AMC ENGINEERING COLLEGE

DEPARTMENT OF PHYSICS

Module 3 Notes

Quantum Information and

Quantum Computing

I/II SEMESTER Physics for CSE Stream

Subject code: BPHYS102/202
This page was intentionally left blank.
Contents

1 Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing 5

1.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 5
1.2 Classical vs. Quantum computing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.3 Moore’s Law and its end . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4 Qubits . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.1 Concept of qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
1.4.2 Properties of qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
1.5 Representation of a Qubit . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.5.1 Bloch Sphere . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
1.6 Single qubit system and multiple qubit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.1 One-qubit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.2 Two-qubit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.6.3 n-qubit system . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12

2 Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations 13

2.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2 Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Identity Operator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.4 Pauli Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15
2.4.1 Action of the Pauli matrices on the basis states . . . . . . . . . . . . . 16
2.5 Conjugate of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.6 Transpose of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
2.7 Hermitian adjoint of a matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.8 Hermitian Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18
2.9 Unitary Matrix . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
2.10 Column and Row Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.11 Inner Product . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
2.12 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
2.13 Orthogonality and Orthonormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.13.1 Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.13.2 Orthonormality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
2.14 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
2.15 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24

3 Quantum Gates 27
3.1 Single Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.1 Quantum NOT gate (Pauli-X gate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.1.2 Pauli-Z gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29

3
 CONTENTS

3.1.3 Pauli-Y gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30

3.1.4 Hadamard gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.1.5 Phase gate (S gate) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.1.6 T gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.2 Multiple Qubit Gates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.2.1 Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.2.2 SWAP gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.2.3 Controlled-Z gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.2.4 Toffoli gate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.3 Model and Previous Year Questions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.4 Numericals . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

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Chapter 1

Principles of Quantum Information

and Quantum Computing

Syllabus
Principles of Quantum Information and Quantum Computing
Introduction to Quantum Computing, Moore’s law and its end, Differences between
Classical and Quantum computing. Concept of qubit and its properties. Representation
of qubit by Bloch sphere. Single and Two qubits. Extension to N qubits.

1.1 Introduction

Quantum information revolutionizes problem-solving and data processing by harnessing the

power of quantum systems as information carriers, going beyond the binary framework of
conventional computing. Just as classical information is handled by digital computers, quan-
tum information can be processed, transmitted, and analyzed using sophisticated algorithms,
computer science, and mathematics. At the heart of quantum information lies the qubit, the
quantum counterpart of the classical bit. Quantum information systems offer the potential
for fundamentally secure data transmission and the ability to tackle problems that exceed the
capabilities of modern computers. This interdisciplinary field combines quantum mechanics,
computer science, information theory, and cryptography to explore the profound implications
of quantum information.
In the realm of quantum information science, information resides within the physical state
of a quantum system. While quantum mechanics investigates the microscopic properties of
matter, quantum information science extracts valuable information from these properties.
Quantum computation takes center stage, manipulating and processing information through
logical operations implemented via cutting-edge quantum information processing techniques.
A key highlight of quantum information science is the development of quantum algorithms
like Shor’s algorithm and Grover’s algorithm, which exhibit exponential speedup compared
to their classical counterparts. This extraordinary feature empowers quantum computers
with remarkable potential in cryptography, simulation, and optimization domains. However,
it is important to note that quantum computing is still in its nascent stage, and numerous
challenges must be addressed before its widespread adoption becomes feasible.

5
 1.2. CLASSICAL VS. QUANTUM COMPUTING

1.2 Classical vs. Quantum computing

Classical Computing Quantum Computing

Calculates with transistors, which can Calculates with qubits, which can
represent either 0 or 1. represent both 0 and 1 at the same time.
Computational power increases in a 1:1 Computational power increases
relationship with the number of exponentially in proportional to the
transistors. number of qubits.
Quantum computers have high error
Classical computers have low error rates
rates and need to be kept at ultracold
and can operate at room temperature.
temperature.
Most of everyday processing is best Well suited for tasks like optimization
handled by classical computers. problems, data analysis, and simulations.
Calculations are deterministic. Calculations are probabilistic.
Data processing is carried out by logic Data processing is carried out by
and in sequential order. quantum logic at parallel instances.

1.3 Moore’s Law and its end

Moore’s law, a long-standing observation in computer technology, states that the number
of transistors on a chip doubles approximately every two years (see figure 1.1), resulting
in increased processing power. This prediction has held true for over five decades, with
the number of transistors soaring from 3,500 to nearly 50 billion on a similarly sized chip.
However, there is a limit to how far this trend can continue.
As transistors become increasingly tiny, reaching sizes on the nanometer scale, quantum
effects like quantum tunnelling come into play and hinder their performance. Transistors,
acting as switches, control the flow of electrons by representing the ”OFF” state as 0 and the
”ON” state as 1. Yet, when transistors shrink to atom-sized dimensions, quantum tunnelling
allows electrons to traverse the barrier even in the ”OFF” state, resulting in unpredictable
behavior and erroneous calculations. This challenge poses a significant obstacle as we con-
front the impending end of Moore’s law, potentially leading to a notable slowdown in the
advancement of computer hardware.

1.4 Qubits
1.4.1 Concept of qubit
A qubit, the fundamental unit of information in quantum computing, distinguishes itself from
classical bits by its ability to exist in a superposition of states. While classical bits can only
represent a single value of either 0 or 1, qubits can simultaneously represent both 0 and 1
due to their unique properties.
Physically, a qubit can be realized using different systems, such as the two spin states
of an electron (spin up and spin down) or the two polarizations of a photon (horizontal
and vertical polarization). These physical implementations provide a basis for encoding and
manipulating qubits in quantum computing systems.

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 1.4. QUBITS

Figure 1.1: Moore’s Law

The remarkable capabilities of qubits enable quantum computers to outperform classical

computers in certain tasks. For instance, Grover’s algorithm empowers quantum computers
to search unsorted databases quadratically faster than any classical algorithm, while Shor’s
algorithm exponentially accelerates the factorization of large numbers.
Nevertheless, realizing qubits in practical quantum computing faces significant challenges.
Qubits are exceedingly sensitive to their surroundings and can be easily disturbed by external
factors like temperature fluctuations and electromagnetic interference. These disturbances
introduce errors in quantum computations, posing a substantial obstacle that must be sur-
mounted to achieve practical and reliable quantum computers. Addressing these challenges
in qubit implementation remains a critical focus in the field of quantum computing.

1.4.2 Properties of qubit

Qubits possess distinctive properties that set them apart from classical bits, shaping the
power and challenges of quantum computing:

1. Superposition: Unlike classical bits that represent a single value, qubits can exist in
a superposition of states, simultaneously representing both 0 and 1. This superposi-
tion enables quantum computers to perform multiple calculations in parallel, vastly
expanding computational possibilities.

2. Entanglement: Qubits can be entangled with one another, establishing correlations

between their states. This entanglement allows quantum computers to perform cer-
tain computations more efficiently than classical computers, providing a foundation for
advanced algorithms and parallel processing.

3. Probabilistic Nature: Qubits are described probabilistically, meaning that their states
can only be determined with certain probabilities. This probabilistic nature introduces

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 1.5. REPRESENTATION OF A QUBIT

an element of uncertainty into quantum computations, making it challenging to predict

the precise output of a quantum algorithm.

4. Unitarity: Qubits must maintain unitarity, which ensures that the sum of probabilities
for all possible states of a qubit equals 1. This requirement preserves the reversibility
of quantum computations and ensures the conservation of total probability throughout
quantum operations.

