.

UNIT-I

BUILDING STONES: Man requires different types of buildings such as houses,

bungalows, flats etc for his living. For his activities man also require Hospitals for
his health; Schools, Colleges and Universities for his education; Banks, Shops,
Offices and Factories for doing works; Railway buildings, Bus stations and Air
terminals for his transportation; Clubs and Theatres for recreation and Temples,
Mosques, Churches etc for worship.
Each type of the above buildings has its own requirements and needs building
stones to construct the same. The period from 1750 A D onwards is known as
the period of Modern Architecture.
The use of reinforced concrete in construction triggered the rapid development of
modern architecture. Structural components such as Columns, RCC slabs became
increasingly popular because of the increased speed in construction.
Use of plywood; glass, decorative materials etc helped the designers to make the
new structures look more elegant in addition to the usage of various building
stones.
So, the engineering structures are composed of materials and are known as the
engineering materials ( or ) building materials. Hence, Building materials have an
important role to play in this modern age of technology
Building stones are obtained from rocks, are derived into three groups viz.,
Igneous, Sedimentary and Metamorphic rocks.

IGNEOUS ROCKS are the first formed rocks in the earth’s crust and hence these
are called PRIMARY ROCKS, even though igneous rocks have formed
subsequently also.
Igneous rocks are the most abundant rocks in the earth crust and are formed at a
very high temperature directly as a result of solidification of magma since magma
is the parent material of igneous rocks.

The temperature increases proportionately with the depth -- this is one of the
reasons for the formation of igneous rocks. Eg: Granite, Syenite, Dunite, Gabbro,
Basalt.
Igneous rocks are usually massive, unstratified, unfossiliferous and often occur as
intrusive cutting across other rocks ( country rocks or host rocks) and the chemical
composition of a rock is expressed in terms of oxides for eg: SiO2; Al2O3; Fe2O3;
FeO; MgO; CaO; TiO2 etc
The igneous rocks are classified based on silica%, silica saturation and depth of
formation

1. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA % :

Nature Silica % Rock examples

Acidic 65 Granite,

Pegmatites; (coarse) ;
Rhyolite (fine )

Intermediate 55 – 65 Syenite (coarse) ; Trachyte

(fine )

Basic) 45 – 55 Gabbro (coarse );

Basalt ( fine

Ultrabasic < < 45 Picrite, Peridotite ,

Dunite ( coarse )

2. CLASSIFICATION BASED ON SILICA SATURATION: Depending on the silica

content in parent magma; the igneous rocks are categorized as:

Oversaturated igneous rocks: when the parent magma is rich in silica, saturated
minerals like feldspars are formed and the surplus quantity of silica crystallizes as
quartz. Other (unsaturated) minerals like olivine, nepheline, leucite never occur in
over saturated igneous rocks. Eg: Granites, Granodiorites, Rhyolites, Dacite.

Saturated igneous rocks: When the parent magma has enough silica, the
resulting rocks possess neither quartz nor any unsaturated minerals ( olivine;
nepheline; leucite ). Presence of feldspars are seen in saturated igneous rocks.
Eg: Syenite, Diorite ; Anorthosite, Gabbro ; Trachyte; Andesite; Basalt; Dolerite.
Unsaturated igneous rocks : These rocks are composed of both saturated
minerals and unsaturated minerals when the parent magma has silica less than
what is required. . Quartz is possible to the extent and feldspars, olivine, nepheline,
leucite etc are present.
When the parent magma is highly deficient in silica, quartz may not be formed
at all. This group also represents under saturated rocks such as Dunites,
Peridotites, Nepheline Syenite; Phonolite; Limburgite etc.. Comparison of silica
saturation classification with that of silica percentage classification shows that they
are inter-related.

CLASSIFICATION BASED ON DEPTH OF FORMATION:

Igneous rocks are grouped into Plutonic rocks; Hypabyssal rocks and Volcanic
rocks based on their depth of formation.

PLUTONIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under high temp &
pressure at greater depths in the presence of volatiles in the earth’s crust are called
plutonic rocks.
High pressure ensure total crystallization of minerals formed and the hot
surroundings slow down the process of solidification. Hence, slow cooling and
crystallization of magma slower the process of solidification and the net result of
all these processes is the development of coarse grained texture. Eg: Granite ;
Granodiorite, Syenite; Diorite, Anorthosite, Nepheline Syenite.

VOLCANIC ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under low temp &
pressure at shallow depths in the absence of volatiles in the earth’ crust are called
volcanic rocks. Rapid cooling and quick crystallization of lava makes faster the
process of solidification due to heat difference. The net result of all these
processes is the development of fine grained texture. Eg: Rhyolite; Dacite; Trachyte; Andesite;
Basalt; Phonolite; Obsidian; Trachylite; Limburgite.
HYPABYSSAL ROCKS: The igneous rocks which have formed under moderate
temp & pressure at shallow depths are called hypabyssal rocks. Medium rate of
cooling causes for the formation of medium grained rocks. Eg: Dolerite; Tinguite
From the observations, it is understand that the oversaturated rocks are equivalent
to acidic igneous rocks. Saturated rocks are equivalent to intermediate igneous
rocks. Under saturated rocks are roughly equivalent to basic / Ultrabasic rocks
Among the rocks, granite is the chief building stone because of its hard nature,
durability etc.. However, granite is unsuitable for carving work. By virtue of many
desirable qualities, granite can be used in foundations of civil structures, building
stone, road metal. Granite is more suitable for heavy engineering works such as
dams, bridges, piers etc…
Volatiles: When elements and compounds are dissolved in a silicate melt it is

known as volatile. . Common volatiles are S; N; Cl; F; B; Fe; H2O; CO2; HCl; HF;

SO2; SO3; H2S; NH4.

GRANITE: Among different rocks, Granite ( a plutonic rock ) is one of the

most abundant rock formed due to solidification of magma at greater depths. It is a
holocrystalline ( completely crystalline ) and leucocratic ( light coloured ) rock .
Composition: Granite consists of quartz ( > 20 – 30 % ), Feldspars ( 60% )
include alkali feldspars ( orthoclase microcline) and plagioclase feldspars (
oligoclase ) , micas as essential minerals and accessory minerals are mafic
minerals such as hornblende, biotite / muscovite , pyroxenes of hypersthenes;
augite ; diopside ; magnetite / haematite, rutile, zircon, apatite, garnet..
Granite is compact, massive and hard rock. Granites are unstratified but
characterized by joints.

Texture: Granites exhibit an interlocking texture, Phaneric texture, coarse

grained texture, graphic texture ( similar to Arabic writing ) .
Granites are usually equigranular but some times show inequigranular texture in
case of Porphyritic texture ( feldspars occur as phenocrysts ).

Hand specimen: Granite is generally medium to coarse grained and grayish

or pinkish in color. Feldspar appears with white or brownish – red color. Quartz looks
colorless. Biotite is jet black and is found as small shining flakes. Hornblende is dark
greenish black.

Varieties: GRANODIORITE; DIORITE ; ADAMELLITE; CHARNOCKITE;

PEGMATITE; RHYOLITE
When the accessory minerals present more in quantity than normally such rocks
are named as eg; biotite granite, hornblende granite. Based on the color of
feldspars, the granites are termed as Pink granite; grey granite.
Granitic rocks occur in the form of large igneous bodies such as batholiths, stocks and bosses.

SPECIAL FEATURES: Specific gravity of granite is 2.6 – 2.8

Density = 2500 – 2650 kg/cm3; compressive strength = 1000 – 2500 kg /sq cm

ENGINEERING POINT OF VIEW: By virtue of many desirable qualities, granite

can be used in foundations of civil structures, building stone, road metal,.
Tunneling through granite does not require any lining.

SEDIMENTARY ROCKS are those formed due to weathering and / or erosion

of the pre-existing rocks. Also formed due to chemical precipitation or due to
accumulation of organic remains such as plants and animal hard parts.
In other words, most of these rocks have been derived from breaking up of igneous
rocks whose particles are conveyed and deposited by streams or rivers and
accumulated to form thick strata that have been subsequently hardened by
pressure.
The principal building stones in this group are limestones and sandstones. These
are used in floors, steps, walls etc.. Other rocks such as Arkose, Grey wackes,
Laterites; Conglomerates; Breccia; Mudstones, Siltstones are also belonging to
sedimentary rocks but has less importance for civil works.

METAMORPHIC ROCKS are those formed due to metamorphic agents such as

heat or pressure or both when acted on either igneous or sedimentary rocks The
common building stones that fall under this category are Slates, Marbles,
Quartzites, Phyllites, Gneisses etc..
As a result of metamorphism:
Granite changes to Gneiss
Sandstone changes to Quartzite
Limestone changes into Marble
Shale changes into Phyllites / Slates.
Among the metamorphic rocks, Gneisses and Quartzites are used for flooring,
steps, as building stone, road metal, railway ballast. Marbles are chosen for face
works, wall panels, statue making etc..

GNEISS: A name is generally given to any metamorphic rock when shows a

gneissose structure. A few details of its physical description are as follows:
Diagnostic character: Foliation present.
Color: grey and pink but generally pale coloured
Grain size: medium to coarse grained
Texture and Structure: Generally equigranular but sometimes orphyroblastic.
Folidation is also seen. The minerals occur as alternating white and black colour
bands.
Minerals present: Feldspars and quartz usually make up the bulk of a gneiss. In
addition, garnet, rarely pyroxenes occur in such bands.. If hornblende and biotite
are present, then the rock appear as dark or black coloured bands. The other
minerals which may also occasionally occur in gneisses are chlorite, sillimanite,
kyanite, staurolite, talc, serpentine etc..

Types: Based on texture, mineral content etc different varieties of gneisses

are named.
Orthogneiss: This is a gneiss derived from igneous rock
Paragneiss: This is a gneiss derived from sedimentary rock
Granitic gneiss: if a gneiss, which has minerals similar to that of granite. Banded
gneiss: A variety of gneiss in which alternating wide colour bands. Augen
gneiss: This is a gneiss in which quartz and feldspars appear as thick elongated
lens shaped ( resemble to eye ).
Origin: Gneisses are usually formed out of Dynamothermal metamorphism of
granites, Syenites, sandstones, conglomerates.

Properties and uses of civil engineering importance:

It is a silica – rich rock and is durable.
Due to non-porous and impermeable, it has good strength.
The foliation to some extent, improves the workability of gneiss.
It may be used as building stone in addition to road metal, as railway ballast, as
load bearing beams.
In case of tunneling, the presence gneiss doesn’t require any lining.

QUARRYING OF STONES: The process of taking out stones from exposed surface
of natural rock beds is known as the quarrying. While selecting a quarry site, one
should remember that the availability of quantity; desired quality, transportation
facilities, cheap local labour, and free from the permanent structures in the vicinity ,
drainage of rainwater etc..
In case of a quarry, the operations are carried out at ground level ( in an
exposed condition ) whereas in case of mine, the operations are carried out under
the ground at greater depths.
SELECTION OF A SITE FOR QUARRYING:
 Availability of Raw material, Tools, Power, Labour
 Space for dumping of refuse material.
 Distance of quarry from roads, railways..
 Proximity to the transportation facilities.
 Easy availability of clean water in sufficient quantity throughout the year.
 Economy in quarrying
 Blasting material availability
 Absence of permanent structures
 Geological data regarding rock formations.

STONE QUARRYING TOOLS: Some of the quarrying tools such as Dipper;

Priming needle; Scrapping spoon; Tamping bar; Wedge; Steel Pin; Jumper,
Crowbar, are used in quarrying.
Dipper is used to drill a hole to the required depth.
Priming needle : After filling the hole with explosive, the hole is filled with earth
material and this needle is kept in the centre so that its removal will develop a
passage for the insertion of fuse to cause explosion.
Scrapping spoon is used to remove dust of crushed stone from blast holes. It is
in the form of an iron rod with a circular plate attached to one end and provided
with a loop at the other end.
Tamping bar is used to tamp the material while refilling the blasting holes. It is
in the form of a heavy brass rod of 10 – 15 mm in dia and tappers a little at the
ends.
Wedge: If rock surfaces contains rocks or fissures, these are driven by using
Wedges / Pins through the hammers. Plug or feather are also used.

METHODS OF QUARRYING: The purpose of quarrying is to obtain building stones

for various engineering purposes. A knowledge of various quarrying methods is
essential.
Depending upon the nature of rocks and the purpose for which stones are needed,
quarrying is done by adopting the following methods:
Quarrying by employing Hand tools for digging / excavation
Heating and
Wedging
1. Digging / excavation: In this method, the stones are merely excavated with the
help of suitable hand tools such as Pick axes, Hammers, Spades, Chisels. This
method is useful when soft stones occur in the form of large / small blocks.
2. Heating: In this method, the surface of rock is heated by placing pieces of wood
or by piling a heap of fuel over the surface and fired for a few hours. Due to unequal
expansion, the upper layer of rock separates out. The detached portion of rock is
then removed by suitable hand tools.
This method is suitable when the rock formation consists of horizontal layers of
shallow depth. Sometimes, intermediate layers are to be separated from the top
and bottom layers. In such a case, the intermediate layer is heated and the
expansion separates it from the other two.
3. Wedging: This method of quarrying is usually adopted for stratified rocks such
as Sandstone, Limestone, Marble, Slate, Laterite etc.. About 10 – 15 cm deep
holes, at around 10 cm spacing are made vertically in the rock. Steel Pins and
Wedges or Plugs are inserted in them. These plugs are then struck
simultaneously with sledge hammer. The rock slab splits along the lines of least
resistance through the holes.
A plug is a conical steel wedge while a feather is a flat steel wedge with its
upper end slightly curved.
Blasting: In this method, the explosives are used to convert rocks into small
pieces of stones. The main purpose of quarrying stones by blasting is to loosen
large masses of rocks. Explosives such as Blasting powder, Dynamite, Gelatin,
Detonators, Fuse coil etc.. are used. This method is adopted for quarrying hard
stones, having no fissures or cracks.
Materials for blasting:
Detonators: It is in the form of a copper cylinder having 6 mm dia and length 25
mm. It is closed at one end with projecting fuse at other end. It is partly filled
with 6 to 9 grains of fulminate of mercury. It is used when dynamite is adopted as
explosive. The detonators are fired either by fuse or electric spark.

