Chapter VIII: Properties of Solutions

Lesson 1
SATURATED SOLUTIONS AND SOLUBILITY

Solutions – homogeneous mixtures; maybe gases, liquids, or solids

Component – each of the substances in a solution

Solvent – the component present in greatest amount

Solute – other components present in the solution

dissolve
Solute + Solvent Solution
crystallize

Miscible – Liquids that mix in all proportions

Crystallization – the solute particles have the tendency to collide with Salt Solution
the surface of the solid become reattached to the
solid

Crystallization

Solubility – the amount of solute needed to form a saturated solution in a given quantity of solvent

Saturated Solution – a solution that is in equilibrium with undissolved solute

Unsaturated Solution – a solution containing less solute than a saturated solution
Supersaturated solution – a solution containing more solute than a saturated solution

Solubility Guidelines for Ionic Compounds

Soluble Ionic Compounds Important Exceptions
Nitrate salts None
Acetate salts None
Compounds Chloride salts Compounds of Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
containing Bromide salts Compounds of Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
Iodide salts Compounds of Ag+, Hg22+, Pb2+
Sulfate salts Compounds of Sr2+, Ba2+, Hg22+, and Pb2+
Insoluble Ionic Compounds Important Exceptions
Sulfide salts Compounds of NH4+, the alkali metal
cations, and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+
Carbonate salts Compounds of NH4+, the alkali metal
Compounds cations
containing Phosphate salts Compounds of NH4+, the alkali metal
cations
Hydroxide Compounds of the alkali metal cations,
and Ca2+, Sr2+, and Ba2+

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 1

  Review # 1: Saturated Solutions and Solubility

Use the solubility curve to determine the answers to the following questions:

1. Why do you think the temperatures on the graph only go from 0 °C to 100 °C?

2. Which substance is the most soluble at 60 °C?

3. Which substance is the least soluble at 20 °C?

4. Which substance’s solubility changes the most from 0 °C to 100 °C?

5. Which substance solubility changes the least from 0 °C to 100 °C?

2 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

 Lesson 2

FACTORS AFFECTING SOLUBILITY

Solute – Solvent Interactions
 the stronger the attractions between solute and solvent molecules, the greater the
solubility
 Polar liquids tend to dissolve readily in polar solvents
 Nonpolar liquids tend to be insoluble in polar liquids
 Substances with similar intermolecular attractive forces tend to be soluble in one
another which is simply stated as “like dissolves like”
 e.g. sugar readily dissolves in water

Pressure Effects
 the solubility of the gas increases in direct proportion to its partial pressure above the
solution

Temperature Effects
 the solubility of most solid solutes in water increases as the temperature of the
solution increases
 in contrast to solid solutes, the solubility of the gases in water decreases with
increasing temperature

Trivia:

“Contrary to the common

misconception, water and
hydrophobic substances do not
“repel”, and the hydration of a
hydrophobic surface is
energetically, but not
entropically, favourable.”

Which glass will have greater amount of CO2?

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 3

  Review # 2: Factors Affecting Solubility

1. Write T if the statement is true and write F if the statement is false.

___(a) There are more dissolved O2 in the river at night than in the mid – afternoon.
___(b) Solid solutes have high solubility at higher temperature.
___(c) Gases have high solubility at higher temperature.
___(d) The amount of dissolved oxygen in seawater is higher at 4 bar than at 1 bar.
___(e) The solubility of KCl in water decreases in the presence of NaCl.

2. Choose and Write the letter of the correct answer on the blank before the number.
_____(a) Which factor would not affect the solubility of table salt in water?
a. adding sugar to the water c. stirring water and salt
b. heating water and salt d. grinding salt to make it finer

_____(b) Which process or processes affect the speed of dissolving?

a. particle size only c. particle size, temperature, and stirring
b. particle size and stirring d. stirring only

_____(c) Water contains dissolved oxygen so that aquatic organisms can survive. Which of
the following would not affect the amount of oxygen in water?
a. agitate the water c. place the water in a shallower container
b. cool down the water d. place the water under brighter light

_____(d) Most solutes dissolve faster in a solvent when temperature is increased. Which
solvent/solute listed below is an exception to the rule?
a. water/sugar c. water/salt
b. water/oxygen d. copper/aluminum

_____(e) What is solubility?

a.amount of solute that will dissolve in a given amount of solvent
b. amount of solvent that will dissolve in a given amount of solute
c. polar liquids and nonpolar liquids mixing
d. all of the above

4 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

 Lesson 3

WAYS OF EXPRESSING CONCENTRATION

 The concentration of a solution can be expressed either qualitatively or quantitatively.