5. No-cloning theorem: Due to the quantum nature of qubits, information cannot be

copied from one qubit to another in the same way as classical bits. The no-cloning
theorem states that it is impossible to create an identical copy of an arbitrary unknown
qubit, making quantum information distinct and preventing direct replication.
These inherent properties of qubits render quantum computing both powerful and chal-
lenging. Understanding and harnessing these properties are essential for the development
of practical and scalable quantum computers, as they hold the key to unlocking the full
potential of quantum information processing.

1.5 Representation of a Qubit

Mathematically, a qubit is represented in the following way

|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩

where |ψ⟩ represents the qubit, |0⟩ and |1⟩ represent the 0 and the 1 bits. |⟩ is the notation
given to something called a ket vector. A ket vector |ψ⟩ is analogous to the Euclidian vector,
say ⃗a = a1⃗i + a2⃗j. (In mathematics, the unit vectors ⃗i and ⃗j are also called as basis vectors.
Similarly, in our case, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are the basis vectors. In particular, these two are called
the computational basis.)
We see that the above expression for the qubit is a linear combination of the pure bits
0 and 1. This is also called a superposition state (the qubit is in both the 0 and 1 states).
The coefficients α and β are in general complex numbers and they have a probabilistic
interpretation. |α|2 is the probability that you would get a 0 if you measured the qubit |ψ⟩.
Similarly, |β|2 is the probability that you would get a 1 if you measured the qubit |ψ⟩. And
from the rules of probability, the sum of probabilities of these two independent events must
be equal to 1. Therefore, we get
|α|2 + |β|2 = 1
This normalization condition guarantees that the total probability remains conserved
throughout quantum computations.

1.5.1 Bloch Sphere

There is another way to represent a qubit: a graphical representation called the Bloch sphere.
The Bloch sphere is a sphere of unit radius with a point on its surface that represents the
state of the qubit.
In two-dimensional Euclidian space, a vector can be written as, say, ⃗a = a1⃗i + a2⃗j. This
means that, to uniquely describe this vector (state), we need exactly two numbers, a1 and a2 .
For different values of a1 and a2 , we get vectors pointing in different directions and having
different lengths. We can say a similar thing for our ket vector |ψ⟩. But remember that α and
β are both complex numbers and that each complex number is made of two real numbers (for
example, α = r1 eiϕ1 and β = r2 eiϕ2 ). So to uniquely describe the ket vector |ψ⟩ mentioned

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 1.5. REPRESENTATION OF A QUBIT

Figure 1.2: Bloch Sphere

above, we need 4 real numbers, which also makes it impossible for us to visualize such a
ket vector in our restricted 3-dimensional space. But there is a way for us to reduce the 4
numbers to 2. We can omit an overall phase factor to reduce the total required numbers to
3. We can also use the condition that the sum of probabilities must be one; this reduces the
total required numbers to 2. After following these steps, the mathematical form for the qubit
changes to the following    
θ iϕ θ
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + e sin |1⟩ (1.1)
2 2
We see here that we need only two numbers θ and ϕ to uniquely describe a ket vector.
We call these numbers as θ and ϕ because they represent respectively the polar angle and
azimuthal angle in the 3-dimensional spherical polar coordinates.
Remember that to uniquely represent a Euclidian vector in 3D space, we need three
numbers. These 3 numbers depend on the coordinate system we use. If we use the Cartesian
coordinate system, the three numbers are x, y, z. If we use the spherical polar coordinates,
the three numbers are r, θ, ϕ. In our qubit representation, we have these θ and ϕ and we
consider r = 1. This means that depending on the values of θ and ϕ, we have an arrow in
3D space pointing in a certain direction and has length of 1.
The definitions for θ, ϕ are as follows:

ˆ θ: This is the angle made by the vector with the positive z-axis such that 0 ≤ θ ≤ π.

ˆ ϕ: This is the angle made by the vector with the positive x-axis along the xy-plane
such that 0 ≤ ϕ ≤ 2π.

So given a value of θ and ϕ, we shall start with a unit vector pointing in the positive z
direction. We shall rotate the vector by an angle θ from the positive z-axis along the xz-plane.
Then we will rotate the vector by an angle ϕ from the positive x-axis along the xy-plane.

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 1.5. REPRESENTATION OF A QUBIT

Note:
You will need to remember this formula (called Euler’s formula) for the following section:

eix = cos(x) + i sin(x) (1.2)

where i is the imaginary number such that i2 = −1.

Now, let’s see where some common qubit states are present on the Bloch sphere.

For θ = 0, ϕ = 0
Since both angles are zero, our unit vector stays on the positive z-axis (we call this the north
pole of the sphere). Let’s see which state these values correspond to. Substitute these angle
values in (1.1). We get
   
0 i∗0 0
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + e sin |1⟩
2 2
|ψ⟩ = |0⟩

since cos(0) = 1 and sin(0) = 0. So at this point (the north pole), we have the state |0⟩.

For θ = π, ϕ = 0
For these angles, the unit vector rotates by 180◦ with the positive z-axis and now points in
the negative z-axis (we call this the south pole of the sphere). Let’s see which state these
values correspond to. Substitute these angle values in (1.1). We get
π  π 
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + ei∗0 sin |1⟩
2 2
|ψ⟩ = |1⟩

π π
= 0, e0 = 1 and sin



since cos 2 2 = 1. So at this point (the south pole), we have the state
|1⟩.

For θ = π/2, ϕ = 0
For these angles, the unit vector rotates by 90◦ with the positive z-axis and now points in
the positive x-axis. Let’s see which state these values correspond to. Substitute these angle
values in (1.1). We get
π  π 
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + ei∗0 sin |1⟩
4 4
1 1
|ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2

since cos π4 = sin π4 = √12 and e0 = 1. So at this point, we have the state √12 |0⟩ + √1



2
|1⟩.
This state is so common in quantum computing that it is given a name: |+⟩, i.e.,

1 1
|+⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2

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 1.6. SINGLE QUBIT SYSTEM AND MULTIPLE QUBIT SYSTEM

For θ = π/2, ϕ = π
For these angles, the unit vector rotates by 90◦ with the positive z-axis and then by 180◦
with the positive x-axis along the xy-plane to now point in the negative x-axis. Let’s see
which state these values correspond to. Substitute these angle values in (1.1). We get
π  π 
|ψ⟩ = cos |0⟩ + eiπ sin |1⟩
4 4
1 1
|ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2
since cos π4 = sin π4 = √12 and eiπ = −1 (from (1.2)). So at this point, we have the state

√1 |0⟩ − √12 |1⟩. This state is so common in quantum computing that it is given a name: |−⟩,
2
i.e.,
1 1
|−⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2

1.6 Single qubit system and multiple qubit system

1.6.1 One-qubit system
A one-qubit or a single qubit system has two computational basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. The
mathematical representation of a single qubit system |ψ⟩, as described before, is as follows:
|ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩
where α and β are complex numbers.
Pictorially, we can represent a single qubit as shown in figure 1.3.

Figure 1.3: Single qubit system

1.6.2 Two-qubit system

A two-qubit system has four computational basis states denoted as |00⟩ , |01⟩ , |10⟩ and |11⟩
corresponding to the different possible values for the two qubits. Note that in this notation,
the first number corresponds to the first qubit of the system and the second number corre-
sponds to the second qubit of the system (for example, |01⟩ means that the first qubit is in
state |0⟩ and the second qubit is in state |1⟩).
The mathematical representation of a two-qubit system, say, |χ⟩ is as follows:
|χ⟩ = α00 |00⟩ + α01 |01⟩ + α10 |10⟩ + α11 |11⟩
where α00 , α01 , α10 , and α11 are complex numbers. These have a similar probabilistic inter-
pretation as before, i.e., |α00 |2 is the probability that you would measure a 0 for both the
qubits when you measured |χ⟩, |α01 |2 is the probability that you would measure a 0 for the
first qubit and a 1 for the second qubit when you measured the system |χ⟩, and so on.
Pictorially, we can represent a two-qubit system as shown in figure 1.4.