Explosives: The blasting powder and dynamite are commonly used as the
explosives. The blasting powder is also known as the Gun Powder which is a
mixture of charcoal, salt petre (KNO3) and sulphur. Sometimes, the salt petre is
substituted by chile salt petre ( NaNO3).

Dynamites: It consists of 25% of sandy earth saturated with 75% of nitro-glycerin

and this percentage composition varies with the nature of work. It is in the form of
thick paste and is very poisonous in nature.

COMPARISION OF BLASTING POWDER AND DYNAMITE

Item Blasting Powder Dynamite

Cost Cheap High cost and is about 5

times than that of
blasting powder

Destructive power weak Very strong and 6 times

than that of blasting
powder.

Efficiency 0.40 m3 0.60 m3 ( 11/2 times

thanblasting powder if 1N
powder is used ) ( 11/2
( normal in case of times than

1N powder is used )

Use Used for ordinary type of Used for tunneling and

 quarrying work mining operations

Fuses: It is required to ignite the explosives. It is in the form of a small rope of

cotton coated with tar and with a core of continuous thread of fine gun powder. The
rate of burning of a good fuse is about 10 mm per second.
Gelignite: It consists of 65% blasting gelatin and 35% of absorbing powder. It is
more convenient than dynamite. It is a powerful explosive and can be used under
water.

Gun cotton: The clean cotton is saturated in a cool mixture of nitric acid and
sulphuric acid. It is pressed into blocks or sticks while it is wet. It is as strong as
dynamite. But its shattering power is less.

Blasting gelatin: It consists of 93% of Nitro-glycerin and 7% of gun cotton. It is a

jelly – like mass. It has high explosive power of about 50% more than that of
dynamite.

Liquid Oxygen: It is oxygen in liquid state. It is stored in a special container. It is

comparatively cheap and used and used for blasting on a large scale for mining
operations.

PRECAUTIONS IN BLASTING:
 Blasting should not be carried out in late evening or early morning hours
 A siren should warn the work men and nearby public to maintain a safe
distance.
 The danger zone, an area of about 200 mts radius should be marked with
red flags.
 First aid should be available
 The number of charges exploded and the misfires should be recorded
 Explosives should be stored and handled carefully.
 Detonators and explosives should not be kept together

STORAGE OF EXPLOSIVES:
 The explosives should be stored in a magazine which should be away
from residential areas, petrol depots.
 The magazine should have ventilators at high levels and should have
concealed wiring.
 Magazine should be protected from lightning.
 Smoke or fire should not be allowed in the nearby area.
 Explosives should be protected from extreme heat or cold and also from
moisture.
 The magazine should be surrounded by a barbed wire and the entry
should be restricted.
QUANTITY OF EXPLOSIVES REQUIRED: The quantity of explosives required
depends upon several factors such as strength of explosive, method of blasting,
number of bore holes --- their size, position etc and the type and mass of rock to
be dislodged.
A rough estimate can be made by A = L2 / 0.008 where
A = quantity of gun powder or dynamite (gm)
L = Length of Line of Least Resistance (mts )

PROPERTIES OF BUILDING STONES: Various properties such as Porosity,

Permeability, Crushing Strength, Appearance, Durability; Co-efficient of Hardness;
Specific gravity; Texture; Toughness Index; Water Absorption; Weathering;
Density; Bulk Density; Density Index; , Temperature Resistance etc., are to be
properly studied before making final selection of any building material for a
particular use.

Porosity (α ): In simple terms, porosity may be described as the amount of openings

( or ) interstices ( or ) empty spaces present in a rock. However, Porosity may be
defined as “the ratio of openings or pores or voids ( Vi ) in the soil/rock to the total
volume of the soil / rock ( V ) expressed as percentage”. If α is the porosity, then
α = Vi / V where Vi is the volume of interstices and V is the total volume. The average porosity
values for some common geological formations are as follows:
Rock Porosity Porosity Rock Porosity

Granite, Quartzite 1.5 % Only Gravel 25 %

Shale, Slate 4% Only Sand

35 %

Limestone 5-10 % Only Clay 45%

Sand with gravel 20-30%

Permeability : The permeability of a rock or soil defines its ability to transmit a fluid or
water . Permeability depends on the porosity and interconnected pores character of the
rock, thus more porous rocks are more permeable too. (not always). Permeability in a
rock is measured in darcies ( 1 darcy = 0.987 μ m2 .square micrometer ).
 Eg: 1.Shales are highly porous but less permeable because of fine grained
nature which does not allow water to pass through the rock due to less
interconnected pores.
 Eg: 2. Vesicular basalts are highly porous but less permeable because the
vesicles in them are not interconnected (i.e., the effective porosity is less).

Crushing Strength: For a good stone, the crushing strength should be greater
than 100 Newton’s / mm2 . The approximate value of crushing strength of some
of the stones are:
S No Rock type Building C S ( N/mm2)
Stone

1 Igneous Basalt 150 – 185

2 Diorite 90 – 150

3 Granite 75 – 127

4 Syenite 90 – 150

5 Sedimentary Limestone 54

6 Sandstone 64

7 Shale 0.20 – 0.60

8 Metamorphic Gneiss 206 – 370

9 Slate 75 - 207

Appearance: The stones which are to be used for face work should be decent in
appearance and capable of preserving their color uniformly for a long time. It is
desirable to prefer light colored stones as compared to dark coloured stones
because there are chances of the latter variety to be attacked easily by weathering
agents.
Durability: A good building stone should be durable. The various factors such as
Chemical composition; Resistance to atmospheric conditions etc… influence the
durability of a stone. Following are the important atmospheric agencies which
affect the durability of a stone

a) Alternate conditions of heat and cold due to differences in temperature

b) Alternate conditions of wetness & dryness due to rain and sunshine
c) Chemical agencies such as dissolved gases in rain (eg: NOx; SOx )
d) Growth of trees and Creepers in the joints between the stones.
e) Wind with high velocity.
Co-efficient of Hardness: The co-efficient of hardness, as worked out in hardness
test should be greater than 17 for a stone to be used in road work. If it is between
14 and 17, and < 14, the stone is said to be medium and poor
hardness respectively and such stone should not be used in road works. Specific
gravity: For a good building stone, the specific gravity should be greater than 2.7
The heavy varieties of stones with more compact and less porous can be used
for various engineering applications such as dams, weirs, retaining walls, docks
etc.. On the other hand, the lighter varieties of stones are to be used for domes,
roof coverings etc..
Texture: A building stone should have compact, fine crystalline nature, free from
cavities, cracks, loose material, softness etc..
Toughness Index: In impact test, if the value of toughness index comes below
13, the stone is not tough. If it comes between 13 and 19, the stone is said to be
moderately tough. If it exceeds 19, the toughness of stone is said to be high.

Water Absorption denotes the ability of the stone / material to absorb and retain
water. It is expressed as % in weight or of the volume of dry material.
Ww = M1 – M x 100 where= M1 means mass of saturated material (g)
V M means mass of dry material (g)
V means volume of material including the pores ( mm3)
A good stone, the absorption % by weight after 24 house should not exceed
0.60. If rain water is absorbed by porous stones causing them to crumble hence,
the porous stones are not to be recommended for places subjected to rain,
moisture, frost…
Weathering: A building stone should be capable of with standing adverse effects
of various atmospheric and external agencies such as rain, frost, wind etc..
Density ( p) is the mass of a unit volume of homogeneous material denoted by:
p= M / V ( g/cm3) where M = mass (g) and V = volume (cm3).
Bulk density ( pb) is the mass of a unit volume of material in its natural state ( with
pores / voids ) calculated as pb = M / V ( Kg/m
3)
where M = Mass of specimen (Kg) and V = Volume of specimen in its natural
state ( m3).
Density & Bulk density of some building materials are as follows:
Material Density ( g/cm3) Bulk density ( Kg/m3)

Brick 2.5 – 2.8 1600 - 1800

Granite 2.6 – 2.9 2500 - 2700

Portland cement 2.9 – 3.1

Wood 1.5 – 1.6 500 - 60

Steel 7.8 – 7.9 7850

Sand 1540 - 1650

Density Index (po) is the ratio between the bulk density and density ie.Po = pb / p
Density index indicates the degree to which the volume of a material is filled
with solid matter. For almost all building materials Po is less than 1.0 because
there are no absolutely dense bodies in nature.
In addition, Percentage wear, resistance to fire, dressing etc are also to be
considered for a good building stone.

DRESSING OF STONE:
The stones, after being quarried, are to be cut into suitable sizes and this
process is known as the dressing of stones. The dressing of stones is carried
out for the following purposes:
A quarried stone has rough surfaces, which are dressed to obtain a definite and
regular shape.
To make the transport from quarry easy and economical.
Provides pleasing appearance
To suite to the requirements of stone masonry.
QUARRY DRESSING: At the quarry place, the stones are roughly dressed to
secure the following advantages:
 At quarry site, it is possible to get cheap labour for the process of
dressing of stones.
 It is possible to sort out stones for different works
 The irregular and rough portions of the stones are removed which
decrease the weight of stones.
Following are the varieties of finishes obtained by the dressing of stones:
Dragged (or Combed finish: In this type of finish, a piece of steel which is similar
to a comb is rubbed on the surface in all directions and surface of the stone. This
finish is suitable for soft stones only.
Punched finish: On the stone surface, the depressions are made by using a
punch. The surface of the stone takes the form of a series of hollows and ridges.
Reticulated finish: This type of finish represents a net – like appearance. A margin
about 20 mm wide is marked on the edges of stone and irregular sinking’s are
made on the enclosed space. A pointed tool is used to put the marks on the sunk
surface so as to present a pock – marked appearance.
Tooled finish: The stone surface is finished by means of a chisel and parallel
continuous marks either horizontal or inclined or vertical are left on the surface.
Rock faced ( self – faced ) finish: Some stones, as obtained from the quarry,
possess smooth surface and they can be directly placed on the work. Such a stone
surface is termed as Rock – faced (or) quarry – faced finish.
Vermiculated finish: This finish is similar to reticulated type except that the sinking’s
are more curved.

ARTIFICIAL STONES: Where durable natural stone is not available at reasonable

cost, artificial stone, also known as CAST STONE becomes the choice. Artificial
stone is made with cement and natural aggregates of the crushed stone and sand
with desired surface finish. Suitable color pigments may be added. Following
procedure is generally adopted in making an artificial stone:
 The natural stone is crushed into sizes less than 6 mm
 A mixture of 1½ parts of stones of size 3 – 6 mm; 1 ½ parts of stones of size
< 3mm and 1 part of cement by volume is prepared.
 The necessary pigment is added to produce the desired color effect to the
above mixture.
 Required quantity of water is added and thorough mixing is done.
 The mixture thus prepared is transferred to special moulds.
 The mixture is allowed to harden and its surface is kept wet.
 The artificial stone is then ready in block form.
 Polishing can be done if required.

FORMS OF ARTIFICIAL STONES:

Cement Concrete: This is a mixture of cement, fine aggregate, coarse aggregate
and water. If steel is used with cement concrete, it is known as the Reinforced
Cement Concrete ( RCC). Concrete blocks are used in construction of piers, steps,
window sills etc…
Mosaic Tiles: The pre-cast concrete tiles with marble chips at top surface are
known as the mosaic tiles.
Terrazzo: This is a mixture of marble chips and cement. It is used for bath rooms,
residential buildings, temples etc…
Victoria Stones are granite pieces with the surfaces hardened by keeping
immersed in soda silicate for about two months.
Ramsom Stones are prepared by mixing soda silicate with cement to provide
decorative flooring. These are also known as chemical stones. These have
compressive strength of about 32 N / mm 2.

.
BRICKS
The common brick is one of the oldest building material and it is extensively used
at present as a leading material of construction because of its durability, strength,
reliability, low cost, easy availability, easy to handle etc..
Bricks are used for building – up exterior and interior walls, partitions, piers,
footings and other load bearing structures.
The Great Wall of China ( 210 BC ) was built with bricks. The other examples of
the use of bricks in early stage of civilization could be in Rome. A number of
country farm houses still exist in Great Britain and profess to be the monuments
of the excellent hand – made bricks.
A brick is rectangular in shape and of size that can be conveniently handled with
one hand. Bricks may be made of burnt clay or mixture of sand and lime (or)
of Portland cement concrete.
The length, width and height of a brick are interrelated as below:
Length of brick = 2 x width of brick + thickness of mortar
Height of brick = width of brick

Size of standard brick ( also known as modular brick ) should be 19 x 9 x 9 cm.

However, the bricks available in most part of the country still are 9” x 4 ½” x 3”
and are known as field bricks. Weight of such a brick is 3.0 kg.

An indent called frog, 1 – 2 cm

deep is provided for 9 cm height

bricks only. The purpose of

providing frog is to form a key for

holding the mortar and

therefore, the bricks are laid with

frogs on top. Frog is not provided

in 4 cm high bricks

COMPARISION OF BRICKSTONE AND STONEWORK:

The brickwork is superior to the stonework in the following respects:
 At places where stones are not easily available but where there is plenty
of clay, brickwork becomes cheaper than stonework.
 The cost of construction works out to be less in case of brickwork than
stonework as less skilled labour is required in the construction of
brickwork.
 No lifting devices are necessary to carry bricks as they can be easily
moved by manual labour.
 The bricks resist various atmospheric effects better than stones.
 In case of brickwork, the mortar joints are thin and hence the structure
becomes more durable.
 It is easy to construct connections and openings in case of brickwork than
stonework.