 The terms dilute and concentrated are used to describe a solution qualitatively.
 In quantitative terms, we express the concentration: mass percentage, mole fraction,
molarity, and molality.

Mass Percentage, ppm, ppb

Mass of Component = mass of component in solution (g) x 100%

Total mass of solution (g)

Parts per million = mass of component in solution(g) x 106

Total mass of solution (g)

Parts per billion = mass of component in solution(g) x 109

Total mass of solution (g)

Sample Exercise:

1. A solution is made by dissolving 13.5 g of glucose in 0.100 kg of water. What is the mass
percentage of solute in this solution?

 Parts per billion = mass of component in solution X 109

Solution:
Mass % = mass of glucose x 100% = 13.5 g_____ x 100% = 11.9%
Total mass of solution
mass of solution (13.5 g + 100.0 g)

2. A 2.5 – g sample of groundwater was found to contain 5.4 µg of Zn2+. What is the
concentration of Zn2+ in parts per million?

Solution:
ppm = mass of solute x 106 = 5.4 x 10-6 g x 106 = 2.2 ppm
mass of solution 2.5 g

Practice Exercise:

1. Calculate the mass percentage of NaCl in a solution containing 1.50 g NaCl in 50.0 g water.
– 2.91%

2. A commercial bleaching solution contains 3.62% by mass sodium hypochlorite (NaOCl). What
is the mass of NaOCl in a bottle containing 2500 g of bleaching solution? – 90.5%

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 5

Mole Fraction, Molarity, Molality

Mole fraction of the component(x) = moles of the component

Total moles of all components

Note: mole fraction has no units in the numerator and the denominator cancel

Molarity (M) = moles of solute = mol/L

Liters solution

Note:
1. Molarity is especially useful for relating the volume of a solution to the quantity of
solute it contains.
2. Molarity depends on the volume of the solution.
3. It changes with temperature because the expansion or contraction of the solution
changes its volume.

Molality (m) = __moles solute = mol/kg

kilogram solvent

Note:
1. Molality depends on the mass of the solvent.
2. The molality of a given solution does not vary with temperature because masses do
not vary with temperature.

Sample Exercise:

225 g of benzene and has a density of 0.876

A solution contains 5.0 g of toluene (C7H8) and
g/ml. Calculate the molarity of the solution.

Solution: 
Moles C7H8 = (5.0 g C7H8) x (1 mol C7H8) = 0.054 mol
(92 g C7H8) 
Milliliters solution: (230 g) x (1mL) = 263 mL
(0.876 g)

Molarity = (0.054 mol C7H8) (1000 mL  solution) = 0.21 M
(263 mL solution)(1 L solution)
]
Practice Exercise: 
A solution containing equal masses of glycerol (C3H8O3) and water has a density of 1.10
g/mL. (a) Calculate the molality of glycerol; (b) the mole fraction of glycerol; (c) the molarity
of glycerol in the solution. (a) 10.8 mole/kg; (b) 0.163; (c) 5.94 mole/L

6 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

  Review # 3: Ways of Expressing Concentration

1. Calculate the mass percentage of Na2SO4 in a solution containing 11.7 g Na2SO4 in 443 g of
water.

2. What is the mass percentage of Iodine (I2) in a solution containing 0.045 mole I2 in 115 g
of CCl4?

3. Calculate the molarity of the aqueous solution 10.5 g benzene dissolved in CCl4 forming a
40.0 mL solution.

4. Commercial aqueous nitric Acid has a density of 1.42 g/mL and has a concentration of
16.0 M. Calculate the percent HNO3 by mass in the solution.

5. Commercial concentrated aqueous ammonia is 28.0 % NH3 by mass and has a density of
0.900 g/mL. What is the molarity of this solution?