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 1.7. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Figure 1.4: Two-qubit system

1.6.3 n-qubit system

A n-qubit system has 2n computational basis states denoted as

|00 . . . 00⟩ , |00 . . . 01⟩ , |00 . . . 10⟩ , . . . , |11 . . . 11⟩

where each basis ket has n numbers.

Pictorially, we can represent a n-qubit system as shown in figure 1.5.

Figure 1.5: N-qubit system

1.7 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Define a bit and qubit and explain the properties of qubit.

Q 2. Define single and two qubits. Explain the block sphere representation of qubit.
Q 3. Differentiate between classical and quantum computing.
Q 4. Explain the representation of qubit using Bloch sphere.

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Chapter 2

Dirac Representation and Matrix

Operations

Syllabus
Dirac Representation and Matrix Operations
Matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states, Identity Operator I, Applying I to |0⟩ and
|1⟩ states, Pauli Matrices and its operations on |0⟩ and |1⟩ states. Explanation of (i)
Conjugate of a matrix and (ii) Transpose of a matrix. Unitary matrix U , Examples:
Row and Column Matrices and their multiplication (Inner Product), Probability, and
Quantum Superposition, normalization rule. Orthogonality, Orthonormality. Numerical
Problems

2.1 Introduction
Linear algebra is crucial in quantum mechanics, offering a mathematical foundation for han-
dling quantum states using state or ket vectors in complex vector spaces. Linear op-
erators facilitate transformations on these states. Matrix representation allows efficient
calculations by representing operators as matrices based on selected basis states. Matrix
multiplication of operator and state matrices predicts quantum system evolution in quantum
mechanics and is vital in quantum computing for algorithm design and computations.

Difference between arrow vectors and ket vectors

In classical physics, arrow vectors represent forces and velocities and are denoted by, say, ⃗a
with specified length and direction. In quantum mechanics, ket vectors, say, |ψ⟩, represent
quantum states with complex amplitudes signifying state probabilities. While î and ĵ provide
a simple representation for two-dimensional space in classical physics, |0⟩ and |1⟩ states enable
powerful and efficient quantum computation.

The 0 and 1 states

In quantum computing, the qubit is the basic unit of information, similar to bits in classical
computing. While classical bits exist in states of either 0 or 1, qubits can exist in a state
of 0, 1, or both simultaneously - a phenomenon called quantum superposition. The use of
binary states (0 and 1) in qubits aligns with the binary nature of digital computing, enabling
efficient representation and implementation.

13
 2.2. MATRIX REPRESENTATION OF 0 AND 1 STATES

2.2 Matrix representation of 0 and 1 states

There is a way of representing a vector, called the matrix representation, where we write the
vector ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ as a column matrix (also called a column vector)
 
a1
⃗a =  
a2

If we expand this matrix as follows

   
1 0
⃗a = a1   + a2  
0 1

and compare it with the original vector form ⃗a = a1 î + a2 ĵ, we can write
   
1 0
î =   and ĵ =  
0 1

This is the matrix representation of the two-dimensional unit vectors î and ĵ.
In a similar manner, we get the matrix representations of the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states. Since a
general ket vector |ψ⟩ can be written as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩, its matrix representation is given
as  
α
|ψ⟩ =  
β
whereas the matrix representation of the basis kets are written as
   
1 0
|0⟩ =   and |1⟩ =   (2.1)
0 1

2.3 Identity Operator

The identity operator is an operator which when acts on a quantum state keeps it intact. So
the action of the identity operator I on a general quantum state |ψ⟩ is given as

I |ψ⟩ = |ψ⟩

Now, let us find the matrix representation of the identity operator. To do that, we need
to know the action of the operator on the basis states |0⟩ and |1⟩. But we already know that
from the definition of the identity operator:

I |0⟩ = |0⟩ and I |1⟩ = |1⟩

Replacing the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states with their matrix representations, we have
       
1 1 0 0
I   =   and I   =  
0 0 1 1

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 2.4. PAULI MATRICES

For valid matrix multiplications of the above two equations, I must be represented by a
2 × 2 matrix. So let us write a general 2 × 2 matrix for I as
 
a b
I= 
c d

where we will need to find the values of a, b, c, and d.

Now, the first equation becomes
    
a b 1 1
   =  
c d 0 0
   
a 1
 = 
c 0

So we get a = 1 and c = 0.
Next, the second equation becomes
    
1 b 0 0
   =  
0 d 1 1
   
b 0
 = 
d 1

So we get b = 0 and d = 1.
Finally, we can write
 
1 0
I= 
0 1

This is the matrix representation of the identity operator in the basis of |0⟩ and |1⟩.
You can verify that this is the correct representation by multiplying this matrix with the
matrix representation of the basis kets to get the corresponding results.

2.4 Pauli Matrices

There are three extremely useful operators called the Pauli operators which are used in
quantum computing and quantum mechanics. These operators have different notations in
different fields: σx , σy , σz or σ1 , σ2 , σ3 or X, Y, Z. We will use the latter notation.
The matrix representations of the Pauli operators are called the Pauli matrices. These are
a set of three 2×2 matrices with special properties (which we won’t discuss here). Sometimes
the identity matrix I is also clubbed with these matrices and thus is also written as σ0 . Here,
we give you the Pauli matrices in the |0⟩ and |1⟩ basis.
 
0 1
σx = σ1 = X =  
1 0

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 2.4. PAULI MATRICES

 
0 −i
σy = σ2 = Y =  
i 0
 
1 0
σz = σ3 = Z =  
0 −1

2.4.1 Action of the Pauli matrices on the basis states

Pauli-X matrix
  
0 1 1
X |0⟩ =   
1 0 0
 
0
= 
1
=⇒ X |0⟩ = |1⟩

  
0 1 0
X |1⟩ =   
1 0 1
 
1
= 
0
=⇒ X |1⟩ = |0⟩

Pauli-Y matrix
    
0 −i 1 0
Y |0⟩ =    =  
i 0 0 i
 
0
= i 
1
=⇒ Y |0⟩ = i |1⟩

    
0 −i 0 −i
Y |1⟩ =    =  
i 0 1 0
 
1
= −i 
0
=⇒ Y |1⟩ = −i |0⟩

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 2.5. CONJUGATE OF A MATRIX

Pauli-Z matrix
  
1 0 1
Z |0⟩ =   
0 −1 0
 
1
= 
0
=⇒ Z |0⟩ = |0⟩

    
1 0 0 0
Z |1⟩ =    =  
0 −1 1 −1
 
0
= −1 
1
=⇒ Z |1⟩ = − |1⟩

In summary, we have the following relations

X |0⟩ = |1⟩ X |1⟩ = |0⟩

Y |0⟩ = i |1⟩ Y |1⟩ = −i |0⟩
Z |0⟩ = |0⟩ Z |1⟩ = − |1⟩

2.5 Conjugate of a matrix

The conjugate of a matrix is obtained by replacing each element of the matrix with its
complex conjugate. For example, consider the following matrix
 
3 1 − 2i
A= 
0 4i

The conjugate of A, denoted by A⋆ , is given by

 
3 1 + 2i
A⋆ =  
0 −4i

2.6 Transpose of a matrix

The transpose of a matrix is obtained by interchanging the rows into columns or vice versa
of the matrix. For example, consider the following matrix
 
3 1 − 2i
A= 
0 4i

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 2.7. HERMITIAN ADJOINT OF A MATRIX

The transpose of A, denoted by AT , is given by

 
3 0
AT =  
1 − 2i 4i

2.7 Hermitian adjoint of a matrix

The Hermitian adjoint of a matrix is obtained by taking the conjugate and the transpose of
the matrix. Hence the Hermitian adjoint is also called the conjugate-transpose of a matrix.
For example, consider the following matrix
 
3 1 − 2i
B= 
0 4i

The Hermitian adjoint of B, denoted by B † († is called ’dagger’), is written as

B † = (B ⋆ )T
 T
3 1 + 2i
= 
0 −4i
 
3 0
B† =  
1 + 2i −4i

2.8 Hermitian Matrix

If the Hermitian adjoint of a matrix is equal to the matrix itself, that matrix is called a
Hermitian matrix. A Hermitian matrix is also called a self-adjoint matrix. So A is said to
be a Hermitian matrix if it satisfies the following condition
A† = A
For example, consider the matrix
 
1 − 2i
1
C= 
1 + 2i 3

Consider the Hermitian adjoint of C

C † = (C ⋆ )T
 T
1 1 + 2i
= 
1 − 2i 3
 
1 1 − 2i
= 
1 + 2i 3
C† = C
So C is a Hermitian matrix.