CHARACTERISTICS OF GOOD BRICK:

The essential requirements for building bricks are sufficient strength in crushing,
regularity in size, and a pleasing appearance when exposed to view.
Size and shape: The bricks should have uniform in size, rectangular surfaces with
parallel sides and sharp straight edges.
Color: The brick should have a uniform deep red (or) cherry colour as indicative
of uniformity in chemical composition and thoroughness in the burning of the
brick.
Texture and compactness: The surfaces should not be too smooth to cause
slipping of mortar. The brick should have uniform texture and should not show
fissures, holes etc..
Hardness and soundness: The brick should be so hard that when scratched by
a finger nail no impression is made. When two bricks are struck together, a
metallic sound should be produced.
Water Absorption should not exceed 20% of its dry weight when kept immersed
in water for 24 hours.
Crushing Strength should not be less than 10 N / mm2.
Brick earth should be free from stones, Kankars, Organic matter, salt petre etc..

COMPOSITION / INGREDIENTS OF GOOD BRICK EARTH: For the preparation

of bricks, clay is usually used. The clay used for brick making consists mainly of
silica and alumina mixed in such a proportion that the clay becomes plastic when
water is added to it. It also consists of small proportions of lime, iron,
magnesium, sulphur etc.. The proportions of various ingredients and functions are
as follows:

Silica 50 – 60 %
Alumina 20 – 30 %
Calcium 10 %
Mg < 1 %
Ferric Oxide < 7 % < 20 %
Alkalis < 10 % < 20 %
SO3; H2O < 2 % < 20 %

Silica: A good brick earth should contain about 50% to 60% of silica. The
presence of silica constituent prevents cracking, shrinking in bricks thus imparts
uniform shape to the bricks. Excess of silica makes the brick brittle and weak on
burning. The durability of bricks depends on the proper proportion of silica in
brick earth.
Alumina: A good brick earth should contain about 20 to 30% of alumina. If alumina
is present in excess, with inadequate quantity of sand the raw bricks shrink and
it produces cracks during drying and burning and become too hard when burnt.
Lime ( calcium ) : A small quantity of lime not exceeding 10% is desirable in
good brick earth. The excess of lime causes the brick to melt and hence its
shape is lost and also results in splitting of bricks into pieces.
Magnesia if exceeds 1%, affects the color and makes the brick yellow. Excess
of magnesia content leads to the decay of bricks.
Iron – oxide usually constitutes < 7% . If it exceeds 7%, the brick becomes dark
blue. When excess of oxygen is available, the bricks becomes dark brown or black
color on burning.

HARMFUL SUBSTANCES IN BRICK EARTH: Following are the ingredients

which are undesirable in the brick earth:

LIME: When lime is present in lumps, it absorbs moisture, swells and causes
disintegration of the bricks.

PEBBLES, GRAVELS: The presence of pebbles of any kind is undesirable in

brick earth because it will not allow the clay to be mixed uniformly and thoroughly
which will result in weak and porous bricks. Also the brick containing pebbles will
not break regularly as desired.

ALKALIES: These are mainly in the form of soda and potash. When alkalies
present in excess, the bricks become unsymmetrical / loose their shape. Further,
the presence of excess alkalies content absorb moisture from the atmosphere.
Such moisture, when evaporated, leaves behind grey or white deposits on the
wall surface and the appearance of the building as a whole is then seriously
spoiled.

ORGANIC MATTER: The presence of organic matter in the brick earth, which
is not burnt in case, the bricks become porous and the strength is reduced.

SURPHUR & CARBON: Sulphur is usually found in clay as the sulphates of Calcium
( CaSO4); magnesium (MgSO4); Sodium (NaSO4); Potassium (K2SO4) and iron
sulphides ( FeS2). If, however, there is carbon in the clay and insufficient
time is given during burning for proper oxidation of carbon and sulphur, the latter
will cause the formation of a spongy, swollen structure in the brick.

MANUFACTURING OF BRICKS
In the process of manufacturing of bricks, the following four distinct operations
are involved: 1. Preparation of clay / Brick earth
2. Moulding
3. Drying
4. Burning

1. PREPARATION OF CLAY / BRICK EARTH consists of the following operations:

a) Un-soiling: The soil used for making building bricks should be processed and
to be free from gravel, sand ( > 2 mm ) lime and kankar particles, organic matter
etc.
About 200 mm of the top layer of the earth, normally containing stones, pebbles,
gravels, plant roots etc is removed after clearing the trees and vegetation.
b) Digging: The clay is then dug out from the ground and is spread on the
ground. The height of heaps of clay on the ground is about 600 mm to 1200
mm. The digging operation should be done before rains.
c) weathering: The clay / soil is left in heaps and exposed to weather for atleast
one month. The soil should be turned over at least twice and it should be
ensured that the entire soil is wet throughout the period of weathering.
In order to keep it wet, water may be sprayed as often as necessary. The plasticity
and strength of the clay are improved by exposing the clay to weather.
d) Blending: The clay / soil is then mixed with sand and calcareous earth in
suitable proportions to modify the composition of soil uniformly with spades.
Addition of water to the soil at the dumps is necessary for easy mixing and
workability. However, the excessive moisture content may affect the size and
shape of the finished brick.
The blending makes clay fit for the next stage of tempering.
e) Tempering: In the process of tempering, the clay is brought to a proper
degree of hardness. The tempering should be done exhaustively to obtain
homogeneous mass of clay of uniform character..

For manufacturing good bricks,

tempering is

done in Pug Mills and the

operation is

called Pugging. In other

words, the process

of grinding clay with water and

making it

plasticity is known as the

Pugging

Fig: Pug Mill

2. MOULDING: It is a process of giving a required shape to the brick from the

prepared clay / soil / brick earth. Moulding may be carried out by hand or by
machines.
Hand Moulding: In this process, the bricks are moulded by hand ie manually. It is
adopted where man power is cheap and for producing a small quantity of bricks.
A typical wooden mould should be prepared from well seasoned wood for making
bricks.
The longer sides are kept slightly projecting to serve as handles. The strips of
brass or steel are sometimes fixed on the edges of wooden moulds to make them
more durable.
The steel mould even be prepared from steel angles and plates. The thickness
of steel mould is generally 6 mm.
The bricks prepared by hand moulding are of two types:

(a) Ground - moulded bricks (b) Table – moulded bricks

Ground – Mould bricks: In this process, the ground is leveled and sand is
sprinkled on it. The mould is dipped in water and placed over the ground. The
clay is pressed or forced in the mould in such a way that it fills all the corners
of the mould. The extra or surplus clay is removed with a sharp edged metal
plate called STRIKE or with a thin wire stretched over the mould.
After this process, the moulded bricks are left on the ground for drying. The
bricks prepared by dipping mould in water every time are known as the slopmoulded
bricks. The fine sand or ash may be sprinkled on the inside surface
of mould,, instead of dipping mould in water is known as Sand – Moulded bricks.

Table Moulding: the process of moulding these bricks is just similar to ground
moulding. But in this process, the clay, mould, water pots, strikes, pallet boards
are placed on the table. A thin board called pallet is placed over the mould. The
bricks are moulded on the table and sent for the further process of drying. The cost
of brick moulding also increases slightly when table moulding is adopted.

Machine Moulding: The moulding may also be achieved by machines. It proves

to be economical when bricks in huge quantity are to be manufactured at the same
spot in a short time. Machine moulding can be done by either of the following
process:
Plastic method ( Plastic Clay Machine ): The pugged clay is placed in the machine
through a rectangular opening by means of an auger. Clay comes out

of the opening in the form of a bar. The bricks are cut from the bar by a frame
consisting of several wires at a distance of brick size and this is a quick and
economical process. This process is also known as WIRE CUT BRICKS.
Dry Press Method / Dry Clay Method: In these machines, the strong clay is first
converted into powder from. A small quantity of water is added to form a stiff
plastic paste. Such paste is placed in mould and pressed by machine to form hard
and well shaped bricks. These bricks are also known as PRESSED BRICKS.
They can be sent directly for the next process of burning.

3. DRYING: For drying, the bricks are laid longitudinally in stacks of width equal
to two bricks. A stack consist of 8 or 10 tiers or courses. The bricks are laid along
and across the stack in alternate layers. All bricks are placed on edge.
The bricks in stakes should be arranged in such a way that sufficient air space
is left between them. The bricks should be allowed to dry till they become hard
or the moisture content is brought down to about 3% under exposed conditions
within 3 to 4 days.
For the drying purpose, Drying yards should be prepared. The Drying yards
should be slightly on a higher level and it is desirable to cover it with sand. Such
an arrangement would prevent the accumulation of rain water.

3. BURNING: This is a very important operation in the manufacture of bricks.

The burning of clay may be divided into three main stages.
Dehydration stage ( 400 – 650oC): This is also known as water smoking stage.
During dehydration :
 The water which has been retained in the pores of the clay after drying
is driven off;
 Some of the carbonaceous matter is burnt;
 Carbonated minerals are more or less decarbonated;
 Too rapid heating causes cracking or bursting of the bricks.
Oxidation period ( 650 – 900oC): During the oxidation period, the remaining
carbon is eliminated and the ferrous iron is oxidized to the ferric form.
Removal of sulphur is completed only after the carbon has been eliminated.
Vitrification ( upto 1100oC): When the temperature is reached about 1100oC,
the two important constituents viz., alumina and sand bind themselves together

resulting in the increase of strength and density of bricks. If the temperature is

raised beyond 1100oC, a great amount of fusible glassy mass is formed and the
bricks are said to be vitrified.
The bricks begin to loose their shape beyond a certain limit of vitrification.
Burning of bricks is done in a Clamp or Kiln. A Clamp is a temporary structure
whereas Kiln is a permanent one.

Burning in Clamps ( Pazawah): A piece of ground with trapezoidal shape is

selected. The alternate bricks and fuel are placed in layers. The fuel may consist
of grass, cow dung, litter, husks of rice or ground nuts etc.. The thickness of
this fuel layer is about 700 – 800 mm. The wood or coal dust may also be used as
fuel.
Each brick tier consists of 4 – 5 layers of bricks. The total height of a clamp is about
3 – 4 mts.
When nearly 1/3 rd height is reached, the lower portion of the Clamp is ignited.
When the Clamp is completely constructed, it is plastered with mud on sides
and top and filled with earth to prevent the escape of heat.
The Clamp is allowed to burn for a period of about one to two months and then
it is allowed to cool more or less of the same period as burning. The burnt bricks
are then taken out from the clamp.

CLAMP INTERMITTENT KILN

The production of bricks is 2 – 3 lakhs and the process is completed in 6 months.

This process yields about 60% first class bricks.
Kiln burning: A kiln is a large oven which is used to burn bricks. The Kiln
used for burning bricks may be underground ( Bull’s Trench Kiln ) or over ground
( eg: Hoffman’s Kiln). The Kilns may be rectangular, circular or oval in shape.
The Kilns are of two types: (i) Intermittent Kilns (ii) Continuous kilns

INTERMITTENT KILNS: The process of burning bricks is discontinuous and

hence , the kiln is known as intermittent kiln which means that they are loaded,
fired, cooled and unloaded and then the next loading is done. Since the walls and
sides get cooled during reloading and are to be heated again during next firing,
there is wastage of fuel. . They may be over ground or underground.

Fly ash Bricks

Fly ash bricks are masonry units that are used in the construction of buildings. They are
considered to be a part of good and affordable building materials. They contain Class C
fly ash and water.
Fly ash bricks are made by compressing Class C fly ash and water at 4000psi and then
curing is carried on for 24 hours at a temperature of 66 degrees Celsius steam bath. Air
entrainment agent is used to toughen the bricks .
GREEN BRICKS
The bricks are used like conventional clay bricks – for building things from houses to
factories. They’re called green because they are built from a toxic byproduct produced
from coal-burning power plants. Instead of these toxins being released into the
environment, or disposed of through costly means, they’re pumped into the bricks.
The waste product is called fly ash. It’s loaded with mercury, lead, and other toxic
chemicals. Coal-burning power plants spend millions of dollars to dispose of the
powdery byproduct. Until now, the estimated 70 million tons of byproduct has been
buried in specially designed ponds and waste centers.

INTERMITTENT KILN GREEN BRICKS

CONTINUOUS KILNS: The process of burning bricks is continuous, and hence it

is known as continuous kiln ( eg: Bull’s Trench Kiln and Hoffman’s Kiln). In this
process, bricks are stacked in various chambers wherein the bricks undergo
different treatments at the same time. When the bricks in one of the chambers
is fired, the bricks in the next set of chambers are dried and preheated while bricks
in the other set of chambers are loaded and in the last are cooled.
BULL’S TRENCH KILN HOFFMAN’S KILN

TUNNEL KILN :
A tunnel kiln useful for burning vertically perforated green bricks, includes a furnace
chamber; tubular burners for heating the furnace chamber and a transport device for
transporting green bricks in raster-like spaced-apart relationship in a travel direction
through the furnace chamber that the perforations of the green bricks are oriented in a
common direction..

