degree to which the worker controls

the planning, execution and evaluation of the work
 Relational job design  Employees who know how their work has a
meaningful, positive impact on others are happier and more
productive

Flexible Work arrangements

 Having 昀氀exible work hours  increases productivity and autonomy
 Job sharing  Two or more individuals to split hours worked within a
traditional full-time job
 Remote work  work from home
 Hybrid work  blend of remote work and on site work

Importance of social and physical work context

 Research demonstrates that social aspects and work context are as
important as other job design features.
 Some social characteristics that improve job performance are
Interdependence and Social support
 this gives employees greater opportunities to obtain assistance with
their work
 Interactions with other people outside work are strongly related to
positive moods and give employees more opportunities to clarify
their work role and how well they are performing.
 Work context in昀氀uences job satisfaction.

Applied motivation: employee evolvement.

 a participative process that uses employees’ input to increase their
commitment to the organization’s success.
 Participative management  Joint decision making in which
subordinates share a signi昀椀cant degree of decision-making power
with their immediate superiors
 Representative participation  Workers are represented by a small
group of employees who actually participate in decision making.

Rewarding employees
 What to pay them  The best pay system pays what the job is
worth (internal equity) while also paying competitively relative to
the labor market (external equity).
 Some organizations prefer to be pay leaders by paying above
market rate If an organization pays more, it may get better-quali昀椀ed
and more highly motivated employees who will stay with the
organization longer.

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Lecture 7
Learning points
 Formal and informal groups
 Stages of group development
 Group properties
 Group decision making

Groups  Two or more individuals, interacting and interdependent, who

come together to achieve particular objectives.

Formal
 De昀椀ned by the organization’s structure, with designated work
assignments and established tasks
 Behaviours are stipulated and directed toward organizational goals

Informal
 Neither formally structured nor organizationally determined
 Natural formation to meet the need for social contact

Social identity theory

 Psychological connection that arises between group members
 We construct multiple social identities in and outside of work
 Social identities help us understand ‘who we are’ and ‘where we 昀椀t
in’ with other people
 Ingroup favouritism  We see members of our group as better than
other people and people not in our group as all the same
 Outgroup favouritism  The inverse of an ingroup; can mean
anyone outside the group, but usually it is an identi昀椀ed other group

Stages of group development

1. Forming
 People join
 There is a great deal of uncertainty about the group’s purpose,
structure, and leadership
 Members “test the waters” to determine what types of behaviours
are acceptable
 Complete when members have begun to think of themselves as part
of a group

2. Storming
 Intragroup con昀氀ict over who controls the group
 Complete when a relatively clear hierarchy of leadership and
agreement on the group’s direction emerge

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3. Norming
 Close relationships develop and the group becomes cohesive
 A strong sense of group identity and camaraderie
 Complete when the group structure solidi昀椀es and the group has
assimilated a common set of expectations (or norms) about member
behavior.

4. Performing
 The group is fully functional and works on group task
 The group structure is in place and accepted by group members
 Members’ energies have moved from getting to know and
understand each other to working on group task
 This is the last stage of development for permanent work groups

5. Adjourning
 For temporary groups—project teams, task forces, or similar groups
that have a limited task to do—the 昀椀nal stage is adjourning
 The group prepares to disband
 The group focuses its attention on wrapping up activities instead of
task performance

Group properties
 Roles  The set of expected behaviour patterns that are associated
with occupying a given position in a group. Role perception,
expectation and con昀氀ict
 Norms  Accepted standards of behaviour within a group that are
shared by the group’s members
 Status  A socially de昀椀ned positionor rankgiven to groups or group
members by others
 Size  Size a昀昀ects a group’s overall behaviour, but its impact
depends on what dependent variable (behaviour) is examined
 Cohesiviness  The degree to which members of a group are
attracted to each other and motivated to stay in the group
 Diversity  The degree to which members of the group are similar
to or di昀昀erent from one another