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 7

 Lesson 4

COLLOIDS
 the intermediate types of dispersions or suspensions
 form the dividing line between solutions and heterogeneous mixtures
 Colloids can be solid, liquid, and gas

Tyndall Effect –the scattering of light by colloidal particles

Scattering of Light

Classification of Colloids

Dispersed Phase
Medium/Phases
Gas Liquid Solid
NONE Liquid aerosol Solid aerosol
Gas (All are mutually Fog, mist, hair Smoke, cloud, air
miscible) sprays particulates
Emulsion
Foam Sol
Continuous Milk,
Liquid Whipped cream, Pigmented ink,
Medium mayonnaise,
Shaving cream blood
hand cream
Solid Foam Gel
Solid Sol
Solid Aerogel, Styrofoam, Agar, gelatin,
Cranberry glass
pumice jelly, opal

Hydrophilic and Hydrophobic Colloids

Hydrophilic Colloid
 the most important colloid in which the dispersing medium is water
 the polar groups are on the surface, interacting with water molecules
 are common in living organisms

Hydrophobic Colloid
 lacks affinity for water
 can be stabilized by adsorption of ions on their surface

8 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

  Review #4: Colloids

Choose the correct word in the box that best corresponds to the definition.

Tyndall Effect Foam Suspension

Solid Emulsion Solid Sol

Hydrophilic end Gel Gas

Hydrophobic end Liquid Colloid

___________1. This portion of a molecule tends to be nonpolar and prefer neutral

molecules.

___________2. This heterogeneous fluid contains solid particles that are sufficiently large

for sedimentation.

___________3. This colloid system has continuous medium and liquid dispersed phase. A

typical example is Jell – O.

___________4. This is the dispersed phase of Styrofoam.

___________5. This is light – scattering in the colloid system.

___________6. This colloid system has liquid continuous medium and liquid dispersed

phase. One example is mayonnaise.

___________7. This portion of a molecule is charged – polarized and is capable of forming

hydrogen bonds. A typical example is the phosphate portion of phospholipid

molecules in plasma membrane.

___________8. This is the continuous medium of blood.

___________9. This colloid system has liquid continuous medium and gaseous dispersed

phase. One example is whipped cream.

___________10. This is the dispersed phase of smoke.

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 9

 Lesson 5
ACIDS AND BASES: A BRIEF PREVIEW
Acids (Latin: acidus - sour)
 are substances that ionize in aqueous solutions to form hydrogen ions, thereby
increasing the concentration of H+ aqueous ions
 are often called proton donors
 molecular models of three common acids, HCl, HNO3, and HC2H3O2

HA H + + A-

Bases (English: debase – to lower)

 Alkali – soluble base
 are substances that accept H+ ions
 produce hydroxide ions when they dissolve in water Acids and Bases
 compounds that do not contain OH- ions can also be bases like NH3

BOH B+ + OH-

Examples of Acids and Bases

Acid Base
Hydrochloric acid, HCl Sodium hydroxide, NaOH
(stomach acid) (lye or caustic soda)
Sulfuric acid, H2SO4 Magnesium hydroxide, Mg(OH)2
(milk of magnesia)
Nitric acid, HNO3 Calcium hydroxide, Ca(OH)2
(slaked lime)
Acetic acid, HC2H3O2 Ammonia, NH3
(vinegar)
Carbonic acid, H2CO3
Formic acid, HCOOH
Citric acid, C6H8O7
Acetylsalicylic acid, C6H4(OCOCH3)CO2H
(aspirin)

Key Characteristics of Acids Key Characteristics of Bases

Sour taste Bitter taste
React with active metals such as Generally no noticeable reaction
zinc and magnesium to produce with active metals
hydrogen gas
Form electrolytic solutions Form electrolytic solutions
(conduct electricity) because (conduct electricity) because they
they produce ions produce ions
Cause certain dyes to change Cause certain dyes to change
color; litmus paper turns red color; litmus paper turns blue
Slippery feel (soapy feel)
Neutralized by bases Neutralized by acids

10 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

Arrhenius Theory of Acids and Bases
 Svante Arrhenius – provided definition of acid – base reactions which led to the
development of the hydrogen theory of acids
Arrhenius acid – dissociate in aqueous solution to form hydrogen
ions (H+)
Arrhenius base – dissociate in aqueous solution to form hydroxide
ions (OH-)