TUNNEL KILN
Bull's Trench Kilns
In India, brick making is typically a manual process. The most common type of brick kiln
in use there are Bull's Trench Kiln (BTK), based on a design developed by British
engineer W. Bull in the late 19th century.
An oval or circular trench, 6–9 meters wide, 2-2.5 meters deep, and 100–150 meters in
circumference, is dug. A tall exhaust chimney is constructed in the centre. Half or more of
the trench is filled with "green" (unfired) bricks which are stacked in an open lattice pattern
to allow airflow. The lattice is capped with a roofing layer of finished brick.
In operation, new green bricks, along with roofing bricks, are stacked at one end of the
brick pile; cooled finished bricks are removed from the other end for transport. In the
middle the brick workers create a firing zone by dropping fuel (coal, wood, oil, debris, and
so on.) through access holes in the roof above the trench.

The advantage of the BTK design is a much greater energy efficiency compared
with clamp or scove kilns. Sheet metal or boards are used to route the airflow through the
brick lattice so that fresh air flows first through the recently burned bricks, heating the air,
then through the active burning zone. The air continues through the green brick zone
(pre-heating and drying them), and finally out the chimney where the rising gases create
suction which pulls air through the system. The reuse of heated air yields savings in fuel
cost.
A half dozen laborers working around the clock can fire approximately 15,000-25,000
bricks a day. In the BTK process the bricks do not move. Instead, the locations at which
the bricks are loaded, fired, and unloaded gradually rotate through the trench.

TESTS FOR BRICKS:

A brick is generally subjected to the following tests to find out its suitability for
the construction work:
Water Absorption Test ( US 3495):: A brick is taken and it is weighed dry. It is
then immersed in water for a period of 48 hours. It is weighed again and the
difference in eight indicates the amount of water absorbed by the brick. It should
not, in any case, exceed 5% of weight of dry brick.
Compressive Strength Test ( IS: 3495): The crushing strength of a brick is found
out by placing in a compression testing machine. It is pressed till it breaks. The
minimum crushing or compressive strength of bricks is 3.50 N / mm 2.
Efflorescence Test: The brick is immersed in water for 24 hours. It is then taken
out and allowed to dry in shade. The absence of grey or white deposits on its
surface indicates the absence of soluble salts.
If the white deposits cover about 10% surface, the efflorescence is said to be slight
and it is considered as moderate when the white deposits cover about 50
% of surface.
If grey or white deposits are found on more than 50 % of surface, the efflorescence
becomes heavy and it is treated as serious.
Soundness: In this test, the two bricks are taken and they are struck with each
other. The bricks should not break and a clear ringing sound should be produced.
DIFFERENT FORMS OF BRICKS:
Various forms of bricks are used depending upon the places of use. For eg:

Round ended bricks Used to construct open

drains

Bull nosed bricks Used to construct open

drains

Cant ( splay ) brick Used for Door and

window jambs

Double cant bricks Used for Octagonal

pillars

Cornice brick Used for architectural

point of view

Fire brick firebrick, or refractory

brick is a

block of refractory
ceramic material

used in

lining furnaces, kilns,

fireboxes,

and fireplaces. A
 refractory brick is

built primarily to
withstand high

temperature.

Coping bricks Used for parapets

Perforated bricks The perforated bricks

are

used

in roadways in order
to drain of

the rain water from

the streets

Hollow bricks Hollow bricks which are

highly used

in construction of
houses, buildings

and compound walls.

frog providing frog is to form

a key for holding the
mortar on

the bricks
Gun powder A mixture of charcoal,
salt petre (KNO3) and
sulphur and

the proportions by
weight are 15, 75 and
10 respectively

Magazine A special type of

building meant for
storing the explosives

Masonry Masonry may be

defined as the
construction of building

units ( such as stones,

bricks or precast blocks
of

concrete ) bonded
together with mortar.

Metamorphism The process by which

the changes are brought
in solid

rocks by the agencies of

temperature, pressure
and

chemical active
solutions which in turn
establish a new

equilibrium

Mortar Mortar is a
homogeneous mixture
produced by uniform

mixing of cement or lime

or combination of these
two in

addition to sand and

water to make a paste
of required

consistency
 Weathering which is a natural
process of disintegration
and

decomposition

Strike The extra or surplus

clay is removed with a
sharp edged

metal plate called

STRIKE

Pugging the process of grinding

clay with water and
making it

plastic is known as the

Pugging.

Pallet A thin board called

pallet is placed over the
mould
 WOOD, ALUMINIUM, GLASS AND PAINTS

Wood is a hard fibrous substance which forms a major part of the trunk and
branches of a tree. Trees are classified as endogenous and exogenous
according to the mode of growth:

TREES

Exogenous Endogenous

Trees grow outwards and are used for Trees grow end wards
making
means the trees grow
structural / engineering purpose. These
inwards. Eg; Palm;
trees are

characterized by the distinct consecutive Bamboo, Cane

rings in

the Horizontal section of such a tree. These

rings

are known as the annual rings ( counting

number of rings ) because one such ring is

added

every year and these rings are useful in

predicting the age of the tree. These trees

are

subdivided into :

Coniferous(soft Deciduous(hard
wood ): wood)

These are ever These trees have flat

green
board leaves. Eg:
trees having
Eucalyptus; Oak,
pointed
Teak,
needle like
leaves. Eg; (Ben teack); Polar,

Deodar, Chir, Fir, Maple, Shishum.

Kail, These

Pine, Babul, Sal; trees show indistinct

Jack
annual rings and are
tree... These trees
show hard and non-
resinous,
distinct annual
rings dark in color and
heavy
and are soft (
weight.
except
Trees grow end wards
pine), light in color
and means the trees grow
light weight. inwards. Eg; Palm;

Bamboo, Cane

Wood has many advantages due to which it is preferred for building

material. Teak is not suitable for making construction of bridge works
whereas Babool, Sal etc are suitable for making construction of bridges.
Babool tree is also used for making agricultural implements.
Ben teak is used for making boats while Deodar trees are meant for making
railway sleepers. Jack trees is used for making musical instruments.
Wood is easily available and easy to transport and handle. Wood is a good
absorber of shocks and so is suitable for construction works. Wood can be
easily repaired and alterations to wood work can also be done easily.
Owing to the above mentioned advantages, wood is very widely
used in buildings as doors, windows, frames, temporary partition walls etc..

CLASSIFICATION OF TIMBER / WOOD:

Wood as a building material falls in two major classes—natural and manmade.
Natural form of a wood is timber whereas man-made wood is
plywood, fibre board, chipboards, compressed wood, impregnated wood etc.
The terms timber and wood are often used as synonymous. Following is
the classification of timber as IS: 399:
(1) On the basis of its position:
o Standing timber implies a living tree.
o Rough timber forms a part of the felled tree
o Converted timber are logs of timber

(2) On the basis of Grading (IS: 6534):

All grading specifications are
clearly distinguished between structural grading and commercial grading
based on Indian Standard Classification:

Structural grading is also known as Stress grading. It refers that the

material is graded on the basis of visible defects.

Commercial grading is also known as Yard grading or Utility grading

refers that the material is graded by consideration of usefulness of the
material and price factors. Commercial grading is further divided in the
following classes:

Grade – A: This classification is based on dimensions and general

appearance. The dimensions of lengths, widths and thicknesses of converted
materials are measured.

Grade – B: This classification is based on the best ultimate use of the material.

Grade – C: This classification is based on qualitative (evaluation of defects ) and

rough estimate of out – turn of utilizable material.

Grade – D: This classification is based on fixing the permissible standard

volume of area. This method is increasingly adopted in Indian Standards
and is recognized internationally.

(3) On the basis of Modulus Elasticity:

The species of timberrecommended for constructional purpose are classified as:

Group – A: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 12.5 kN / mm2

Group–B: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 9.8 and below 12.5 kN / mm2
Group–C: Modulus Elasticity in bending above 5.6 and below 9.8 kN / mm2
(4) On the basis of Availability: According to availability, timber can be
of three grades, namely x, y and z.
X – most common, 1415 m3 or more per year.
Y – common, 355 to 1415 m3 or more per year.
Z – less common, below 355 m3 or more per year.

(5) On the basis of durability:

Test specimens of size 600 x 50 x 50 mm
are buried in the ground to half their lengths. The conditions of the
specimen at various intervals of time are noted and from these
observations, their average life is calculated as:
 High-durability average life of 120 months and over.
 Moderate durability average life of < 120 but of 60 months or more.
 Low durability average life of less than 60 months.
(6) On the basis of treatability:
This classification is based upon theresistance under a working pressure of 1.05 N / mm2 as
:
(i) Easily treatable and (ii) Only partially treatable.

STRUCTURE OF A TREE : A tree can be divided into three portions

namely CROWN_composed of branches and leaves
TRUNK—to support the crown and to supply water and
nutrients
ROOTS—are meant to implant the trees in the soil, to absorb
moisture and to supply to the trunk.
From the visibility aspect, the structure of a tree can be divided into two categories:

Macrostructure: The structure of timber visible to naked eye or at a small

magnification is called macrostructure.

Microstructure: The structure of timber apparent only at great

magnifications is called the micro-structure. Microstructure depicts the
following:

Bark: protects the wood against mechanical damage. The outer skin of the tree
is known as the outer bark. It is a protective layer and it sometimes contain
cracks.

Bast (medulla) : inner layer of bark, which conveys the nutrients from the crown
downwards and stores them.

Pith: the inner most central portion of the tree is called the pith. It consists entirely
of cellular tissues which are thin and connected loosely.

Heartwood: The inner rings surrounding the Pith is called as heartwood

which is usually in dark color. It gives a strong & firm support to the tree.

Sapwood: The outer rings between heartwood and cambium layer is known
as the sapwood. It is usually light in color. The sapwood assists in the life
process of tree by storing up starch. It takes active part in the growth of
tree.

Cambium layer: The thin layer between sapwood and inner bark ( bast )
as the Cambium layer. The function of cambium is to grow wood cells.

SEASONING OF TIMBER:
Seasoning is the process of reducing the moisture content (drying) of timber in
order to present the timber from possible fermentation and making it suitable for
use.
It can also be defined the process of drying of timber is known as the seasoning of
timber. The moisture in timber can be present either in the cell cavities or in the cell
walls. The former is known as the free moisture and major part of moisture in timber
is present as free water. The latter is known as the bound moisture and it is closely
associated with the body of timber.

The moisture content of timber is determined as follows:

P = ( W1 – W2 / W2 ) x 100 where P= percentage of moisture
W1= original weight of timber.
W2= oven dry weight of timber.
Some of the objects of seasoning wood are as follows:
 Reduce its tendency to split and decay
 Reduce its weight.
 Increases strength, durability and workability.
 Make it suitable for painting
 To burn readily, if used as fuel.
 To maintain the shape and size of the components of the timber articles.
 To make timber safe from the attack of fungi and insects.

METHODS OF SEASONING: Timber can be seasoned naturally or artificially

Natural Seasoning ( Air Seasoning): The timber in log form is not usually fit for
the process of seasoning. Hence, it is cut and sawn into suitable sections of
planks.
The timber pieces can either be stacked horizontally or vertically so as to permit
free circulation of air and the minimum distance between adjacent stacks should
be atleast 600 mm.
The duration for drying depends upon the type of wood and the size of planks.
Air seasoning reduces the moisture content of the wood to 12-15%

Advantages:
 Depending upon the climatic conditions, the moisture content of wood can
be brought down to about 10%
 It does not require skilled supervision.
 The method of seasoning timber is cheap and simple.

Disadvantages:
 The drying of different surfaces may not be even and uniform.
 If not properly attended, the fungi and insects may attack timber during the
process of seasoning and may damage it.
 The moisture content of wood may not be brought down to te desired level.

Artificial Seasoning: The various methods of artificial seasoning are as follows:

1. Boiling: Boiling in water or exposing the wood to the action of steam spray is
a very quick but expensive process of seasoning.

2. Water Seasoning: The logs of wood are kept completely immersed in stream
of water, with their larger ends pointing upstream. Consequently, the sap,
sugar and gum are leached out and are replaced by water. The logs are then
kept out in air to dry. It is a quick process but the elastic properties and strength
of wood are removed.

3. Kiln seasoning: This method is adopted for rapid seasoning of timber on

large scale to any moisture content. The scantlings are arranged for free
circulation of heated air or with steam. Two types of kilns viz the progressive
and the compartment are in use.

4. Electrical Seasoning: The logs are placed in such a way that their two ends
touch the electrodes. Current is passed through the set up, being a bad
conductor, wood resists the flow of current, generating heat in the
process, which results in its drying. The drawback is that the wood may split.

5. Chemical Seasoning: (Salt Seasoning) In this method, the timber is

immersed in a solution of suitable salt. It is then taken out and seasoned in the
ordinary way. Urea solution is preferred rather than salt solution because the
common salt acts as a corrosive.

DEFECTS IN TIMBER / DEFECTS DUE TO SEASONING:

Defects can occur in timber at various stages during the growing period or
during the seasoning process. Defects affect the quality, reduce the quantity
of wood, reduce the strength, spoil the appearance etc.. However, the
defects occurring in the timber are grouped into the following divisions:

(1) Defects due to Conversion: During this process of converting the

timber into commercial form, the following defects may occur: A wane
occurs in timber which contains, on one or more faces or rounded
periphery of the trunk. A Torn grain occurs by falling of a tool which
causes a small depression.

(2) Defects due to Fungi: Fungi attack the timber when the moisture
content of timber is above 20% and the presence of air. If the wood is
submerged in water, the fungi will not be attacked due to the absence of
air in water. Following defects are caused in the timber by the fungi: Blue
Stain: The wood is stained to bluish color.
Dry rot: Fungi attack the wood and convert it into dry powder. Sap
Stain: when wood is exposed to moisture content goes beyond
25%, it loses its color.

(3) Defects due to Insects: Termites (white ants ), Beetles ( small

insects) cause rapid decay of timber by converting them into fine powder.
On the other hand, Carpenter ants are usually black in color and vary in
size. Unlike termites, they do not eat wood but merely tunnel it out for
habitation.
Using hydrocyanic acid gas or creosote destroy the insects but they are
powerful toxic elements and dangerous to human beings. The best
alternative is turpentine mixed with a small quantity of ortho-dichloro –
benzene. This vapour is very deadly to insects and is not poisonous to
human beings and animals.