Norms and conformity

 Group members prefer to avoid being visibly di昀昀erent
 Individuals with di昀昀ering opinions from others in a group feel
extensive pressure to align their views with others
 Di昀昀erent groups we belong to often have di昀昀erent norms, which
may be contradictory
 People tend to conform most to their reference groups
 important groups to which individuals belong to or hope to belong
(social identity theory)

Status Characteristics Theory suggests status in a group derives from

three possible sources:

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 Power a person has over others. People who control a group’s

resources or outcomes have higher status.
 Personal contribution. People whose contributions are critical to the
group’s success have higher status.
 Personal characteristics positively valued by the group, such as
good looks, intelligence, or friendly personality have higher status.

Summary
1. Role con昀氀ict is associated with job-induced tension and job
dissatisfaction.
2. Norms control behaviour by establishing standards of right and wrong.
The norms of a given group can help explain members’ behaviours for
managers.
3. Status inequities create frustration and can adversely in昀氀uence
productivity and willingness to remain with an organisation.
4. The impact of size on a group’s performance depends on the type of
task. Larger groups are associated with lower satisfaction.
5. Cohesiveness may in昀氀uence a group’s level of productivity, depending
on the group’s performance-related norms.
6. Diversity appears to have a mixed impact on group performance, with
some studies suggesting that diversity can help performance and others
suggesting it can hinder it

Decision making
 Strengths of it  Generates more complete information and
knowledge . Increases acceptance of a solution Increases legitimacy
 Weaknesses  Takes more time to reach a conclusion A dominant
minority can unduly in昀氀uence outcomes Individual responsibilities
are ambiguous
 Groups are less e昀케cient than individuals

Group think  Where the norm for consensus overrides the realistic
appraisal of alternative courses of action

How to minimise
 Less than 10 per group
 Use exercises that stimulate active discussion of diverse alternatives
 Encourage group leaders to actively seek input from all members
and avoid expressing their own opinions

Teams
 A unit of interdependent individuals with complementary skills
committed to a common purpose, set of performance goals and
common expectations for which they hold themselves accountable.

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Week 8
Learning points
 Leadership
 Why its important
 Early leadership theories
 Contingency theories
 Contemporary views on leadership

 A leader  A leader is best when people barely know he exists,

when his work is done, his aim ful昀椀lled, they will say: we did it
ourselves
 is the ability to in昀氀uence a group toward the achievement of a vision
or set of goals.

Management vs leadership
 Management is about persuading people to do things they do not
want to do, while leadership is about inspiring people to do things
they never thought they could.

Trait theories
 The assumption underlying the trait theories is that leaders are born
but not made. It provides a basis for selecting the right people for
leadership.
Openness to experience
 divergent thinking, personality-based and behavioral measures of
creativity Creativity linked to e昀昀ective leadership Open individuals
are more likely to emerge as leaders and be e昀昀ective leaders
Conscientiousness
 A consistently strong predictor of your future job performance
 Conscientiousness is related to overall job performance!
Extraversion
 social leadership and leader emergence in groups being perceived
as leader-like
Agreeableness
 The possible relationship between AGREEABLENESS and
LEADERSHIP EFFECTIVENESS is unclear.

 Leader Emergence  Degree to which an individual is viewed as a

leader by others, who typically have only limited information about
that individual’s performance
 Leadership E昀昀ectiveness  A leader’s performance in in昀氀uencing
and guiding the activities of his or her unit toward achievement of
its goals.

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The 昀椀elder model

 The theory that e昀昀ective groups depend on a proper match between
a leader’s style of interacting with subordinates and the degree to
which the situation gives control and in昀氀uence to the leader.
 The better the leader-member relations, the more highly structured
the job, the stronger the position power, the more favourable the
overall situation. And thus, the more control the leader has.