Ionization and Dissociation

 Electrolytic solution – any substance containing free ions that make the substance
electrically conductive
Electrolytic solutions conduct electricity because the substance
dissolves in water to produce ions
Typical electrolytes are ionic substance
Two Types of Electrolytes:
a. Strong electrolytes – good conductors because they break down well and
produce many ions in solution
b. Weak electrolytes – do not conduct electricity as well because fewer ions
are produced in solution

 Dissociation – a general process in which ionic compounds (complexes or salts)

separate or split into smaller particles, ions, or radicals, usually in a reversible
manner
occurs when water molecules “pull apart” the ionic crystal
hydration occurs, this is when water molecules surround the
positive cations and negative anions
Examples:
Na2SO4 (s) Na+ (aq) + SO4- (aq)
NaCl (s) Na+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
NaOH (s) Na+ (aq) + OH- (aq)

 Ionization – a process that occurs when molecular compounds dissolve in water to

produce ions
Examples:
HCl(g) H+ (aq) + Cl- (aq)
H2SO4 (g) 2H+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

Brønsted – Lowry Acids and Bases

 Johannes Nicolaus Brønsted – theorized that as a hydrogen atom (always found in
an acid) is ionized once dissolved in water, it loses its electron and becomes a
proton donor

 Thomas Martin Lowry – formulated the protonic definition of acids and bases
independently of the work by Brønsted
Brønsted – Lowry acid – a substance (molecules or ion) that can
donate a proton to another substance
Brønsted – Lowry base – a substance that can accept a proton

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 11

 Note: The concept also applies to reactions that do not occur in aqueous solutions
such as in the reaction of HCl and ammonia.

HCl (aq) + NH3 (aq) Cl-(aq) + NH4+ (aq)

Lewis Acids and Bases

 Gilbert N. Lewis–known for the discovery of the covalent bond, his purification of
water, his reformulation of chemical thermodynamics, and his theory of Lewis acids
and bases
Lewis acid – a substance which can accept a lone pair, completing
its stable form, which requires two electrons
Lewis base – a substance which can donate a pair of electrons

Lewis Acids Lewis Bases

+
Proton (H ) and acidic compounds Simple anions, such as H- and F-
Onium ions, such as NH4+ and H3O+ Other lone pair – containing species, such
as H2O, NH3, HO-, and CH3-
Metal cations, such as Li+ and Mg2+, often as Complex anions, such as sulfate
their aquo or ether complexes

Conjugate Acid – Base Pairs

 conjugate base – formed by removing a proton from the acid
 conjugate acid – formed by adding a proton to the base
HNO2 (aq) + H2O (l) NO2-(aq) + H3O+(aq)
acid base conjugate conjugate
base acid

 In any acid – base equilibrium both the forward reaction (to the right) and the
reverse reaction (to the left) involve proton transfers
 An acid and a base such as nitrous acid and water that differ only in the presence or
absence of a proton

12 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

Sample Exercise:

What is the conjugate acid or the conjugate base of (a) hydrochloric acid (HCl) and (b)
hydroxide (OH-)?

(a) HCl is a strong acid. When it donates a proton, a Cl- ion is produced, and so Cl- is the
conjugate base.
(b) Adding a proton to the strong base OH- gives H2O its conjugate acid.

Practice Exercise:

1. What is the conjugate acid of ClO4- , S2-, HPO42-, CO32-, and NO3-?
HClO4, HS-, H2PO42-, HCO3-, HNO3
2. What is the conjugate base of HPO42-, HBrO4, H2O, HC2H3O2, and NH4+?
PO43-, BrO4-, C2H3O2-, NH3

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 13

  Review # 5: Acids and Bases: A Brief Preview

1. Identify the acid, base, conjugate acid, and conjugate base:

(a) HC2H3O2 (aq) + H2O (l) C2H3O2- (aq) + H3O+ (aq)

(b) OH- (aq) + HCO3- (aq) CO3-2 (aq) + H2O (l)

(c) HF (aq) + SO32- (aq) F- (aq) + HSO3- (aq)

(d) CO32- (aq) + HC2H3O2 (aq) HCO3- (aq) + C2H3O2- (aq)

(e) H3PO4 (aq) + OCl- (aq) H2PO4- (aq) + HOCl (aq)

2. Fill the blanks with the necessary information:

(a) According to Bronsted – Lowry definition, acid is a proton _________.