(4) Defects due to natural forces / abnormal growth: The main

natural forces responsible for causing defects in timber are two namely
abnormal growth and rupture of tissues. Following are some of the defects
commonly found in wood due to natural forces:
Burls ( excrescenes ) formed when a tree receive a shock or injury in its
young age. Due to such injury, the growth of tree is completely absent and
irregular projections appear on the body of timber.

BURL BURL

Foxiness is a sign of decay appearing in the form of yellow or red tinge

or discolouration of over matured trees.

Knots are the bases of branches or limbs which are broken or cut off form the tree.
The portion from which the branch is removed receives nourishment from the stem
for a long time results in the formation of hard rings which are known as the knots.
Presence of knots indicate the weakness.

Rindgalls indicates the abnormal growth when swellings are found on the body of
a tree. These develop at points from where branches are improperly cut off or
removed.

Shakes: these are cracks which partly or completely separate the fibres of wood
and separate the annual rings. Following are the different varieties of shakes:
 Cup shakes – curved crack
 Heat shakes – due to shrinkage and heart wood
 Ring shakes – if the curved crack cover entire ring, it is known as Ring
shake
 Star shakes – cracks which extend from bark towards the sap wood.

Twisted fibres are caused by wind constantly turning the trunk of young tree in
one direction.

Upsets are also known as the ruptures and they indicate the wood fibres which are
injured by crushing or compression.

(5) Defects due to seasoning: Following defects occur in the seasoning

process of wood:

(1) Bow: This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the direction of
length of timber.

(2) Cup: This defect is indicated by the curvature formed in the transverse
direction of timber.

(3) Check: A check is a crack which separates fibres of wood.

(4) Honey-Combing: Due to stresses developed during drying, the various

radial and circular cracks develop in the interior portion of timber..

(5) Split: when a check extends from one end to the other.

(6) Wrap: When a piece of timber has twisted out of shape, it is said to have
wrapped.

GLASS
As a building material, ceramics include clay, brick, stone, concrete, glass,
abrasives, porcelain etc…. ceramics are usually hard and brittle and are in the
form of amorphous or glassy solids. On the basis of their internal structure, the
ceramics are classified as Clay products, Refractory’s and Glasses.
Glass is an amorphous substance having homogeneous texture. It is a hard, brittle
and transparent material. Ordinary colorless glasses have tensile strength,
compressive strength of about 30-60 N/mm2 and 700-1000 N/mm2 respectively and
modulus of elasticity in the range of 0.45 x 10 5 to 0.8 x 105 N/mm2.
The raw materials used in manufacturing of glass are sand (silica) lime (chalk) and
soda or potash which are fused over 1100°C. Oxides of iron, lead and borax are
added to modify hardness, colour etc.
Silica is used in the form of pure quartz / flint ; lime is in the form of Limestone/chalk;
marble and PbO is in the form of galena..

Glass is manufactured in the following steps:

1. Melting: The raw materials--- lime, soda and sand separately cleaned, ground,
sieved (called Batch) in definite proportions and mixed with water are fused in a
furnace. When the temperature is raised to 1100°C – 1200°C, it turns to a more
watery liquid and the bubble rises to the surface.

CaCO3 + SiO2 Ca SiO3 + CO2

Na2CO3 + SiO2 Na2 SiO3 + CO2

The coloring oxides / salts are added at this stage. Heating is continued till the
molten mass is free from bubbles and glass balls. As the glass cools (800°C), it is
ready to be drawn to its desired thickness and size at the other end of the furnace.

2. Forming & Shaping: The molten glass can be fabricated to desired shape by
adopting blowing or flat drawing methods or in the process of Compression
Moulding, Moulds are used to obtain the articles of desired shapes.
In case of spinning, the molten glass is spin at high speed by a machine to form
very fine glass fibers which is used for providing insulation against heat,
electricity….The glass articles, after being manufactured are to be cooled down
slowly and gradually. This process of cooling of glass articles is known as the
Annealing of glass.

3. Finishing: After annealing the glass articles are cleaned, ground, polished,
cut to desired ones.

4. Coloring substances for glass: To make colored glass, the coloring pigment
is added to the raw materials while preparing the batch for its manufacture. The
whole mass is heated till it becomes homogenous. Table shows different
substances which are used to produce different shades of color.

Color Substance pigment

Blue 0.1% cobalt oxide, cupric oxide (CuO)
Dark Blue/brown/violet Cobalt, Mn and Fe oxides.
Green/Emerald green Ferric oxides (Fe3O4) and chromium oxide
Red Cuprous oxides (Cu2O)
Violet MnO2
Opaque Tin oxide, Calcium Phosphorite
Yellow Antimony trisulphide (Sb2S3); charcoal
Black Oxides of Co and Mn
Orange Selenite and ferric oxide and MnO2
Greenish yellow 2 – 3 % of alkali uranate

Classification of Glass and Uses: Depending upon the

constituents, glasses are classified as Soda-Lime glass, Lead glass and
Borosilicate glass.

Soda- lime glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lime and soda. The
quality of glass can be improved by adding alumina and Magnesium Oxide and the
glass is then called Crown Glass. This type of glass is used in doors, windows,
bottles etc

Lead glass, also known as Flint glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, lead
and potash. Lead glass has high shining appearance and not usually affected by
temperature. Electric bulbs, optical glasses, ornamental glass and radio valves are
some of the articles made from it.

Borosilicate glass is obtained by fusing a mixture of silica, Borax, lime and

feldspar. Borosilicate glass can withstand high temperatures and is most suitable
for making laboratory equipments .
Some of the important special varieties of glasses are :

Fibre glass: For making this type of glass, the molten glass is spin at a very high
speed to produce a continuous fine glass fibres. It is soft and flexible in nature. It
doesn’t absorb water, acids and is used for motor vehicles as sheets, fibre glass
etc….

Bullet Proof glass: This glass is made of several layers of plain glass and
alternate layers consist of vinyl-resin plastic. The outer layers of glass are made
thinner than the inner layers. The thickness of this type of glass vary from 15mm-
75mm. It will not allow bullet to pierce through it.

Ultra-Violet glass: It is made from the raw mixture with minimum quantities of iron,
titanium and chrome oxides . Such a glass transmits 75% of UV radiation which is
far more than a common glass. It is widely used in windows of schools, hospitals
etc….

Glass Blocks: These are completely sealed hollow units which are formed by
fusing together two-halves of pressed glass. The glass blocks are available in
square sizes with dimensions as 150 x 200 x 300 mm with a thickness of 100mm.
These blocks posses high insulating value and are excellent in high transmission
and protect against cold, heat and noise.
Other glass varieties include: Float glass; Foam glass; Obscured glass;
Perforated glass; Safety glass ; Wired glass etc….

PAINTS
The Paints are coatings of fluid materials and are applied over the surfaces of
timber and metals. On drying it forms a thin film (60–150 μ ) on the
surfaces. The functions of the paint are:
 To protect the coated surface against weathering effects of
atmospheric conditions, fumes, gases …
 Decorate the structure by giving smooth and colorful finish.
 Attack the penetration of water through RCC
 Controls the formation of bacteria and fungus
 Arrests the corrosion of the metal structures
 Stops the decay of wood work
 Provides a smooth surface for easy cleaning.
An ideal paint should have uniform spread as a thin film, high coverage,
good workability and durability. The paints should also be cheap and
economical
Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous
paints, fire proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints ( for
protecting objects against acid fumes.

COMPOSITION OF OIL PAINT: An oil paint essentially consists of the

following ingredients:

BASE: The base, usually a metallic oxide, is the principal constituent of the
paint. It makes the paint film opaque and possesses binding properties which
reduce the shrinkage cracks in the film on drying.
Some of the examples of base are White lead ( PbCO 3), Red lead (PbO), Zinc
white (ZnO), Aluminum powder, Iron oxide; Lithophane ( zinc sulphide +
barytes powder ), Titanium White etc..
Lead based paints are in general affected by atmosphere and are not
recommended for final coats. Zinc white is a weather resistant. Aluminum
powder is used as base for all aluminum paints. It is generally used for a
priming coat to new wood work. Lithophane is cheap and can easily applied
on the surfaces. However, when exposed to day light, it changes colour,
hence used for interior works only. Titanium white is non-poisonous and
provides a thin transparent film. It is used for receiving the coat of
an enamel.

VEHICLE / CARRIER is also known as binder. Vehicle is an oil to which

the base is mixed.
Vehicles are used to make it possible to spread the paint evenly on the
surface in the form of a thin layer and to provide a binder for the ingredients
of a paint so that they may stick to the surface.
The examples of vehicles are natural oils such as Linseed oil, Nut oil,
Poppy oil, and Tung oil.
Linseed oil is the most widely used vehicle and is extracted from flax seeds.
It reacts readily with oxygen and hardens by forming a thin film known as
.
Linoxyn. Nut oil is extracted from walnuts. Poppy oil is prepared from
Poppy seeds. It dries slowly and its colors are long lasting. It is used for
making paints of delicate colors. Tung oil (or) china wood oil is obtained
from a tung tree is superior to linseed oil and is used for preparing paints
of superior quality .
Poppy seeds Poppy seeds Linseeds Tung seeds /tree

DRIERS also known as plasticizers ( letharge – lead oxide; Lead Acetate; Red
Lead—Pb3O4; MnO2; Co, Zn and lead chromate ) are chemicals added to paint.
A drier absorbs oxygen from the air and transfers it to the
linseed oil, which in turn, gets hardened. The quantity of drier is limited to
8% , excess of it affects the elasticity of paint leading to flaking failure.
Red lead is the best for primary coat over steel and metal works . The cost
of zinc and lead chromates is high.

PIGMENTS are finely ground mineral, organic substances or ;metal

powders and their size from 0.1 to 5.0 microns in diameter. When a desired
colour is required than the base of a paint, a colouring pigment is to be
added. The common pigments are classified as natural and artificial.
The former used for preparing glue paints, putties whereas artificial pigments
obtained by chemical processing of raw materials include titanium dioxide,
zinc white, lead white, Lithophane, Red lead, etc.

Some of the examples of pigments used to produce the desired colours

are:
Tint of paint Pigment

Black Graphite

Blue Indigo, Prussian blue

Brown Burnt umber

Green Copper sulphate,

Red Zinc chrome;

Yellow yellow ochre

SOLVENTS are also known as thinners used to thin the paints, increase
the spread . The common thinning agents used are petroleum, spirit,
naptha and turpentine oil.

ADULTRANTS bring down the overall cost, reduce the weight and increase
the durability. Adulterants also help to reduce cracking of dry paint. Barium
sulphate, calcium carbonate, magnesium silicate and silica are a few
examples. The best adulterant is barium sulphate.

TYPES OF PAINTS: The brief descriptions of various types of paints are:

ALUMINIUM PAINTS consist of aluminum powder as base and are resistant

to acid fumes. Aluminum paints are used for painting metal roofs, silos,
machinery, poles, towers and storage tanks and the painted surface is
visible even in darkness.

ANTICORROSIVE PAINTS: Linseed oil is used as vehicle A pigment of

CrO2; Pb or red lead or Zinc chrome is taken and after mixing it with some
quantity of very fine sand, it is added to the paint. These paint are cheap and
lasts for a long duration.

ASBESTOS PAINT: The main constituent is fibrous asbestos. These paints

are used for stopping leakage in metal roofs , painting gutters. Asbestos paint
is also called Fire proof paint.

BITUMINOUS PAINT: It is prepared by dissolving asphalt in any type of oil

or petroleum or naphtha. The paint presents a black appearance and it is
used for painting iron work under water.

CELLUSLOSE PAINTS is also known as lacquers. A cellulose paint

hardens by evaporation of thinning agent and thus hardness quickly. Being
very costly their use is restricted to painting cars, ships and airplanes.

CEMENT BASED PAINT: It is available in dry powder from It is waterproof and

durable. For external finish, on cement-plastered walls, it is
mixed with water before its application. Cement paints are durable, strong
& are used on exterior surfaces of buildings. Mixed with boiled linseed oil
they are also used over corrugated iron sheets.

BRONZE PAINT: Generally a pigment such as aluminum or copper

powder is used in bronze paint. It is highly reflective and are applied
over radiators.

CASEIN PAINTS: Casein , a protein substance extracted from milk, curd

and is mixed with a base (Lithophane ) . They are available in powder or
paste from. They are used over new plaster surface, walls and ceilings.

RUBBER BASED PAINTS: Rubber is treated with chlorine gas is dissolved

in solvent and desired pigment is added. These paints are resistant to
acid, and alkalis. Rubber paints are used over concrete and cement
plastered surfaces.

PLASTIC EMULSION PAINTS: These are useful in porous and /or wet
surface. The emulsion coats are less odorous, non-inflammable, quick drying
and easier to apply than other paints. It is composed of plastic compounds
such as vinyl acetate and acrylate which are dissolved in water.
When the paint dries, the water evaporates and a thin film is left out on wall
surface as a coat.

UNIT- 2: CEMENT & ADMIXTURES

Babylonians were perhaps the first to use clay as cementing material. In ancient
times stones have been invariably used as a construction material with lime as
the binder for construction of forts and defense structures. Egyptians have
used lime and gypsum as cementing materials in the famous Pyramids.
The calcareous rocks used by the Romans were either composed of
limestones burned in Kilns or mixtures of limestones and puzzolanic
materials ( volcanic ash, tuff ) combining into a hard concrete.
The natural cement is obtained by burning and crushing the stones containing clay,
carbonate of lime (CaCO3) and a little quantity of magnesia. The natural cement is
brown in color and is also known as Roman cement.
The artificial cement was invented by a mason Joseph Aspdin in England in
1824. He took out a patent for this cement and called it Portland cement because
it had resemblance in its color after setting, to a variety of sandstone which is
found in Portland in England.
The manufacture of Portland cement was started in England around 1825. Belgium
and Germany started the same in 1855. America started the same in 1872 and
India was installed in Tamil Nadu in 1904.