Path goal theory

 A theory that it is the leaders job to assist followers in attaining their
goals and to provide necessary direction and/or support to ensure
that their goals are compatible with the overall objectives of the
group or organization

 Directive  a form of task performance-oriented behavior

 Supportive  a form of group maintenance-oriented behavior
 Participative  decision style
 Achievement orientated  behaviors geared toward motivating
people, such as setting challenging goals and rewarding good
performance

Contemporary views of leadership

1. Leader-member exchange
 A theory that supports leaders’ creation of in-groups and out-groups;
subordinates with in-group status will have higher performance
ratings, less turnover and greater job satisfaction.

 INGROUP members have demographic, attitude, and personality

characteristics similar to those of their leaders or a higher level of
competence than outgroup members.

2. Charismatic leadership
 A theory that followers make attributions of heroic or extraordinary
leadership abilities when they observe certain behaviours and tend
to give such leaders power.
 Charismatic leader  A person who is dominant and exceptionally
self-con昀椀dent, has a strong conviction in the moral righteousness of
their beliefs, and is able to arouse a sense of excitement and
adventure in followers.
 Self promotion  in昀氀uences one’s meaning in life by protecting,
maintaining, and aggrandizing one’s self esteem consistent with
negative (destructive) charisma

 SELF-TRANSCENDENCE  provides meaning through supportive

relationships with others consistent with altruistic and empowering
orientations of positive (constructive) charisma

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3. Transformational leader
 TransACTIONAL  guide or motivate followers in the direction of
established goals by clarifying role and task requirements
 TransFORMATIONAL  INSPIRE followers to transcend their personal
interests for the sake of the larger community
 Transactional and transformational leadership complement each
other; they are NOT opposite approach to get things done.
 The best leaders are transactional and transformational.
 Transformational leadership builds on transactional leadership and
produces levels of follower e昀昀ort and performance beyond what
transactional leadership alone can do.

Lecture 9
Learning points
 What are some ideas about power
 De昀椀ne power
 E昀昀ects of having it
 Politics

Common ideas about power

 Power is a reality of organizational life; power and political
behaviour are natural processes in any group or organization
 We need to know how power is acquired and exercised to fully
understand organizational behaviour
 Power is not always bad, but people tend to have a negative view of
power “Power corrupts, and absolute power corrupts absolutely”
 If used wisely, power is more likely to produce e昀昀ectiveness and
motivation than oppression and poor morale

Mcclellands theory of need

 Need for power, a昀케liation and achievement
Need for power
 Concern for in昀氀uencing others Dominance, self-con昀椀dence and high
energy Controlling the situation, in昀氀uencing and controlling over
others and enjoying competition Lower need for a昀케liation
 For managers to achieve managerial success, they need moderate
to high need for power, and low need for a昀케liation.

Consequences of reduced power

 Emotions  People with less power are more likely to feel fear,
embarrassment, guilt and pain.
 Social cognition  Low power people concentrate their gaze more
on others (particularly of elevated status). They are highly attuned
to others’ evaluations of their own actions
 Social attention  Reduced power increases the tendency to view
the self as a means to others’ ends.

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 Social behaviour  Low power people are more likely • to abide by

social norms that regulate people’s behavior; • to stop direct
expression of ideas
 Power  Capacity that A has to in昀氀uence the behaviour of B so that
B acts in accordance with A’s wishes Someone can have power but
not use it

Leadership vs power
 Leader  Goals of leaders and followers somewhat congruent,
Downward in昀氀uence, Focused on style
 Power  No congruence, downward upward in昀氀uence and focused
on tactics to gain compliance

Bases of power
 Formal power  based on individuals position in hierarchy of
organisation
 Personal power  based on unique characteristics
 Coercive  A power base dependent on fear of negative results
from failing to comply
 Reward power  Compliance achieved based on the ability to
distribute rewards that others view as valuable
 Legitimate power  The power a person receives as a result of his
or her position in the formal hierarchy of an organization
 Expert power  in昀氀uence based om skills or knowledge
 Referent power  In昀氀uence based on identi昀椀cation with a person
who has desirable resources and personal traits