(b) According to Arrhenius definition, when base is dissolved in water it increases the
concentration of __________ ions.
(c) Strong acids such as hydrochloric acid react with strong base such as sodium hydroxide
to form water and __________.
(d) Acetic acid is an example of ___________ acid because it partially conducts electricity.
(e) ___________ is a weak base and is also known for its use as a fertilizer.
(f) A conjugate acid is formed when ___________ is added to a base.
(g) According to Lewis definition, acid is a _____________ acceptor.
(h)Acids react with active metals to produce _____________.
(i) Acids change blue litmus paper to ___________.
(j) Lemons contain ___________ acid which gives lemon a sour taste and a pH of 2 - 3.

3. Write T if the statement is true. Write F if the statement is false:

___ (a) Acidic solutions have a pH below 7.

___ (b) The chemical formula of sulfuric acid is H2SO3.
___ (c) Lemons contain ascorbic acid.
___ (d) Neutral solutions have a pH of 0.
___ (e) The pH range of acid is 1 to 6.

14 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

 Lesson 6

STRENGTH OF ACIDS AND BASES

Strong Acids and Bases

 Strong acids and bases are strong electrolytes, meaning, they completely ionized in
solution

Strong Acids Strong Bases

Hydrochloric acid Sodium Hydroxide
Hydrobromic acid Potassium hydroxide
Hydroiodic acid Lithium hydroxide
Chloric acid Calcium hydroxide
Perchloric Acid Barium hydroxide
Sulfuric acid

 Weak acids and bases are weak electrolytes, meaning, they partially ionized in
solution

Weak Acids Weak Bases

Oxalic acid Ammonia
Acetic acid Alanine

Relative Strengths of Acids and bases

 the stronger an acid, the weaker is its conjugate base
 the stronger a base, the weaker is its conjugate acid
 the strong acids completely transfer their protons to water, leaving no undissociated
molecules in solution
 the weak acids only partly dissociate in aqueous solution and therefore exist in the
solution as a mixture of acid molecules and their constituent ions

The pH scale
 First introduced by Danish chemist Søren Peder Lauritz Sørensen at the Carlsberg
Laboratory in 1909
 pH stands for the Latin terms pondus Hydrogenii or potentia Hydrogenii

Mathematical Definition:

pH = - log10 (a H+) = log10 (1/a H+)

where, a = activity of hydrogen ions (mol/L)

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 15

  The activity coefficient for diluted
solutions is a real number between 0
and 1
 It’s dependent on many parameters
of a solution, such as nature of ion,
ion force, temperature, etc.
 Activity can be measured
experimentally by means of an ion –
selective electrode
 The molar concentration of H+ in an
aqueous solution is usually very small,
therefore, [H+] is expressed in terms of
pH
pH meter pH = - log [H+]
 The pH decreases as [H+] increases
 pH = 7 is neutral; the pH of water
 pH < 7 is acidic; pH > 7 is basic

Sample Exercises:

1. Calculate the pH value for 0.1 M HCl: 2. Calculate the pH value for 1.0 x 10-3 M KOH.

Solution:pH = - log [H+] Solution: pOH = -log [OH-] = -log (1.0 x 10-3) = 3.00
= - log [0.10 M] 14 = pH + pOH
= 1.00 pH = 14 – 3.00 = 11

x HA y H+ + z A-
where K a= ratio of the dissociated to
undissociated compound
[H+] = concentration of hydrogen ion
K a = [H+]y [A-]z [A-] = concentration of conjugate base
[HA]x [HA] = concentration of acid

Note: The brackets denote the equilibrium concentration of the species.

16 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

Sample Exercises:

Weak Acids and Bases The pH Scale

1. Calculate the pH of 0.010 M benzoic acid (C6H5COOH). (K a = 6.5 x 10-5)
Solution:
C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Benzoic acid dissociates one H+ ion for every C6H5COO- ion, so [H+] = [C6H5COO-].
Letx = the concentration of H+ ion that dissociated = the concentration of benzoate
dissociate
0.010 – x = the concentration of benzoic acid

C6H5COOH (aq) C6H5COO- (aq) + H+ (aq)

Initial 0.010 M 0 0
Change -x +x +x
Equilibrium 0.010 M - x x x

Since 0.010 >> x therefore, [C6H5COOH] = 0.010M

K a = 6.5 x 10-5 = [H+][C6H5COO-]