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 2.9. UNITARY MATRIX

2.9 Unitary Matrix

A matrix U is said to be unitary if it satisfies the following condition

U U † = U †U = I

where I is the identity matrix.

For example, consider the matrix
 √ √   
1/ 2 1/ 2 1 1 1
D= √ √ = √  
i/ 2 −i/ 2 2 i −i

The Hermitian adjoint of D can be shown to be as follows

 √ √   
1/ 2 −i/ 2 1 1 −i
D† =  √ √ = √  
1/ 2 i/ 2 2 1 i

Now, consider DD† ,

  
1 1 1 1 −i
DD† =   
2 i −i 1 i
 
1 1 + 1 −i + i 
= 
2 i − i −i2 − i2
   
1 2 0 1 0
=  =
2 0 2 0 1
DD† = I

Next, consider D† D,
  
1 1 −i 1 1
D† D =   
2 1 i i −i
 
1 − i 2 1 + i2
1
=  
2 1 + i2 1 − i2
   
1 2 0 1 0
=  =
2 0 2 0 1
D† D = I

where we have used i2 = −1.

Since D satisfies the condition DD† = D† D = I, D is said to be a unitary matrix.

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 2.10. COLUMN AND ROW MATRICES

2.10 Column and Row Matrices

As we have discussed earlier, ket vectors can be described by column matrices. For example,
the ket vector |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ can be written as a column matrix as follows
 
α
|ψ⟩ =  
β

where α and β are generally complex numbers.

In the theory of linear vector spaces, there is a concept called the dual vector space, which
says that for every vector in a vector space, there exists a dual vector (or simply called the
dual) in the dual vector space (this is a very simplified statement). So in the context of
ket vectors, there exists dual of ket vectors which are called bra vectors. These bra vectors
are represented by row matrices. We can convert a ket vector to a bra vector by taking its
Hermitian adjoint.
For example, consider the same ket vector as above, |ψ⟩. The dual or the bra form of this
vector is given as h i
|ψ⟩† = α⋆ β ⋆

Infact, there is a better convention to denote bra vectors: ⟨ψ| = |ψ⟩† . So

 
α h i
if |ψ⟩ =   then ⟨ψ| = α⋆ β ⋆
β

This convention of using angular brackets and vertical lines to represent state vectors is
called the Dirac’s bra-ket notation.
For example, consider the following ket vector
 √ 
1/ 2
|ϕ⟩ =  √ 
i/ 2

Its bra form is then written as

h √ √ i
⟨ϕ| = 1/ 2 −i/ 2

In a similar manner, we can write the bra forms for the 0 and 1 states.
h i h i
⟨0| = 1 0 and ⟨1| = 0 1
 †
Now, just as ⟨ψ| = |ψ⟩† , we can also write |ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ|† since |ψ⟩† = |ψ⟩.

2.11 Inner Product

One way of multiplying two arrow vectors is taking their dot product. If ⃗u = u1 î + u2 ĵ and
⃗v = v1 î + v2 ĵ are two arrow vectors, then their dot product is denoted by ⃗u · ⃗v and given by

⃗u · ⃗v = u1 v1 + u2 v2

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 2.12. PROBABILITY

Notice that this expression can be represented by a matrix multiplication:

 
h i v1
u1 u2   = u1 v1 + u2 v2
v2

So if we use the matrix representation of vectors, the dot product of two vectors can be
written as the matrix multiplication of a row matrix with a column matrix.
In a similar manner, we have the inner product of two ket vectors. Consider two ket
vectors
|ϕ⟩ = α1 |0⟩ + β1 |1⟩ and |ψ⟩ = α2 |0⟩ + β2 |1⟩
Or, in matrix representation we have
   
α1 α2
|ϕ⟩ =   and |ψ⟩ =  
β1 β2

The inner product of |ϕ⟩ with |ψ⟩ is denoted as ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ (notice the single vertical line in
the center) and given by  
h i α2
⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = α1⋆ β1⋆  
β2
⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = α1⋆ α2 + β1⋆ β2
Note that the left side of the inner product is the bra form of the given vector |ϕ⟩.
Unlike the dot product of arrow vectors, the inner product of ket vectors is not commu-
tative, i.e., ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ ̸= ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ in general. For example, consider the same two ket vectors, |ϕ⟩
and |ψ⟩. The inner product of |ϕ⟩ with |ψ⟩ is as shown above.
The inner product of |ψ⟩ with |ϕ⟩ is
 
h i α1
⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = α2⋆ β2⋆   = α2⋆ α1 + β2⋆ β1
β1

So we see that ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ ≠ ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩.

But there is a relation between the two inner products. In general we can actually write

⟨ϕ|ψ⟩ = ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩⋆

where ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩⋆ is the complex conjugate of ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩. You can verify this...

2.12 Probability
Consider a 2-dimensional arrow vector in physical space ⃗a = 5î + 2ĵ. What is the meaning of
the coefficients of the unit vectors, in this case 5 and 2? Referring to figure 2.1, we see that
the vector has 5 units of contribution from the î direction whereas only 2 units of contribution
from the ĵ direction. In other words, we could say that the vector is tilted more toward the
î direction than the ĵ direction. This idea is important for the following discussion.
Now let us consider a ket vector, say, |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩, where α and β are in general
complex numbers. What is the meaning of these coefficients? In the context of quantum
mechanics, these are called probability amplitudes. The ket vector |ψ⟩ represents a quantum

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 2.12. PROBABILITY

Figure 2.1: Example arrow vector

state that is in a superposition of the 0 and 1 classical states. By itself, the quantum state
will be in this superposition state indefinitely, but if the state is measured, it will collapse to
(or become) any one of the two classical states (this is one of the fundamental postulates of
quantum mechanics). α and β tell us what is the probability of getting a 0 or a 1 respectively
as the outcome of the measurement of |ψ⟩. Actually, since these coefficients are complex
numbers, they are not actual probabilities, but their modulus squares are. In other words,
|α|2 is the probability of getting a 0 state after measuring |ψ⟩, whereas |β|2 is the probability
of getting a 1 state after measuring |ψ⟩. As the 0 and 1 states are mutually exclusive
measurement results, we can say that the sum of |α|2 and |β|2 is equal to 1 (since the sum
of probabilities of different events is always equal to 1), i.e.,

|α|2 + |β|2 = 1

So all ket vectors in quantum mechanics and quantum computing have to satisfy this
condition. There is also another way to represent this condition, in the bra-ket notation.
Consider the inner product of |ψ⟩ with itself:
 
h i α
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = α⋆ β ⋆  
β
= α⋆ α + β ⋆ β
⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = |α|2 + |β|2

where we have used the fact that for a complex number z, its modulus square is given by
|z|2 = z ⋆ z with z ⋆ being the complex conjugate of z.
Note that since probability is always a real number between 0 and 1, the modulus square
of the coefficients has to be a real number between 0 and 1, i.e., 0 ≤ |α|2 ≤ 1 and 0 ≤ |β|2 ≤ 1.
We can now write the above condition as