PROPERTIES OF CEMENT:
 It gives strength to the masonry works.
 It is an excellent binding material.
 It is easily workable
 It offers good resistance to the moisture
 It possesses a good plasticity.
 It hardens early.

COMPOSITION OF ORDINARY CEMENT/ PORTLAND CEMENT: The ordinary

cement contains two basic ingredients namely, argillaceous (clay predominates )
and calcareous ( calcium carbonate predominates). A typical chemical analysis of
an ordinary cement is as follows:
Ingredient Oxide / % Function

composition Range

Lime CaO 62 60– 65 Controls strength

and soundness. Its

deficiency reduces
strength & setting
time

Silica SiO2 22 17 – 25 Imparts strength.

Excess cause slow
setting

Alumina Al2O3 5 Responsible for

quick setting, if in
3–8 excess,

it lowers the
strength /
weakness the
cement
Calcium CaSO4 4 3–4

sulphate

Iron oxide Fe2O3 3 0.5 – 6 Gives colour,

hardness &
strength to the
cement

MgO 2 Gives color,

hardness. If in
Magnesia excess, it

causes cracks in
mortar.
0.5 – 4

Sulphur SO3 1 1–2 A small amount of

sulphur is useful in

making sound
cement. If it is in
excess ,

it causes cement
to become
unsound

Alkalies (Na2O+K2O ) 1 0.1 – 0.4 These are

residues and if in
excess

cause
efflorescence and
cracking

Excess in quantity of ingredients cause unsound, prolonging of setting time.

However, the rate of setting of cement paste is controlled by regulating the ratio
SiO2 / (Al2O3 + Fe2O3).

USES OF CEMENT: Cement is widely used in construction of various

engineering structures. Following are various possible uses of cement:
 Cement mortar for masonry works
 Cement Concrete for laying floors, roofs, lintels, beams, stairs, pillars etc
 Construction of important engineering structures such as Bridges,
Culverts, Dams, Tunnels, storage Reservoirs; Docks etc
 Making Cement Pipes
 Manufacture of precast pipes, dust bins, fencing posts etc..
ORDINARY PORTLAND CEMENT: The artificial cement is obtained by burning at
a very high temperature of a mixture of calcareous ( limestone ) and argillaceous
( clay ) materials. The calcined product is known as the CLINKER.
A small quantity of gypsum is added to the clinker and it is then pulverized
into very fine powder which is known as the CEMENT. This cement is also
known as the normal setting cement or ordinary cement.

The Ordinary Portland Cement has been classified as 33 Grade ( IS269: 1989); 43
Grade ( IS 8112:1989) AND 53 Grade (IS 12669:1987). The physical requirements
of all these three types of cement are almost same except for compressive
strength and are as follows:
Grade

S.No Physical 33 43 53
requirement

Fineness 255 255 255

Soundness 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm

3 Setting time 30 minutes 30 30

( minimum)

Setting time 600 minutes 600 600

( maximum )

4 Compressive
Strength
(MPa or Mega Pascals)
not less than

72 hours 16 23 27

( 3 days )

168 hours 22 33 37
 ( 7 days )

672 hours 33 43 53

( 28 days)

IS:10262 has classified the OPC grade-wise from A to F based on 28 day

compressive strength as follows:

Category Strength

A 32.5 – 37.5

37.5 – 42.5

42.5 – 47.5

47.5 – 52.5

52.5 – 57.5

57.5 – 62.5
MANUFACTURE OF CEMENT: Cement can be manufactured by using either
from natural cement stones ( in case of Roman cement, Puzzolana cement,
Medina cement etc ) or artificially ( Portland cement ) by using calcareous
and argillaceous materials.
Calcareous ( limestone, marl, chalk, marine shell ) and argillaceous ( clay, shale,
slate etc) materials are used in the manufacture of Ordinary or Portland
cement. From these materials, others like silica, iron-oxide, and small quantities
of other chemicals such as Na, K, S are obtained during the process of
manufacturing of cement. Cement can be manufactured either by dry process or
wet process.

DRY PROCESS ( Modern Technology) : This process is adopted when the

raw materials are quite hard. The process is slow and the product is costly.
The raw materials of limestone and clay are first reduced in size of about 25 mm
in crushers. A dry air is then passed over these materials. These dried
materials are then pulverized into fine powder separately in the ball mills.
Ball mill is a key
equipment to grind the

crushed materials, and the

ball mill is

widely used in powder-

making production

All these materials are stored in hoppers / bins / silos and they are then mixed
in correct proportions.
Fig: Hoppers / Hoppers, bins and silos are
used in the aggregate, cement,

chemical, mining and

wastewater treatment industries
for storing

many bulk materials.

Bins are used for storing

smaller volumes of bulk
materials.
Silos Bins
Hoppers are similar to bins
except with an open top. Silos
are

typically designed for storing

large volumes and are
cylindrical in

shape with a cone.

 Storage capacities up to 10,000
cubic feet can easily be

handled with hoppers, bins and

silos.

The product obtained after calcination at a temperature of about 1400 – 1500o C

in rotary kiln is called CLINKER.
The clinker is cooled rapidly to preserve the metastable compounds and their
solid solutions and then ground in Tube Mills where 2 – 3 % of gypsum is added.
The purpose of adding gypsum is to retard the setting of cement.
Generally, cement is stored in bags of 50 kg. A flow diagram of dry process
is shown in fig.

Rotary Kiln: The building material kiln is mainly used in cement industry, such as lime kiln, cement kiln.

The dry process has been modernized and it is widely used at present because
of competition in production; lesser consumption of power; automatic proper
temperature control ; advancement of instrumentation; computerization and quality.
Flow diagram of manufacturing of cement
WET PROCESS ( old technology ) : Wet process was used for the manufacture
of cement started from 1913 onwards and till early 1980. The operations
involved in the wet process of cement manufacture are mixing; burning and
grinding.
The crushed raw materials are fed into ball mill and a little water is added to
make a thick paste. This paste, usually contain about 14% of moisture is
dried and made ready for the feed of rotary kiln where it loses moisture and
forms into lumps or nodules.. These are finally burned at 1500 – 1600oC
where the nodules change to clinker at this temperature. Clinker is cooled
and then ground in tube mills. While grinding the clinker, about 3% of
gypsum is added. The cement is then stored in silos from where it is supplied.
During the operation of ball mill; the steel balls in it pulverize the raw
materials which form a slurry with water. This slurry is passed to silos (storage
tanks), where the proportioning of the compounds is adjusted to ensure desired
chemical composition.
The chief advantages of the wet process are the low cost of grinding the raw
materials, the accurate control of composition and homogeneity of the slurry,
and the economical utilization of fuel.
Why gypsum is to be added during the manufacture of cement ???
The gypsum is the hydrated sulphate of calcium and its chemical composition
is CaSO4 2H2O. It contains 79.1% calcium sulphate and 20.9% water.
When gypsum is added to 205oC, its specific gravity increases from 2.3 to
2.95 due to loss of water. As a binding material, the gypsum quickly sets
and hardens. It is soluble in HCl but insoluble in H 2SO4.
Gypsum has a number of valuable properties like bulk density, incombustibility,
good absorbing capacity, good fire resistance, rapid drying etc.. Because of all
these properties, gypsum is used in the manufacture of cement to increase its
setting time.

PLASTER OF PARIS : Plaster of Paris is a calcium sulfate hemi-hydrate (CaSO4,

½ H2O) derived from gypsum by firing this mineral at relatively low temperature of
160 – 170oC and then reducing it to powder. In ancient times, in Paris, all the
walls of wooden houses were covered with plaster as protection against fire. Since
then the plaster was named as Plaster of Paris.

POP powder is mixed with water to form a paste which releases heat and then
hardens once dried under normal temperature. Unlike mortar and cement, plaster
remains quite soft after drying, and can be easily rubbed or scratched with metal
tools or even sandpaper. On heating, further upto a temperature of about
20oC, the entire water is driven off and the resulting product is known as the
Gypsum Anhydrite.

FIELD TESTS & LAB TESTS FOR CEMENT: In engineering construction, the
main qualifications of a cement are permanency of structure; strength and a
rate of setting. To determine these qualifications, both physical and chemical
tests are made, the former on account of importance more often than the other.
However, following field tests are to be carried out to ascertain the quality of
cement:
 The cement should feel smooth when touched in between fingers.
 If it is felt rough, it indicates adulteration with sand.
 If hand is inserted in a bag of cement, one should feel cool and not
warm.
 If a small quantity of cement is thrown in a bucket of water, it should sink
and should not float on the surface.
 The color of cement should be uniform and the typical cement color is
grey.
 The cement should be free from any hard lumps. Such lumps are formed
by the absorption of moisture from the atmosphere.
As a result of long experience the physical tests which have come into
general use in determining the acceptability of cement are:
1. Soundness
2. Strength:
3. Consistency Test and
4. Fineness.

SOUNDNESS: It is an important test to assure the quality of cement since an

unsound cement produces cracks, disintegration and leading to failure finally.
The purpose of this test is to detect the presence of uncombined lime in
cement. This test is ensured by limiting the quantities of free lime and
magnesia ;which slake slowly causing change in volume of cement ( known
as unsound).
Some of the aggregates may be chemically unstable with certain chemical
constituents react with alkalies in cement which may cause abnormal expansion
and cracking of concrete.

Soundness of cement may be tested by Le-Chatelier method or by authoclave

method. For OPC ( Ordinary Portland Cement ) ; RHC ( Rapid Hardening Cement
); LHC ( Low Heat Cement ); PPC ( Portland Puzzolana Cement ); soundness is
limited to 10 mm whereas HAC ( High Alumina Cement );
SSC ( Super Sulphate Cement ) it should not exceed 5 mm.

STRENGTH: Cement is tested for Compressive and Tensile strength

because the cement hydrates when water is added to it. So, the strength of
mortar and concrete depends upon the type and nature of cement.

Hydration of cement: T h e c h e m i c a l r e a c t i o n b e t w e e n c e m e n t

a n d w a t e r i s k n o w n a s hydration o f c e m e n t

Conditions affecting strength:

 Cement is very strong at early stages if a high lime or high alumina
content is present.
 Gypsum and Plaster of Paris in small percentages also tend to
increase the strength slightly but when present in quantities more than
3%, these substances provide variable effects.
 The strength of cement is greatly also influenced by the degree of
burning, the fineness of grinding.
 An under burnt cement is likely to be deficient in strength.

Compressive Strength.: Compressive Strength is the basic data required for

mix design. By this test, the quality and quantity of concrete can be
controlled and the degree of adulteration is checked.
The compressive strength at the end of 3 days, 7 days and 28 days are
given in table and the results are expressed in N/mm 2
Type 3 days 7 days 28 days

OPC 16.0 22.0 33.0

PPC 16.0 22.0 33.0

LHC 10.0 16.0 35.0

RHC 27.5 - -
HAC 35.0 - -

Tensile Strength: Tensile Strength may be determined by Briquette Test

method or by Split Tensile Strength Test.
The Tensile strength of cement affords quicker indications of defects in the
cement. However, the test is also used for the determination of rapid hardening
cement. The tensile strength at the end of 3 days and 7 days for OPC is 2.0 N
/ mm2 and 2.5 N/ mm2 respectively.
( 2.0 N / mm2 = 20 kg / cm2 ) ( 2.5 N/ mm2 = 25 Kg / cm2 )

Consistency Test: This is a test to estimate the quantity of mixing water to form
a paste of normal consistency.

Vicat apparatus is used to determine the

consistency

test. 300 gms of cement is mixed with 25%

water. The

paste is filled in the mould of Vicat’s

apparatus and

the surface of the filled paste is

smoothened and

leveled. A square needle 10 mm x 10 mm

attached to

the plunger is then lowered gently over the

cement

paste surface and is released quickly. The

plunger

pierces the cement paste. The reading on the

attached scale is recorded. When the

reading is 5 –

7 mm from the bottom of the mould, the

amount

of water added is considered to be the

 correct

percentage of water for normal

consistency.

FINENESS: This test is carried out to check proper grinding of cement. In

other words, the degree of fineness of cement is the measure of the mean
size of the grains in it.
There are 3 methods for testing fineness:
 The Sieve method -- using 90 micron sieve
 The air permeability method ( Lea Nurse and Blains method )
 The sedimentation method ( Wagner Turbidimetre )

SIEVE METHOD: 100 gms of cement sample is taken and air set lumps if any,
in the sample are broken with fingers. The sample is placed on a 90 micron
sieve and continuously sieved for 15 minitues. The residue should not exceed
the limits specified below:

OPC 10% of residue by weight

RHC 5% of residue by weight

PPC 5% of residue by weight

Air Permeability method: In this process, a cement sample of 20 mm height is

placed in the Lea and Nurse apparatus and air pressure is applied. A manometer
is connected to the top and bottom of the permeability apparatus and the
pressure is so adjusted.