[C6H5COOH]
6.5 x 10 = (x)(x) = 8.1 x 10-4
-5

0.010
[H ] = x = 8.1 x 10-4 M
+

pH = -log [H+] =3.09

2. Calculate the pH in a 0.15 M solution of NH3.

Solution:
NH3 (aq) + H2O (l) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

K b = 1.8 x 10-5 = [NH4+][OH-]

[NH3]
+
Let x = the concentration of NH4 that dissociated
0.15 – x = the concentration of NH3

NH3 (aq) NH4+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

Initial 0.15 M 0 0
Change -x +x +x
Equilibrium 0.15 M - x x x

Since 0.15 >> x therefore, [NH3] = 0.15

K b = 1.8 x 10-5 = [NH4+][OH-] Solving for pH, 14 = pH + pOH

[NH3] pH = 14 – (-log [OH-])
1.8 x 10-5 = (x)(x) pH = 14 – [-log(1.6 x 10-3)] = 11.2
0.15
[OH ] = x = 1.6 x 10-3 M
-

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 17

  Review # 6: Strength of Acids and Bases

1. Calculate the pH of the following solutions:

(a) 2.3 x 10-2 M HClO4 (b) 3.4 x 10-2 M NH3 (K b = 1.8 x 10-5)

(c) 1.3 x 10-3 M NaOH (d) 2.5 x 10-1 M HC2H3O2 (K a = 1.8 x 10-5)

2. Indicate whether each statement is correct or not by writing T if the statement is correct
or F if the statement is wrong:
___(a) Every Brønsted – Lowry acid is also an Arrhenius acid.

___(b) Conjugate acids of weak bases are strongly acidic than conjugate acids of strong

bases.

___(c) pH ranges from 1 to 14.

___(d) Non-metal oxides like SO2 and CO2 combine with rainwater to form acid rain.

___(e) Acids are sources of H+ or hydronium ions.

3. Complete the table below by calculating the missing entries and indicating whether the
solution is acidic or basic:

[H+] [OH-] pH pOH acidic/basic

4.5 x 10-3 M

3.7 x 10-9 M

8.4

6.7

18 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

 Lesson 7
REACTIONS OF ACIDS AND BASES
Reactions of Acids

Reaction Pattern Example

React with reactive HA + Metal  salt + H2 (g) HCl (aq) + Na(s) NaCl (aq) + H2 (g)
metals to form hydrogen
gas and a salt
Note:
To confirm the production of hydrogen gas, a lighted splint should be put at the mouth of
the test tube and observe a ‘pop’ sound
When unreactive metals (refer to Reactivity Series) are added to dilute acids, there shall
be no reaction
Concentrated nitric acid reacts with metals such as copper but it does not give
hydrogen. Instead, a nitrate salt, water and nitrogen dioxide gas are formed
Lead appears not to react with dilute HCl and dilute H2SO4

React with metal HA + Metal carbonate (M2CO3) H2SO4 (aq) + Na2CO3 Na2SO4 (aq) +
carbonates to produce a  salt + H2O (l) + CO2 (g) H2O (l) + CO2 (g)
salt, carbon dioxide, and
water

React with a base to HA + BOH  salt + H2O (l) HClO4 (aq) + NaOH (aq) NaClO4 (aq) +
form asalt and water H2O (l)
(Neutralization)

React with oxides to HA + M2O  salt + H2O (l) H2SO4 (aq) + ZnO (s) ZnSO4 (aq) +
form a salt and water H2O (l)

Reactions of Bases

Reaction Pattern Example

React with an acid to BOH + HA Salt + H2O (l) NaOH (aq) + HCl (aq) NaCl (aq) +
form a salt and water H2O (l)
(Neutralization)
React with ammonium BOH + NH4X  salt + H2O (l) + Ca(OH)2 (aq) + NH4Cl (s) + heat 
salts when heated to NH3 (g) CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + NH3 (g)
form a salt, water, and
ammonia
React with a solution of BOH1 + salt1 BOH2 + salt2 NaOH (aq) + FeSO4 (aq) Fe(OH)2 (s)
one metal salt to give + Na2SO4 (aq)
metal hydroxide and
another metal salt

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 19

  Review 7: Reactions of Acids and Bases

1. Mg (s) + _________  MgCl2 (aq) + H2 (g)

2. ZnO (s) + H2SO4 (aq) _________ + H2O (l)

3. __________ + 2HNO3 (aq)  Ca(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