⟨ψ|ψ⟩ = 1

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 2.13. ORTHOGONALITY AND ORTHONORMALITY

This is also called the normalization condition. The ket vectors which satisfy this con-
dition are said to be normalized ket vectors. For example, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are normalized ket
vectors since  
h i 1
⟨0|0⟩ = 1 0   = 1
0
 
h i 0
⟨1|1⟩ = 0 1   = 1
1

2.13 Orthogonality and Orthonormality

2.13.1 Orthogonality
Two ket vectors |ψ⟩ and |ϕ⟩ are said to be orthogonal to each other if their inner product is
zero. This is similar to (but not the same as) saying that two arrow vectors are orthogonal (or
perpendicular) if their dot product is zero. (Note that you cannot use the word ’perpendicular’
when referring to ket vectors.)
Mathematically, the orthogonality condition is written as

⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = 0

For example, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are orthogonal to each other since
 
h i 0
⟨0|1⟩ = 1 0   = 0
1
 
h i 1
⟨1|0⟩ = 0 1   = 0
0

2.13.2 Orthonormality
Two ket vectors are said to be orthonormal if they are orthogonal to each other and are
individually normalized. For example, |0⟩ and |1⟩ are orthonormal since they are orthogonal
to each other and are both normalized.
The orthonormality of |0⟩ and |1⟩ is described by four equations:

⟨0|0⟩ = 1, ⟨1|1⟩ = 1

⟨0|1⟩ = 0, ⟨1|0⟩ = 0
There is another concise way of writing these four equations, as a single equation

⟨m|n⟩ = δmn

where m, n ∈ {0, 1} and (

1 if m = n
δmn =
0 ̸ n
if m =
is called the Kronecker Delta symbol.
One can easily verify that for different values of m and n we get the four equations stated
above.

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 2.14. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

2.14 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Mention the Pauli’s matrices. Discuss the operations of Pauli matrices on |0⟩ and |1⟩
states.

Q 2. Explain Orthogonality and Orthonormality with an example for each.

Q 3. Mention the matrix representation of |0⟩ and |1⟩ states and apply the Identity operator
to show there is no change in states.

2.15 Numericals

Q 1. A Linar Operator X operates such that X |0⟩ = |1⟩ and X |1⟩ = |0⟩. Find the matrix
representation of X.
Given:
X |0⟩ = |1⟩ and X |1⟩ = |0⟩

Substitute the matrix representation of the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.

       
1 0 0 1
X   =   and X   =  
0 1 1 0

For valid matrix multiplication above, X needs to be a 2 × 2 matrix. Let us consider X

to be of the following form
 
x11 x12
X= 
x21 x22

We find the elements of this matrix using the defintion of the X gate. From the first
expression,
   
1 0
X  =  
0 1
    
x x12 1 0
 11   =  
x21 x22 0 1
   
x 0
 11  =  
x21 1

=⇒ x11 = 0 and x21 = 1

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 2.15. NUMERICALS

From the second expression,

   
0 1
X  =  
1 0
    
x x12 0 1
 11   =  
x21 x22 1 0
   
x 1
 12  =  
x22 0

=⇒ x12 = 1 and x22 = 0

Now substituting all these values in the matrix for X, we get
 
0 1
X= 
1 0

 
0 −i
Q 2. Given A =  . Prove that A† = A.
i 0
We know that

A† = (A∗ )T
 ∗ T
0 −i
=   
i 0
 T
0 i
=  
−i 0
 
0 −i
= 
i 0
=⇒ A† = A

 
√1 √1
Q 3. Show that the matrix U =  2 2  is unitary.
√i − √i2
2
This question is already solved in section 2.9.
Q 4. Find the inner product of states |0⟩ and |1⟩ and draw conclusions on the result.
This question is already solved in section 2.13.1.
The result shows that the two states are orthogonal.
   
α1 β1
Q 5. Given |ψ⟩ =   and |ϕ⟩ =  , prove that ⟨ψ|ϕ⟩ = ⟨ϕ|ψ⟩∗
α2 β2
This question is already solved in section 2.11, but with different symbols. So be careful.

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This page was intentionally left blank.
Chapter 3

Quantum Gates

Syllabus
Quantum Gates
Single Qubit Gates: Quantum Not Gate, Pauli X, Y and Z Gates, Hadamard Gate,
Phase Gate (or S Gate), T Gate
Multiple Qubit Gates: Controlled gate, CNOT Gate (Discussion for 4 different input
states), Representation of Swap gate, Controlled-Z gate, Toffoli gate

Quantum circuits are an essential tool in quantum computing, allowing us to perform

computations using qubits. Similar to classical circuits in conventional computers, quantum
circuits are made up of a series of operations or gates that manipulate the state of qubits.
A quantum gate can be thought of as an operation that transforms the state of a qubit or
multiple qubits. Quantum gates come in various types, each performing a specific quantum
operation, such as changing the phase of a qubit, rotating the qubit’s state in the Bloch
sphere, or entangling multiple qubits. The ability to perform operations on qubits using
quantum gates is a key feature of quantum computing, as it allows for the development
of quantum algorithms that can solve certain problems exponentially faster than classical
algorithms.
Let’s take a look at the elements of a quantum cir-
cuit. A simple quantum circuit containing two quan-
H • tum gates (represented by boxes) and three inputs is
shown in figure 3.1. The circuit is to be read from
left to right. Each horizontal line in the circuit rep-
resents a wire in the quantum circuit. This wire does
X not necessarily correspond to a physical wire; it may
correspond instead to the passage of time, or perhaps
Figure 3.1: A quantum circuit to a physical particle moving from one location to an-
other through space. It is conventional to assume that
the state input to the circuit is a computational basis state, usually the state consisting of
all |0⟩s unless otherwise specified. The label inside the box denotes the kind of gate; for
example, H denotes the Hadamard gate and X denotes the Pauli-X gate. The vertical line
starting from the solid dot and ending on the X gate represents a connection between the
top line and the bottom line without affecting the middle line. If the middle line also were
to be affected by the vertical line, then their intersection would have a solid dot. In other
words, if there is no solid dot at the intersection of two lines, then those lines do not interact
with each other.

27
 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

To get the result of the action of a quantum gate on an input state, we multiply the matrix
representation of the gate with the matrix (column vector) representation of the input state.
On the other hand, if we don’t already know the matrix representation of the gate but
know the result of the action of the gate on an input state, we can find out the matrix
representation of the gate in some suitable basis.

3.1 Single Qubit Gates

Single qubit gates are a type of quantum gate that operates on a single qubit. These gates
are fundamental building blocks in quantum computing and are used to manipulate and
transform the state of individual qubits.

3.1.1 Quantum NOT gate (Pauli-X gate)

The Pauli-X gate has the action of flipping |0⟩ to |1⟩ and |1⟩ to |0⟩. Since this is similar to
the action of the classical NOT gate, the Pauli-X gate is also called the Quantum NOT gate
(or sometimes also called the bit-flip gate). To see how we get the definition, consider the
Pauli-X matrix acting on the |0⟩ state:
  
0 1 1
X |0⟩ =   
1 0 0
 
0
= 
1
X |0⟩ = |1⟩

Similarly for the |1⟩ state:

  
0 1 0
X |1⟩ =   
1 0 1
 
1
= 
0
X |1⟩ = |0⟩

But what ifwe have a general superposition state such as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix
α
form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β
  
0 1 α
X |ψ⟩ =   
1 0 β
 
β
X |ψ⟩ =  
α

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

The action of the Pauli-X gate on a general qubit state is to switch the coefficents. This
can be seen explicitly if we consider the bra-ket notation:

X |ψ⟩ = X(α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)

= αX |0⟩ + βX |1⟩
= α |1⟩ + β |0⟩
X |ψ⟩ = β |0⟩ + α |1⟩

The action of the quantum NOT gate is summarized as shown in table 3.2b.