The specific surface (Surface area is the measure of how much exposed area a
solid object has, expressed in square units ) for various cements should be as
specified in table:

Type

of Specific

cement surface not

 less than

cm2/gms

OPC 2250

RHC 3250

LHC 3250

PPC 3000

HAC 2250

SSC 4000

Fig: Permeability Apparatus

Wagner Turbidimetre method: This method is to be adopted to estimate the

surface area of one gram of cement. The cement is dispersed uniformly in a
rectangular glass tank filled with kerosene. Then, parallel light rays are passed
through the solution which strike the sensitivity plate of a photoelectric cell.
The turbidity of the solution at a given instant is measured by taking readings
of the current generated by the cell.
By recording the readings at regular intervals while the particles are falling in
the solution, it is possible to secure information regarding the grading in
surface area and in size of particle. Readings are expressed in sq cm per gms.

ADMIXTURES: Admixture is defined as a material, other than water, aggregates,

cement, that is added to the concrete batch immediately before or during mixing.
Admixtures change properties of the concrete such as colour, curing, temperature
range and setting time.
Concrete is being used for wide varieties of purposes to make it suitable in different
varieties of purposes to make it suitable in different conditions.
Ordinary concrete may fail to exhibit the required quality performance or
durability under different conditions. In such cases, admixture is used to modify
the properties of ordinary concrete so as to make it more suitable for any
situation.
Classification of admixtures as given by MR Rixom is:
 Plasticizers ( Water Reducers )
 Superplasticizers ( High Range Water Reducers )
 Retarders
 Accelerators
 Air entraining Admixtures
 Mineral Admixtures
 Chemical Admixtures
 Waterproofing Admixtures
 Gas forming Admixtures
 Colouring Admixtures
Plasticizers and Superplasticizers specifically developed in Japan and Germany
around 1970 and later on they were made popular in USA and Europe, Middle
East. Unfortunately, the use of plasticizers and Superplasticizers have not become
popular in India till recently ( 1985).

Plasticizers ( Water Reducers ): Concrete in different situations require

different degree of workability. A high degree of workability is required in
situations like deep beams, columns and beam junctions, pumping of
concrete for considerable distances. One must remember that addition of
excess water, will only improve the fluidity or the consistency but not the
workability of concrete.
The easy method generally followed at the site in most of the conditions is
to use extra water to overcome different situations which is unengineering
practice. Today, the use of plasticizers help the difficult conditions for
obtaining higher workability without using excess of water.

Superplasticizers ( High Range Water Reducers ): Superplasticizers

constitute a relatively new category and improved version of plasticizer, the use
of which was developed in Japan and Germany during 1960 and 1970
respectively.
Use of Superplasticizers permit the reduction of water to the extent upto 30%
without reducing the workability. The use of superplasticizer is practiced for
production of flowing, self levelling, self compacting and for the production of high
strength and high performance concrete. Superplasticizers can produce: Same
w/c ( water cement ratio ); same workability ; increased strength, homogeneous
character etc.
.
Retarders: A retarder is an admixture that slows down the chemical process
of hydration so that concrete remains plastic and workable for a longer time.
The retarders are used in casting purposes. The are also used in grouting oil
wells. Oil wells are sometimes taken upto a depth of about 6000 meter deep
where the temperature may be about 200 oC. The spacing between the steel
tube and the wall of the well and to prevent the entry of gas or oil into
other rock formations are to be sealed with cement grout. For all these
works cement grout is required to be in mobile condition for about 3 to 4
hours even at that high temperature without getting set.

Accelerators: Accelerating admixtures are added to concrete to increase the rate

of strength development in concrete to reduce the required period of curing. In the
past one of the commonly used materials as an accelerator was calcium chloride.
The recent studies have shown that calcium chloride is harmful for reinforce concrete.

Air entraining Admixtures: Air entrained concrete is made by mixing a small

quantity of air entraining agent or by using air entraining cement. These air
entraining agents modify the properties of plastic concrete regarding
workability, segregation, finishing quality of concrete. Entrained air is
intentionally incorporated, minute spherical bubbles of size ranging from 5
microns to 80 microns distributed evenly in the entire mass of concrete. Air
entraining admixture is used to prevent frost scaling in concrete .
The following types of air entraining agents are used for making air
entrained concrete:
 Natural wood resins
 Animal or vegetable fats and oils such as olive oil, stearic acid; oleic acid.
 Various wetting agents such as alkali salts
 Miscellaneous materials such as the sodium salts of petroleum
 sulphonic acids, hydrogen peroxide and aluminium powder
The common air entraining agents are Vinsol resin, Darex, Airalon, Orvus,
Teepol, Petrosan, Cheecol etc..
Air entrained concrete has been used in the construction of Hirakud dam, Koyna
dam, Rihand dam etc.

Chemical admixtures: Chemical admixtures are added to concrete in very small

amounts mainly for the entrainment of air, reduction of water or cement content,
plasticization of fresh concrete mixtures, or control of setting time.

Mineral admixtures: Mineral admixtures (fly ash, silica fume [SF], and slags ) are
usually added to concrete in larger amounts to enhance the workability of fresh
concrete; to improve resistance of concrete to thermal cracking and sulfate attack;
and to enable a reduction in cement content.

USES:
A proper use of admixtures offers certain beneficial effects to concrete, including
improved quality, acceleration or retardation of setting time, enhanced frost and
sulfate resistance, control of strength development, improved workability, and
enhanced finishability.

Fly Ash
Fly ashes are finely divided residue resulting from the combustion of ground or
powdered coal. They are generally finer than cement and consist mainly of glassyspherical particles
as well as residues of hematite and magnetite and some
crystalline phases formed during cooling.
Use of fly ash in concrete started in the United States in the early 1930's.
In addition to economic and ecological benefits, the use of fly ash in concrete
improves its workability, reduces segregation, bleeding, heat evolution and
permeability, and enhances sulfate resistance.
One of the most important fields of application for fly ash is PCC pavement, where a
large quantity of concrete is used and economy is an important factor in concrete
pavement construction.

Mix Design: The substitution rate of fly ash for portland cement will vary depending
upon the chemical composition of both the fly ash and the portland cement. The rate
of substitution typically specified is a minimum of 1 to 1 ½ pounds of fly ash to 1 pound
of cement. It should be noted that the amount of fine aggregate will have to be reduced
to accommodate the additional volume of fly ash. This is due to fly ash being lighter
than the cement.

The amount of substitution is also dependent on the chemical composition of the fly
ash and the portland cement. Currently, States allow a maximum substitution in the
range of 15 to 25 percent.
The two properties of fly ash that are of most concern are the carbon content and the
fineness. Both of these properties will affect the air content and water demand of the
concrete.
The finer the material the higher the water demand due to the increase in surface area.
The finer material requires more air-entraining agent to five the mix the desired air
content. The important thing to remember is uniformity.
If fly ash is uniform in size, the mix design can be adjusted to give a good uniform
mix.
The carbon content, which is indicated by the loss of ignition, also affects the air
entraining agents and reduces the entrained air for a given amount of air-entraining
agent.

UNIT- 4:
BUILDING COMPONENTS BUILDING SERVICES
CONTENTS
LINTELS ……… Types of lintels ……. Timber lintels
Stone Lintels
Brick Lintels
Steel Lintels
RCC Lintels
ARCHES .............. Introduction
Terminology of arches
Classification of arches
STAIRCASES ........... Terminology of staircases
Requirements of a good stair
Dimensions of a step
…. Classification of stairs… Wooden stairs
RCC stairs
Foundations

BUILDING COMPONENTS
LINTELS and ARCHES: Openings are invariably left in the wall for the provision
of doors, windows, cupboards, almirahs etc… These openings are bridged by the
provision of either a lintel or an arch. Thus, both lintel as well as arch are structural
members designed to support the loads..

A lintel is a sort of beam, which is placed across the opening. The width of a lintel
is equal to the width of the wall and the ends of which are built into the wall. Lintels
are simple and easy to construct. Lintels are classified into the following types
according to the materials of the construction:

Timber Lintels: These are relatively costlier, structurally weak and vulnerable to
fire. Sometimes timber lintels are strengthened by the provision of mild steel plates
at their top and bottom, such lintels are called Flitched Lintels.
TIMBER LINTEL TIMBER LINTEL

Stone Lintels: These are common in usage where stone is abundantly available.
Dressed stone lintels give good architectural appearance. Stone is very weak in
tension and cracks develop if subjected to vibratory loads.

Stone lintel Stone lintel

Brick Lintels: These are not structurally strong and they are used only when the
opening is small and loads are light.
BRICK LINTEL BRICK LINTEL

Steel Lintels: These are provided where the opening is large and the loads are
heavy. It consists of steel channels either used singly or in combination of two or
three units.

STEEL LINTEL STEEL LINTEL

Reinforced Cement Concrete Lintels: Because of their strength, rigidity, fire

resistance, economy and ease of construction, the RCC lintels are widely used.
These can be used on any span. It is kept equal to the width of the wall. RCC lintels
are also available as precast units.
RCC LINTEL RCC LINTEL

Arches appeared as early as the 2nd millennium BC in Mesopotamian brick

architecture and their systematic use started with the Ancient Romans who were
the first to apply the technique to a wide range of structures.
An arch is an opening to support the weight of the wall or a load above it along with
other superimposed loads.
A structure, especially one of masonry, forming the curved (an inverted U) pointed,
or flat upper edge of an open space and supporting the weight above it, as in a
bridge or doorway. However, arches are constructed where
1. Loads are heavy
2. Span is more
3. Strong abutment is available
4. Special architectural appearance is required.
 1. Keystone
2. Voussoir
3. Extrados
4. Impost
5. Intrados
6. Rise
7. span
8. Abutment

The following technical terms are used in arch

.
TERMS

Abutment This is the end support of an arch / The

general mass of masonry

that supports one end of the arch.

Extrados A construction line denoting outer limit of

the arch / It is the outer

curve of an arch

Impost The masonry piece that one end of the arch

sits on

Intrados This is the inner curve of an arch.

Keystone In stonework the keystone is a central
Voussoir that is quite often

decorated in some way. When the arch is

being built it is always built

up evenly from side to side and the last stone

placed is the keystone

Voussoirs The individual /wedge shaped masonry

pieces that make up an arch.

.
Arcade It is a row of arches in continuation

Crown The top section of a curved arch / It is the

highest part of extrados.

Haunch: The first few voussoirs up from the

springing line / It is the lower half

of the arch between the crown and skew

back

Pier:

This is an intermediate support of an

arcade.

Inclined surface on the abutment

Skewback

Soffit It is a surface

Span It is the horizontal distance between the

supports

Spandrill This is a curved-triangular space formed

between the extrados and

the horizontal line through the crown.

Springing Line A horizontal construction line denoting the
starting of the curve in

curved arches, or the bottom of a flat arch

Rise Vertical distance between the highest point

of the intrados and the

springing line

Classification of Arches: An arch can be classified as

 According to Shape
 Based on Number of Centres
 Based on material and workmanship
Classification according to shape:

Flat Arch: A flat arch has usually the angle formed by skewbacks as 60°, thus
forming an equilateral triangle with intrados as the base. The extrados is kept
horizontal & flat. Flat arches are used for light loads and for spans upto 1.5 mts.
Segmental Arch: The centre of arch lies below the springing line or lies on the
springing line.

Flat arch Segmental arch

Horse shoe arch: The arch has the shape of a horse shoe, which is more than
a semi circle. Such type of arch is provided mainly from architectural
considerations.
Horse shoe arch

Pointed arch: It consists of two arcs of circles meeting at the apex. The triangle
formed may be either equilateral ( all sides equal ie ab = bc = ca) which is also
known as GOTHIC arch or isosceles ( any two sides equal ie ab=bc or bc=ca or
ca=ab ) which is also called as LANCET arch.

Gothic arch

Venetian arch: This is another form of pointed arch which has deeper depth
at crown. It has four centers, all located on the springing line.
Venetian arch Venetian arch

Florentine arch: This is similar to venetian arch except that the intrados is a
semi- circle. The arch has, thus three centres, all located on the springing line.

Florentine

arch

Classification based on Number of centres The arches may be classified as:

One Centered arch: Segmented arches, flat arches, horse shoe arches, bulls
eye arches come under this category

Bullseye arch Elliptical arch

Two Centered arch: An arch whose intrados curve ( inner curve of an arch is
called as intrados curve ) is described from two centres. Pointed arches such as
Gothic and Lancet arches come under this category

Three Centered arch: An arch whose intrados curve is described from three
centres. Elliptical arches come under this category.

Four Centered arch: A low elliptical or pointed arch; usually drawn from four
centers is called as four centered arch. It has 4 centres. Venetian arch is a
typical example of this type. Another example is Tudor arch

Tudor arch Venetian arch

Five Centered arch: This type of arch, having five centres, gives a good semi
elliptical shape

Five centred arch Two centred arch

Three centred arch Four centred arch

Classification based on Material and Workman ship
Stone Arches: Stones are mainly used in these arches.
Brick Arches: Quality of bricks are used in these arches.
Concrete Arches: Such arches are made from precast concrete blocks, each
block being cast in the mould to the exact shape and size of Voussoirs. Cement
concrete of 1:2:4 mix is usually used
.

STAIR CASES :
A stair is a set of steps leading from one floor to the
other. The room or enclosure of the building, in which the stair is located is known
as stair case. A staircase may be constructed around a central axis. Staircase is
an important component of a building providing access to different
floors and roof of the building. It consists of steps (stairs) and one or more slabs
between the floor levels. Different types of staircases can be made by arranging
stairs and landing slabs. The main components of a staircase --- stair, landing
slabs and supporting beams or wall.
In a domestic building, the stairs should be centrally located to provide easy access
to all the rooms whereas in public buildings, the stairs should be located near the
entrance. In big buildings, there can be more than one stair.
Stairs may be constructed of timber, bricks, stones, Steel, RCC etc.. Apart from
stairs, other means of vertical transportation between the floors of a building are
Lifts; Ramps; Ladders; Escalators etc.. The Technical terms associated with the
design and construction of stairs are defined below:
Step Going Strings

Tread Flight Winders

Flight landing Winders hand rail rails

Nosing Newel Post

Rise Baluster

Waist

(a) Tread: The horizontal top portion of a step where foot rests is known as tread.
The dimension ranges from 270 mm for residential buildings and factories to 300
mm for public buildings where large number of persons use the staircase.