4. CuCO3 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) _________ + H2O (l) + _________

5. __________ + 2HCl (aq)  CaCl2 (aq) + 2H2O (l)

6. Zn (s) + ___________  ZnSO4 (aq) + H2 (g)

7. ___________ + HNO3 (aq)  NH4NO3 (aq)

8. CuO (s) + 2HCl (aq) __________ + H2O (l)

9. ___________ + 2HCl (aq)  MgCl2 (aq) + H2O (l) + ____________

10. Mg(OH)2 (s) + H2SO4 (aq) __________ + ___________

11. CuO (s) + __________  Cu(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O (l)

12. Zn (s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + __________

13. ___________ + H2SO4 (aq)  MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l)

14. ___________ + H2SO4 (aq)  MgSO4 (aq) + H2O (l) + CO2 (g)

15. Zn(OH)2 (s) + 2HCl (aq)  ZnCl2 (aq) + __________

16. NaOH (aq) + NH4Cl (s) + heat  NaCl (aq) + ________ + _________

17. Ca(OH)2 (aq) + H2SO4 (aq) _________ + 2H2O (l)

18. 2NaOH (aq) + FeSO4 (aq) _________ + __________

19. Ca(OH)2 (aq) + _________ + heat  _________ + _________ + __________

20. Ba(OH)2 (aq) + _________  BaSO4 (s) + _________

20 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

Key Terms
___________________________________________________
1. Acid – a substance that ionizes in aqueous solutions to form hydrogen ions,
increasing the concentration of H+ aqueous ions
2. Base – a substance that accepts H+ ions
3. Colloid – a substance microscopically dispersed evenly throughout another
substance
4. Crystallization– the process in which a dissolved solute comes out of solution and
forms a crystalline solid
5. Dissociation – a general process in which an ionic compounds (complexes or salts)
separate or split into smaller particles, ions, or radicals, usually in a reversible
manner
6. Hydrophilic colloid– is a molecule or other molecular entity that is attracted to, and
tends to be dissolved by water
7. Hydrophobic colloid – a colloidal solution in which the dispersed particles are
hydrophobes, and are therefore sharply demarcated from the fluid in which they are
suspended
8. Mass percentage – the number of grams of solute in each 100 g of solution
9. Miscible – liquids that mix in all proportions
10. Molality – the concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per kilogram
of solvent; abbreviated m
11. Molarity – the concentration of a solution expressed as moles of solute per liter of
solution; abbreviated M
12. Osmosis – the net movement of solvent through a semi – permeable membrane
toward the solution with a greater solute concentration
13. Parts per billion – the concentration of a solution in grams of solute per 109 (billion)
grams of solution; equals micrograms of solute per liter of solution for aqueous
solutions
14. Parts per million – the concentration of a solution in grams of solute per 106
(million) grams of solution; equals milligrams of solute per liter of solution for
aqueous solutions
15. Saturated solution – a solution in which undissolved solute and dissolved solute are
in equilibrium
16. Solubility – the amount of a substance that dissolved in a given quantity of solvent
at a given temperature to form a saturated solution
17. Supersaturated solution – solutions containing more solute than a saturated
solution
18. Tyndall Effect – light – scattering by particles in a colloid or particles in a fine
suspension
19. Unsaturated solution – solutions containing less solute than a saturated solution
20. Vapor pressure– the pressure exerted by a vapor in equilibrium with its liquid or
solid phase

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 21

CHAPTER 8:
SOLUTIONS
Long Test
Name:______________________________ Date:________________________
Score:______________________________

I. Multiple Choices: Write the letter of the correct answer on the gap before the number. If
the answer is not in the choices, write N/A.

_____1. Dispersed phase and dispersing medium of cigarette smoke are ________________.
a. liquid in solid c. solid in gas
b. liquid in solid d. gas in solid

_____2. In a solution the substance that is being dissolved is known as _________________.

a. Emulsifier c. Solvent
b. Solute d. Filtrate

_____3. What makes water such a good solvent?

a. Water is a negatively charged ion.
b. Water repels most molecules.
c. Water is a small molecule.
d. Water is a polar solvent and a small molecule.