Input Output
|0⟩ |1⟩
|1⟩ |0⟩
X
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ β |0⟩ + α |1⟩
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.2: Quantum NOT gate

3.1.2 Pauli-Z gate

The Pauli-Z gate has an action similar to that of the identity operator except that when
acting on |1⟩, it introduces a phase of -1. Hence it is also called the phase-flip gate. So
mathematically, the defintion of the Z gate is

Z |0⟩ = |0⟩ Z |1⟩ = − |1⟩

To see how we get the definition, consider the Pauli-Z matrix acting on the |0⟩ state:
  
1 0 1
Z |0⟩ =   
0 −1 0
 
1
= 
0
Z |0⟩ = |0⟩

Similarly for the |1⟩ state:

  
1 0 0
Z |1⟩ =   
0 −1 1
   
0 0
=   = − 
−1 1
Z |1⟩ = − |1⟩

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

But what ifwe have a general superposition state such as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix
α
form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β
  
1 0 α
Z |ψ⟩ =   
0 −1 β
 
α
Z |ψ⟩ =  
−β

The action of the Pauli-Z gate on a general qubit state is to flip the sign of the second
coefficent. This can be seen explicitly if we consider the bra-ket notation:

Z |ψ⟩ = Z(α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)

= αZ |0⟩ + βZ |1⟩
Z |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ − β |1⟩

The action of the Z gate is summarized as shown in table 3.3b.

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ − |1⟩
Z
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ α |0⟩ − β |1⟩
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.3: Pauli-Z gate

3.1.3 Pauli-Y gate

The Pauli-Y gate has a somewhat combined action of both the X and Z gates. It flips |0⟩ to
|1⟩ and vice versa along with introducing phase factors in both cases. Hence it is also called
the bit-and-phase-flip gate. Mathematically, the defintion of the Y gate is

Y |0⟩ = i |1⟩ Y |1⟩ = −i |0⟩

To see how we get the definition, consider the Pauli-Y matrix acting on the |0⟩ state:
  
0 −i 1
Y |0⟩ =   
i 0 0
   
0 0
=   = i 
i 1
Y |0⟩ = i |1⟩

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

Similarly for the |1⟩ state:

  
0 −i 0
Y |1⟩ =   
i 0 1
   
−i 1
=   = −i 
0 0
Y |1⟩ = −i |0⟩
But what ifwe have a general superposition state such as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix
α
form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β
  
0 −i α
Y |ψ⟩ =   
i 0 β
 
−iβ
= 
iα
 
β
Y |ψ⟩ = −i 
−α

The action of the Pauli-Y gate on a general qubit state is to switch the coefficents and
flip the sign of the second coefficient, upto a global phase factor. This can be seen explicitly
if we consider the bra-ket notation:
Y |ψ⟩ = Y (α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)
= αY |0⟩ + βY |1⟩
= iα |1⟩ − iβ |0⟩
Y |ψ⟩ = −i(β |0⟩ − α |1⟩)
The action of the Y gate is summarized as shown in table 3.4b.

Input Output
|0⟩ i |1⟩
|1⟩ −i |0⟩
Y
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ −i(β |0⟩ − α |1⟩)
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.4: Pauli-Y gate

3.1.4 Hadamard gate

The Hadamard gate is one of the most important single-qubit gates. In simple terms, the
action of the Hadamard gate on the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states is to produce superposition states. The

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

defintion of the Hadamard gate (represented as H) is as follows

1 1
H |0⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
1 1
H |1⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2

These special superposition states are encountered so frequently in quantum computing

that they are given their own names:

1 1
|+⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2
1 1
|−⟩ = √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2

They are called the ”plus” state and the ”minus” state respectively, for obvious reasons.

Note: Just as the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states form something called the computational basis
in our single-qubit space, the |+⟩ and |−⟩ states form an alternate set of basis in our
single-qubit space and are called the Hadamard basis. This distinction is important
to note because the matrix representations of states and gates are always written with
respect to a particular basis. In our case, we use the computational basis. If we used
the Hadamard basis instead, the matrix elements of all the entities would change.
Another thing to be noted is that we can always express one set of basis in terms of the
other set of basis and vice versa. For example, in the above expressions, the Hadamard
basis is written in terms of the computational basis. One can also rearrange the terms
and also write the computational basis in terms of the Hadamard basis.

The matrix representation of the |+⟩ and |−⟩ states in the computational basis is written
as
       
√1 1 1 √1 1 1
|+⟩ =  2 = √   and |−⟩ =  2  =√  
√1 2 1 − √12 2 −1
2

Now, we can find the matrix representation of the H gate using its above mentioned
definition and following the same method as was done for the X gate. If we do so, we get
the following:
   
√1 √1 1 1 1
H=  2 2  =√ 
√1 − 12
√ 2 1 −1
2

What about the action of the H gate on a general single qubit state such as |ψ⟩ =

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

 
α
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β

  
1 1 1 α
H |ψ⟩ = √
2 1 −1 β
 
1 α + β 
=√
2 α−β
 
α+β
√
H |ψ⟩ =  2 
α−β
√
2

This can also be done using the bra-ket notation:

H |ψ⟩ = H(α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)

= αH |0⟩ + βH |1⟩
   
1 1 1 1
= α √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩ + β √ |0⟩ − √ |1⟩
2 2 2 2
   
α+β α−β
H |ψ⟩ = √ |0⟩ + √ |1⟩
2 2

The action of the H gate is summarized as shown in table 3.5b.

Input Output
|0⟩ √1 |0⟩ + √1 |1⟩
2 2
|1⟩ √1 |0⟩ − √1 |1⟩
H  2 2 
α+β α−β
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ √
2
|0⟩ + √
2
|1⟩

(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.5: Hadamard gate

3.1.5 Phase gate (S gate)

The S gate can also be called the square-root-of-Z gate, because we get the matrix represen-
tation of the S gate by taking the square root of the elements of the Z gate matrix. Therefore
we can write:
 
1 0
S= 
0 i
√
where i = −1.

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

Let’s look at the action of the S gate on the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.
  
1 0 1
S |0⟩ =   
0 i 0
 
1
= 
0
S |0⟩ = |0⟩

  
1 0 0
S |1⟩ =   
0 i 1
   
0 0
=   = i 
i 1
S |1⟩ = i |1⟩

But what ifwe have a general superposition state such as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix
α
form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β
  
1 0 α
S |ψ⟩ =   
0 i β
 
α
S |ψ⟩ =  
iβ

The action of the S gate on a general qubit state is to multiply the second coefficent with
i. This can be seen explicitly if we consider the bra-ket notation:

S |ψ⟩ = S(α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)

= αS |0⟩ + βS |1⟩
S |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + iβ |1⟩

The action of the S gate is summarized as shown in table 3.6b.

3.1.6 T gate
The T gate (or π/8 gate) can also be called the square-root-of-S gate, because we get the
matrix representation of the T gate by taking the square root of the elements of the S gate
matrix. Therefore we can write:  
1 0
T = 
1+i
0 √
2
√ √
where i = (1 + i)/ 2

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 3.1. SINGLE QUBIT GATES

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ i |1⟩
S
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ α |0⟩ + iβ |1⟩
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.6: S gate

Alternatively, we can also write

 
1 0
T = 
0 eiπ/4

To find the square root of i, we make use of Euler’s formula: eiθ = cos θ + i sin θ.
First, note that eiπ/2 = cos(π/2) + i sin(π/2) = i.
Next, take square root on both sides:
√
i = (eiπ/2 )1/2 = eiπ/4
√ √
= cos(π/4) + i sin(π/4) = 1/ 2 + i/ 2
√ 1+i
i= √
2

Let’s look at the action of the T gate on the |0⟩ and |1⟩ states.
  