What basis is most e昀昀ective

 Personal sources are most e昀昀ective
 Expert and referent  positively related to employees’ satisfaction
with supervision, org. commitment, and performance, whereas
reward and legitimate powers seem to be unrelated to these
outcomes
 Coercive back昀椀res
 Referent can be good motivator

Dependence: key to power

 The greater B’s dependence on A, the greater the power A has over
B.
 POSSESSION or control of scarce organizational resources that
others need makes a manager powerful ACCESS to optional
resources (e.g., multiple suppliers) reduces the resource holder’s
power

Scarcity
 If something is plentiful, possession of it will not increase your
power. A resource needs to be perceived as scarce to create
dependency.

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Non substitutability
 The fewer viable substitutes for a resource, the more power a
person controlling that resource has

Power tactics  Pfe昀昀ers 7 rules of power

1) Get out of your own way.
2) Break the rules.
3) Show up in powerful fashion.
4) Create a powerful brand.
5) Network relentlessly.
6) Use your power.
7) Understand that once you have acquired power, what you did to get
it will be forgiven, forgotten, or both.

Tactics on translating power into action

 Legitimacy  Relying on your authority position or saying a request
accords with organizational policies or rules
 Rational persuasion Presenting logical arguments and factual
evidence to demonstrate a request is reasonable
 Inspirational appeals  Developing emotional commitment by
appealing to a target’s values, needs, hopes, and aspirations
 Consultation  Increasing the target’s support by involving him or
her in deciding how you will accomplish your plan
 Exchange  Rewarding the target with bene昀椀ts or favours in
exchange for following a request
 Personal appeals Asking for compliance based on friendship or
loyalty
 Ingratiation  Using 昀氀attery, praise, or friendly behaviour prior to
making a request
 Pressure  Using warnings, repeated demands, and threats
 Coalition  Enlisting the aid or support of others to persuade the
target to agree

Some tactics are more e昀昀ective than others.

 RATIONAL PERSUASION, INSPIRATIONAL APPEALS, and
CONSULTATION tend to be the most e昀昀ective, especially when the
audience is highly interested in the outcomes of a decision process.
 PRESSURE tends to back昀椀re and is typically the least e昀昀ective.
 INCREASE your chance of success by using more than one type of
tactic at the same time or sequentially, as long as your choices are
compatible

Factors e昀昀ecting power tactics

 Sequencing of Tactics Begin with “softer” tactics that rely on
personal power, followed by “harder” tactics that emphasize formal
power

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 Political Skill – the ability to inf luence others to enhance their own
objectives More e昀昀ective users of all the in昀氀uence tactics; more
e昀昀ective when the stakes are high; able to exert their in昀氀uence
without others detecting it
 Organizational Culture Some are warm, relaxed and supportive;
others are formal and conservative Some encourage participation
and consultation, some encourage reason, and others reply on
pressure.

Empowerment and job design

 Psychological safety  The belief that one will not be punished or
humiliated for speaking up with ideas, questions, concerns, or
mistakes, and the team is safe for interpersonal risk taking

People with power are known to

 Put their own interests ahead of others’ needs or goals
 Objectify others
 Tend to be overcon昀椀dent in decision making
 See relationships as more peripheral
 React negatively to threats to their competence

Positive e昀昀ects of power

 Energize and increase motivation to achieve goals (empowerment)
 Enhance our motivation to help others

Politics and power

 Organisational politics  The use of power to a昀昀ect decision making
in an organization, sometimes for self-serving and organizationally
unsanctioned behaviors.
 Activities that are not required as part of one’s formal role in the
organization, but that in昀氀uence, or attempt to in昀氀uence, the
distribution of advantages and disadvantages within the
organization
 Individuals and groups have di昀昀erent values, goals, and interests
Organizational resources are limited and scarce Performance
outcomes are not completely clear and objective MOST of the facts
used to allocate limited resources are open to interpretation

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