_____4. Methane is _________ because the carbon shares the electrons with the hydrogen
atoms uniformly.
a. polar c. nonpolar
b. colloid d. suspension

_____5. Which solvent would effectively dissolve the essential oil of rose consisting of
geranoil (C10H8O), citronellol (C10H20O), damascenone (C13H18O), and paraffin?
a. water c. Na2CO3
b. hexane d. glucose syrup

_____6. As temperature increases, the solubility of the gas __________________.

a. increases c. remains constant
b. decreases d. varies inconsistently

_____7. How many milliliters of water would have to be added to 10.0 mL of 2.00 mole/L
NaOH to prepare a 0.510 mole/L solution?
a. 39.2 mL c. 10.2 mL
b. 46.1 mL d. 9.80 mL

_____8. Which of the following unit of concentration depends on temperature change?

a. molarity c. ppm
b. molality d. mole fraction

22 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |

_____9. A solution of sodium chloride and water consists of 3.0 NaCl and 7.0 moles. What is
the mole fraction of NaCl?
a. 0.50 moles c. 0.30 moles
b. 0.25 moles d. 0.40 moles

_____10. What does ‘aqueous solution’ mean?

a. The solvent is water c. The solute is in a salt solution
b. The solute is water d. The solution is in seawater

_____11. If 5.0 g NaCl (FW NaCl = 58.4398 g/mole) is dissolved in 500.0 mL water (ρ = 1.00
g/mL @ 25 °C). What is the molality of the solution?
a. 0.25 mole/kg c. 0.306 mole/L
b. 1.5 mole/L d. 0.17 mole/kg

_____12. Which of the following is true?

a. The charge difference causes water molecules to be attracted to each other and
to other polar molecules.
b. The relatively small size of water molecules typically allows many water
molecules to surround one molecule of solute.
c. Non – polar molecules stay together in water because it is energetically more
favorable for the water molecules to hydrogen bond to each other than to
engage in Van der Waals interaction with nonpolar molecules.
d. Water and hydrophobic substances repel each other because hydration of
hydrophobic surface isnot energetically favorable.

_____13. Which organic compound is the least soluble in water at 25 °C?

a. methanol, CH3OH c. Hexane, C6H14
b. 1 – propanol, CH3CH2CH2OH d. glucose, C6H12O12

_____14. What is the mole fraction of NaOH if 39.0 g NaOH are mixed with 200 g water?
a. 0.081 c. 1.05 mole
b. 0.072 d. 0.233 mole

_____15. Which of the following solutions is isotonic with 0.15 M KI in water?

a. 0.10 M KBr c. 0.10 M CH3OH
b. 0.10 M MgCl2 d. 0.10 M Na3PO4

_____16. What is the pH of 0.100 M KOH solution?

a. 1.0 c. 12.0
b. 2.5 d. 13.0

_____17.As the pH of a solution increases, the concentration of H+ ________________.

a. vary unpredictably c. increases
b. decreases d. remains constant

_____18. pH is defined as a negative decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity in a

solution. Hydrogen ion activity is expressed in units __________________.
a. ppm c. mole/L
b. mole/kg d. eq/L

CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry | 23

_____19. What is the pH scale for acidic solution?
a. 1 – 7 c. 7 – 14
b. 0 – 7 d. 2 – 6.9

_____20. Which of the following is a conjugate acid – base pair?

a. HCl/NaOH c. HNO3/H+
-
b. HI/OH d. HC2H3O2/C2H3O2-

II. State T if the statement is true. If the statement is false, change the underlined word to
make the statement true.
_______a. Acid solutions have high pH.
_______b. Oxides of metals like Na2O form basic solutions when dissolved in
water.
_______c. Ammonia is an acid.
_______d. The chemical formula for sodium hydroxide is NaH.
_______e. Properties of acid include being corrosive and having a sour taste.
_______f. Neutral solutions have a high pH equal to zero.
_______g. Brownian movement describes the scattering of light by colloidal
particles.
_______h. The solubility of gas in solution increases as temperature decreases.
_______i. Solutions exhibit lower boiling points than the parent solution.
_______j. Osmotic pressure is a very important property of solutions. It is
responsible for the preservative action of sugar solutions.

III. Fill the table with the missing information:

[H+] [OH-] pH pOH acidic/basic

5.40 x 10-4 M

8.6

7.0

24 CHAPTER 8: Solutions | Chemistry |