1 0 1
T |0⟩ =   
0 eiπ/4 0
 
1
= 
0
T |0⟩ = |0⟩

  
1 0 0
T |1⟩ =   
0 eiπ/4 1
   
0 0
=  = eiπ/4  
eiπ/4 1
T |1⟩ = eiπ/4 |1⟩

But what if we have a general superposition state such as |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ or in matrix

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

 
α
form |ψ⟩ =  ? We can write
β

  
1 0 α
T |ψ⟩ =   
0 eiπ/4 β
 
α
T |ψ⟩ =  
e iπ/4 β

The action of the T gate on a general qubit state is to multiply the second coefficent with
eiπ/4 . This can be seen explicitly if we consider the bra-ket notation:

T |ψ⟩ = T (α |0⟩ + β |1⟩)

= αT |0⟩ + βT |1⟩
T |ψ⟩ = α |0⟩ + eiπ/4 β |1⟩

The action of the T gate is summarized as shown in table 3.7b.

Input Output
|0⟩ |0⟩
|1⟩ eiπ/4 |1⟩
T
α |0⟩ + β |1⟩ α |0⟩ + eiπ/4 β |1⟩
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.7: T gate

For historical reasons, the T gate is sometimes also called the π/8 gate. This is because
we can write the matrix of T gate as follows
 
e −iπ/8 0
T = eiπ/8  
0 e iπ/8

3.2 Multiple Qubit Gates

Multiple qubit gates are a crucial component of quantum computing, providing the means to
manipulate and entangle multiple qubits simultaneously. Unlike single-qubit gates that act
on individual qubits, multiple qubit gates operate on two or more qubits, enabling more com-
plex operations and interactions. These gates are designed to exploit the unique properties
of entangled quantum states, allowing for parallel computations and intricate quantum infor-
mation processing. Multiple qubit gates, such as the controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate and the
Toffoli gate, serve as the building blocks for constructing quantum circuits that can perform
powerful calculations and solve problems that are beyond the reach of classical computing.

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

Controlled gates

These gates act on something called a target qubit and one or more control qubits. The
action of these gates depends on the state of the control qubit. The target qubit will be
affected by the gate only when the control qubit(s) is(are) in the |1⟩ state(s), otherwise the
target qubit remains as is. In any case, the control qubit(s) always remain the same after
the action of such gates.

Note on notation for multiple qubit states:

For single qubit systems, the basis states are |0⟩ and |1⟩. For two-qubit systems, the ba-
sis states are |00⟩ , |01⟩ , |10⟩ , |11⟩ as described in chapter 1. In the following discussions,
we will use the convention that the first number inside the ket denotes the top-most
qubit in the circuit, and the second number denotes the next qubit down and so on.
Another thing to note is the different ways a two-qubit system (or in general a multiple-
qubit system) is represented. A known two qubit system of a 0 and a 1 can be repre-
sented as |01⟩ or |0, 1⟩ or |0⟩ |1⟩ or |0⟩ ⊗ |1⟩.

3.2.1 Controlled-NOT (CNOT) gate

The CNOT gate, short for Controlled-NOT gate, (or also called the CX gate) is a fundamental
two-qubit gate that plays a central role in quantum circuits. The CNOT gate acts on two
qubits, known as the control qubit and the target qubit. If the control qubit is in the |1⟩
state, the CNOT gate flips the state of the target qubit (action of the X gate). However,
if the control qubit is in the |0⟩ state, the target qubit remains unchanged. And in either
way, the control qubit remains unchanged. This gate’s ability to flip the target qubit based
on the state of the control qubit makes it an essential tool for creating entangled states
and performing controlled operations in quantum circuits. The CNOT gate’s versatility and
its role in various quantum algorithms highlight its significance in quantum computing and
quantum information processing. The circuit for the CNOT gate is as shown in figure 3.8.

|a⟩ • |a⟩

|b⟩ X |a ⊕ b⟩

Figure 3.8: Circuit symbol of CNOT gate

The above circuit is equivalently and more frequently written as shown in figure 3.9.

|a⟩ • |a⟩

|b⟩ |a ⊕ b⟩

Figure 3.9: Circuit symbol of CNOT gate

(The a, b, and a ⊕ b symbols will be explained later.)

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

So according to the above description of the action of the CNOT gate, we can write the
outputs for the four different input states as follows:

ˆ Input |00⟩: Since the first qubit (control) is 0, the second qubit (target) which is also
0 remains as is. So the output is |00⟩.

ˆ Input |01⟩: Since the first qubit (control) is 0, the second qubit (target) which is 1
remains as is. So the output is |01⟩.

ˆ Input |10⟩: Since the first qubit (control) is 1, the second qubit (target) which is 0 flips
to 1. So the output is |11⟩.

ˆ Input |11⟩: Since the first qubit (control) is 1, the second qubit (target) which is also
1 flips to 0. So the output is |10⟩.

The matrix representation of the CNOT gate is as follows:

 
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
 
UCNOT =



0 0 0 1
 
0 0 1 0

All the above cases are summarized in the truth table as follows:

Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |01⟩
|10⟩ |11⟩
|11⟩ |10⟩

Figure 3.10: Truth table of CNOT gate

Now, looking at the truth table of the CNOT gate, specifically, the input states and the
second qubit of the output state, we notice a pattern. The second qubit is the result of a
classical XOR operation between the input qubits. To make it clearer, let’s take a look at
the truth table of the classical XOR gate as shown in figure 3.11.

Input Output
0 0 0
0 1 1
1 0 1
1 1 0

Figure 3.11: Truth table of XOR gate

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

So we can write a general expression for the action of the CNOT gate on a two-qubit
system in terms of the XOR operation. If the input state is |a, b⟩ where a, b ∈ {0, 1}, then
the result is
UCNOT |a, b⟩ = |a, a ⊕ b⟩
where ⊕ represents the XOR operation.
Note: The XOR operation is sometimes also called bit-wise addition or modulo-2 addition.

Here are all the rules for the XOR operation (this can also be seen from the truth table
of XOR):
0⊕0=0 0⊕1=1 1⊕0=1 1⊕1=0
All these rules can be generalized into a simple mathematical expression:
(
0 if x = y
x⊕y =
1 if x ̸= y

where x, y ∈ {0, 1}.

The following general rules are also helpful

0⊕x=x⊕0=x and 1 ⊕ x = x ⊕ 1 = x̄

where x ∈ {0, 1} and x̄ is the inverse of x.

3.2.2 SWAP gate

The SWAP gate is a two-qubit gate. Its action is to swap the qubits of the input states, i.e.,
if the input state is |a, b⟩, then the output of is |b, a⟩. We can write this mathematically as

USWAP |a, b⟩ = |b, a⟩

The circuit representation of the SWAP gate is as shown in figure 3.12.

|a⟩ × |b⟩
|b⟩ × |a⟩

Figure 3.12: Circuit symbol of SWAP gate

The matrix representation of the SWAP gate is as follows:

 
1 0 0 0
 
0 0 1 0
 
USWAP = 



0 1 0 0
 
0 0 0 1

According to the defintion of the SWAP gate, the truth table is written as shown in
figure 3.13.

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩
|01⟩ |10⟩
|10⟩ |01⟩
|11⟩ |11⟩

Figure 3.13: Truth table of SWAP gate

But how is it that the two qubits are swapped due to this gate? The SWAP gate actually
consists of three consecutive CNOT gates aligned in an alternating manner as shown in
figure 3.14. The circuit shown in figure 3.12 is actually an equivalent/conventional way of
representing the circuit shown in figure 3.14.

|a⟩ |a ⊕ (a ⊕ b)⟩ = |b⟩

|a⟩ • • |b⟩

|b⟩ •
|a ⊕ b⟩ |a ⊕ b⟩ |(a ⊕ b) ⊕ b⟩ = |a⟩
Figure 3.14: Working circuit symbol of SWAP gate

Let’s look at the actions step by step. The input state is |a, b⟩.

ˆ For the first CNOT gate, |a⟩ is the control qubit, |b⟩ is the target qubit. So the result
of the action of the first CNOT gate is |a, a ⊕ b⟩.

ˆ The output of the first CNOT gate will be the input to the second CNOT gate, but
this time the bottom qubit |a ⊕ b⟩ is the control and the top qubit |a⟩ is the target. So
the result of the action of the second CNOT gate is |a ⊕ (a ⊕ b), a ⊕ b⟩. But from the
rules of the XOR operation, we can write

a ⊕ (a ⊕ b) = (a ⊕ a) ⊕ b = 0 ⊕ b = b

. So the output of the second CNOT gate is |b, a ⊕ b⟩.

ˆ The output of the second CNOT gate will be the input to the third CNOT gate where
|b⟩ is the control qubit and |a ⊕ b⟩ is the target qubit. So the result of the action of the
third CNOT gate is |b, (a ⊕ b) ⊕ b⟩. Again, we can write

(a ⊕ b) ⊕ b = a ⊕ (b ⊕ b) = a ⊕ 0 = a

. So finally, the output of the third CNOT gate is |b, a⟩.

3.2.3 Controlled-Z gate

The controlled-Z gate (also called the CZ gate) is again a two-qubit gate, acting on a control
qubit and a target qubit. Only when the control qubit is |1⟩, the Z gate will act on the
target qubit. On the other hand, if the control qubit is |0⟩, then the target qubit remains

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 3.2. MULTIPLE QUBIT GATES

Input Output
|00⟩ |00⟩

• |01⟩ |10⟩
|10⟩ |10⟩
Z
|11⟩ − |11⟩
(a) Circuit symbol (b) Truth table

Figure 3.15: Controlled-Z gate

unchanged. In both cases, the control qubit stays the same after the action of the gate. The
circuit for the CZ gate and its truth table are shown in figure 3.15.
Remember the action of the Z gate: Z |0⟩ = |0⟩ and Z |1⟩ = − |1⟩.
The matrix representation of the CZ gate is as follows:
 
1 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0
 
UCZ =



0 0 1 0
 
0 0 0 −1

3.2.4 Toffoli gate

The Toffoli gate (also called the controlled-controlled-NOT gate or simply the CCNOT gate)
is a vital three-qubit gate that allows for controlled operations on multiple qubits. The Toffoli
gate acts on three qubits, with two control qubits and one target qubit. If both control qubits
are in the state |1⟩, the Toffoli gate flips the state of the target qubit; otherwise, the target
qubit remains unchanged. And just as in the other controlled gates discussed above, the
control qubits remain the same after the action of the gate. The circuit representation for
the Toffoloi gate is as shown in figure 3.16.

|a⟩ • |a⟩

|b⟩ • |b⟩

|c⟩ |c ⊕ ab⟩

Figure 3.16: Circuit symbol of Toffoli gate

Since there are 3 qubits taken as input in this gate, there are 8 different possible combi-
nations of input states. And remember, according to our convention, the first number inside
the ket represents the top-most qubit in the circuit, the second number represents the middle
qubit in the circuit and the third number represents the bottom-most qubit in the circuit.
So the truth table will be as shown in figure 3.17.
And since there are 8 different possible combinations of input states, the matrix repre-

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 3.3. MODEL AND PREVIOUS YEAR QUESTIONS

Input Output
|000⟩ |000⟩
|001⟩ |001⟩
|010⟩ |010⟩
|011⟩ |011⟩
|100⟩ |100⟩
|101⟩ |101⟩
|110⟩ |111⟩
|111⟩ |110⟩

Figure 3.17: Truth table of Toffoli gate

senting the Toffoli gate is a 8 × 8 matrix given below:

 
1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
0 1 0 0 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 1 0 0 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 1 0 0 0 0
UCCNOT = 
 

0 0 0 0 1 0 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 1 0 0
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1
 
 
0 0 0 0 0 0 1 0

3.3 Model and Previous Year Questions

Q 1. Explain the controlled NOT gate (CNOT gate) with four different input states with
the truth table.
Q 2. Describe the working of controlled-Z gate mentioning its matrix representation and
truth-table.
Q 3. Explain the operations of phase gate (S gate) with |0⟩ and |1⟩ states, with truth table.
Mention its matrix representation.
Q 4. Explain the Hadamard gate. Show that the Hadamard gate is unitary.
Q 5. Explain single qubit gate and multiple qubit gate with example for each.

3.4 Numericals

Q 1. Using Matrix multiplication show that on applying Hadamard gate twice to a |0⟩ results
in its original state.

Department of Physics 42 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju
 3.4. NUMERICALS

To show that:
HH |0⟩ = |0⟩

First, the matrix representation of the Hadamard gate is as follows,

   
√1 √1 1 1 1
H=  2 2  =√ 
√1 − 12
√ 2 1 −1
2

Next, consider the LHS,

    
1 1 1 1 1 1
HH |0⟩ = √   √1   
2 1 −1 2 1 −1 0
   
1 1 1 1 1 1
= 
2 1 −1 1 −1 0
  
1 1 1 1
= 
2 1 −1 1
 
1 2
=
2 0
 
1
= 
0
=⇒ HH |0⟩ = |0⟩

Q 2. Using two X-gates in series show that two not gates in series are equivalent to a
quantum wire.
To show that:
XX = I

Consider the LHS,

  
0 1 0 1
XX =   
1 0 1 0
 
1 0
= 
0 1
=⇒ XX = I

A quantum wire is nothing but an identity operator.

Q 3. Show that the Hadamard Gate is Unitary.
To show that:
HH † = H † H = I

Department of Physics 43 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju
 3.4. NUMERICALS

First, find out H †

H † = (H ∗ )T
  ∗ T
1 1 1
= √   
2 1 −1
  T
1 1 1
= √  
2 1 −1
 
1 1 1
=√  
2 1 −1

H† = H

It turns out that the Hadamard operator is also Hermitian, which simplifies our work,
because to show H is unitary, we only need to prove HH = I.

   
1 1 1  1 1 1 
HH = √ √
2 1 −1 2 1 −1
 
1 2 0
=  
2 0 2
 
1 0
= 
0 1
=⇒ HH = I

Therefore, the Hadamard operator is unitary.

Q 4. Two qubits are passed through a CNOT gate. If the first qubit is the control qubit
then what is the output for the following initial states 1) |00⟩, 2) |01⟩, and 3) |11⟩.
We know that the action of the CNOT gate is to convert |a, b⟩ −→ |a, a ⊕ b⟩. So,

|00⟩ −→ |0, 0 ⊕ 0⟩ = |00⟩

|01⟩ −→ |0, 0 ⊕ 1⟩ = |01⟩

|11⟩ −→ |1, 1 ⊕ 1⟩ = |10⟩

Q 5. Show that S gate can be formed by connecting two T gates in series.

To show that:
TT = S

Department of Physics 44 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju
 3.4. NUMERICALS

Consider the LHS,

  
1 0 1 0
TT =   
1+i 1+i
0 √
2
0 √
2
 
1 0
= 
(1+i)2
0 2
 
1 0
= 2

0 1+i2+2i
 
1 0
= 
0 i
=⇒ T T = S

where we have used the fact that i2 = −1.

Department of Physics 45 Physics for CSE Stream Notes

AMC Engineering College BPHYS102/202
Bengaluru-560083 Prof. Nithin Manju