(b) Nosing: In some cases the tread is projected outward to increase the
space. This projection is designated as nosing

(c) Riser: The vertical distance between two successive steps is termed as riser.
The dimension of the riser ranges from 150 mm for public buildings to 190 mm
for residential buildings and factories.

(d) Waist: The thickness of the slab on which steps are made is known as waist
The depth (thickness) of the waist is the minimum thickness perpendicular to the
soffit of the staircase. The steps of the staircase resting on waist-slab can be
made of bricks or concrete.

(e) Going: Going is the horizontal projection between the first and the last riser of
an inclined flight .

(f) Flight: The flight has two landings and one going.

(g) winders: Winders are steps located where a staircase turns and are narrower
on the inside of the turn than they are on the outside.

Requirements of a good stair: A good stair should be designed so as to provide

easy, quick and safe mode of approach between the floors. Following are the
general requirements which a stair should fulfill.

Location: It should be located as to provide access to the occupants of the

building. t should be so located that it is well lighted and ventilated directly from the
exterior. It is should be so located as to have approaches conveniently and
spacious.

Width of the Stair: It should be wide enough to carry the persons without
inconvenience. In a domestic building, a 90 cm wide stair is sufficient while in public
building, 1.5 to 1.8 mts width may be required.

Length of Flight: From comfort point of view, the number of steps are not more
than 12 and not less than 3.

Pitch/Slope of stair: A comfortable slope should however be limited to 30° - 45°.

Private Staircase (Domestic) = 42° Maximum.
Institutional & Assembly Stairs (Public) = 33° Maximum.
Other (Semi Public) = 38° Maximum.

Balustrade: Open stair should always be provide with balustrade to provide safety
to the users. Wide open stair should have hand rail on both the sides.

Step Dimension: The dimensions of rise and going should provide comfort to the
users. The proportion should also be comfortable to provide desirable pitch of the
stair. The dimensions of a step or Going and Risers are proportioned:
For comfortable ascent and descent, the Rise and Going of a step should be
well proportioned. However, the standards of Rise = 14 cms and Going = 30
cms are adopted. Usually, the combinations ( in cms ) for a comfortable steps
are as follows :
( 2 x Rise ) + ( Going ) = 60 cms
( Rise ) + ( Going ) = 40 to 45 cms eg: (15 + 28) or (16 + 26) or ( 17 + 24)
(Rise ) x ( Going ) = 400 to 450 cms ( 15 x 28) or 16 x 26 or (17 x 24 )

Riser and going Winders

Materials: The materials used for the construction of stair should be having
sufficient strength and fire resistance.
.
 Stair case parts Stair case parts

Stair case parts Stair case parts

CLASSIFICASTION OF STAIRS
Stairs can be classified in two broad heads:
(1) Straight stairs and (2) Turning stairs.
A) STRAIGHT STAIRS: This stair runs straight between the two floors. It is used
for small houses where there are restrictions in available width. The stair may
consist of either one single flight or more than one flight (usually two) with a
landing.
Strait stair Single flight staircase Two flight staircase

B) TURNING STAIRS: These include:

Quarter turn stairs ................. Newel quarter turn stairs
Geometrical quarter turn stairs.
Half turn stairs....................... Dog-legged stairs
Open newel half turn stairs
Geometrical half turn stairs.
Bifurcated stairs
Continuous stairs........ Circular stairs / spiral stairs
….. Helical stairs.

1. Quarter turn stairs: A quarter turn stair is the one which changes its direction
either to the left or to the right, the turn being affected either by introducing a
quarter space landing or by providing WINDERS. Quarter turn stairs are:

a) Newel Quarter turn stairs: These stairs have the conspicuous (very
noticeable) newel posts at the beginning and end of each flight. At the quarter
turn, there may either be quarter space landing or there may be winders.

b) Geometrical Quarter turn stairs: In geometrical stairs, the stringer as well

as the hand rail is continuous without Newel Post.
Newel Quarter turn stairs Geometrical Quarter turn
stairs

2. Half turn stairs: Half turn stair is the one which has its direction
reversed or changed for 180o. These stairs are quiet common
Dog legged stairs Open Newel Half turn stairs Geometrical half turn stair

Dog legged stairs Open Newel Half turn stairs Geometrical half turn stair

a) Dog-Legged or Newel half turn stairs: Newel posts are provided at

beginning and end of each flight in addition to half space landing and winders.

b) Open Newel half turn stair: It has a space or well between the outer strings.
This is the only aspect in which it differs from the dog legged stair.
c) Geometrical Half turn stairs: The essential features of such stairs are that
the stringers and the hand rails are continuous without Newel post. These may
be either with half space landing or without landing.

3. Bifurcated stair: This type of stair is commonly used in public

buildings at their entrance hall. The stair has a wider flight at the bottom,
which bifurcates into two narrower flights, one turning to the left and the
other to the right.

4. Continuous stairs: Continuous stairs are those which do neither have any
landing nor any newel post. They are, therefore, geometrical in shape.
Continuous stairs may be of the following types:

a) Circular stairs / spiral stairs : These are employed at a location where

there are space limitations and such a stair is usually made either of
RCC or metal. These are also provided at the back side of a building.
All the steps are winders. The stair is therefore not comfortable.

b) Helical stair: Its structural design and construction is very complicated. It is

made of RCC in which a large portion of steel is required to resist bending shear
and torsion.
Spiral stair case Spiral stair case Spiral stair case Helix
stair case Pitch line Curved & Flared stair case

Spiral stair case Spiral stair case Spiral stair case

Helix stair case Pitch line Curved & Flared stair case

WOODEN STAIRS (TIMBER STAIRS )

Wooden stairs are light in weight and easy to construct, but they have very poor
fire resistance. However, timber can be made fire resistant by sir Abel’s process.
They are used for small rise residential buildings and unsuitable for high rise
residential and public buildings. The timber used for the construction should be
free from fugal decay and insect attack and should be well treated before use.

In timber stairs, the strings are the support for the stair and act as inclined beams
between the floor and the landing. The thickness of strings may be 3 to 5 cms.

For additional support, a bearer / a carriage may be placed under the treads. The
normal practice is to provide one bearer. For a 90 cm wide staircase, and an
additional bearer for every 40 cm of width is provided.

Timber risers and treads are joined by means of nailed or screwed. Scotia blocks
may be provided to improve the appearance of steps.

RCC STAIRS
RCC stairs are the one which are widely used for residential, public and industrial
buildings. They are strong and fire resisting. Based on the direction of
span of the stair slab, concrete stairs may be divided into two categories:

Stairs with slab spanning horizontally: In this category, the slab is supported on
one side by side wall and on the other side by a stringer beam.

INCOMPLETE….. REFER PAGE 325 OF PUNMIA

Stairs with slab spanning longitudinally: In this category, the slab is supported
at bottom and top of the flight, and remain unsupported on the sides. Each flight
of stair is continuous and is supported on beams at top and bottom. Dog legged
stairs are typical example of this type.

The main reinforcement is provided parallel to the direction of flight and the
distribution reinforcement is provided along the width of the slab. For wider stairs,
sometimes a central stringer beam is provided between the end walls. The stringer
is also known as T-beam.

FOUNDATIONS
A building usually consists of two basic components viz.. the super-structure and
the sub-structure / Foundation.

The super-structure is a part of the building which is above the ground level and
serve the purpose of its intend use. The substructure / foundation is the lower
portion of the building, usually located below the ground level which transmits the
load of the super structure to the sub-soil.

A foundation is therefore that part of the structure which is in direct contact with
the ground to which the loads are transmitted. The basic functions of a foundation
is:
 To transfer the live and dead loads of the building to the soil over a large
enough area so that neither the soil nor the building will move.
 In areas where frost occurs, to prevent frost from moving the building.

Hence, the basic function of a foundation is to transmit the dead loads or

superimposed loads from a building to the soil, on which the building rests.

Dead loads are the weight of the building materials and the soil surrounding the
foundations.

Live loads include the weight of people, furniture, snow, rain, and wind. Wind may
be a vertical force downward, a horizontal force, or an uplift force. A live load may
also be exerted by water in the soil around the foundations. Wet soil exerts much
more force than dry soil. Frozen soil exerts much more force than wet soil .
The soil which is located immediately below the base of the foundation is
called the sub-soil / foundation soil, while the lower most portion of the
foundation which is in direct contact with the sub-soil is called the Footing.
or the bottom part of a foundation is called a footing
Weak sub-soils which are made up ground; shrinkable / expansive soils such as
clay; frost action; movement of ground water; excessive vibrations due to traffic and
machinery; slow consolidation of saturated clays; slipping of strata on sloping areas
are to be taken into account while designing the foundations.

Different types of foundations: Foundations may be broadly classified as:

Shallow Foundations: A foundation is shallow if its depth is equal to or less than

its width.

Deep Foundations: A foundation is deep if its depth is equal to or greater than

its width.

A) From the point of view of design, the various types of shallow foundations are:

Spread Footing: Spread footings are those which spread the load of a wall or
column over a large area. Spread footings may be of the following kinds:

(i) Single Footing for a column: In this type of footing, the loaded area
(b x b) of the column spread to the size (B X B) through a single spread. The base
is generally made of concrete.

(ii) Stepped Footing for a column: This type of footing is designed for a heavily
loaded column which requires greater spread. The base of the column is made of
column is made of concrete.

(iii) Sloped Footing for a column: In this case, the concrete base does not
have uniform thickness but is made sloped with greater thickness where it is
required.

(iv) Wall footing without step consisting of concrete base without any steps.

(v) Wall footing with steps consisting of concrete base with steps as shown
in the figure..

Combined footings: A spread footing which supports two or more columns is

termed as combined footing. The combined footings may be

(i) Rectangular combined footing: Columns will be rectangular in shape if they

carry equal loads. The design should be done in such a way that centre of gravity
of column loads coincide with the centroid of the footing area.

(ii) Trapezoidal combined footing: If the columns carry unequal loads, the
footing is of trapezoidal shape as shown.

(iii) Combined column-cum-wall footings: Sometimes it may be required to

provide a combined footing for columns and a wall. Rectangular and trapezoidal
footings are to be adopted when the columns carry equal loads and columns
carry un equal loads respectively as shown in the figure.
Strap Footing: If the independent footings of two columns are connected by a
beam, it is called strap footing. A strap footing may be used where the distance
between the columns is so great.
In this case, the column A is so near to an existing wall and the strap beam does
not remain in contact with soil and thus does not transfer any pressure to the soil.

Mat Footing / Raft Footing: A raft or mat is combined footing that covers the entire
area beneath a structure and supports all the walls and columns.
When the building loads are heavy, the use of spread footings would cover more
than one half the area and is more economical to use mat or raft foundation.
A true raft / mat is a flat concrete slab with uniform thickness throughout the area.
This is adopted when the column spacing is small and column loads are relatively
small.

B) From the point of view of design, the various types of deep foundations are:

(i) Rectangular or Square footing comes under the category of deep

foundations, when the depth of the foundation is greater than the width of the
footing.

(ii) Pile foundation: Pile foundation is that in which the loads are taken by means
of vertical members which may be of steel or concrete. Pile foundations may be
adopted instead of a raft foundation when the loading is uneven or where the footing
is uneconomical or where the sub-soil water pumping would be too costly. Piles
used for building foundation may be of 4 types
I) End bearing pile
II) Friction pile
III) Combined end bearing and friction pile
IV) Compaction pile

(iii) Pier Foundation: A pier foundation consists of a cylindrical column of large

diameter to support and transfer large super imposed loads to the below strata.
Pier foundations transfer the load through bearing only. Generally, pier
foundation is shallower in depths than the pile foundation. Pier foundation is
preferred in a location where the top strata consists of decomposed rock overlying
a sheet rock.
(iv) Well Foundation (or Caissons: Well foundations are box like structure,
circular or rectangular in shape which are sunk from the surface of either land or
water to the desired depth. They are much large in diameter than the pier
foundations. Caisson foundations are used for major foundation works such as :
 Bridge piers and abutments in rivers.
 Wharves (A landing place or pier where ships may tie up and load or unload), & Docks
 Structures related for shore protections.
 For pump houses etc…..
Well foundations are hollow (inside) which may be filled with sand and are plugged
at the bottom. The load is transferred through the perimeter wall called steining..

BUILDING SERVICES

PLUMBING SERVICES (WATER DISTRIBUTION, SANITARY)

How best a building might have been planned and built; it is incomplete till
adequate building services are not provided to it. Building / Plumbing
services include:

 Water distribution system

 Sanitary fittings and

 Effective drainage system

Sufficient quantity of water is provided to the building for the needs such
as drinking, bathing, washing of cloths and washing of floors. More quantity
of water is used through sanitary fittings like water closets, wash basins,
sinks, bath rooms etc.. After use of whole water, some quantity of water
gets polluted and has to be drained off through the underground drains. In
addition, telephone services and electric fittings are also come under the
preview of building services.

WATER DISTRIBUTION SYSTEM / WATER SUPPLY:

Water supply to water closets; bath rooms, wash basins, kitchens etc of a
building is provided through water supply pipes from municipal water
mains which run along the streets. Over head water storage tanks are also
connected to municipal mains through pipes with the help of ferrule.
Ferrule Water closet

Ferrule Water closet

Requirement of water for residences should be assumed as 135 liters per head
per day whereas the requirement varies from 45 to 70 litres per
day for schools / restaurants / offices per seat.

For water supply to the buildings / offices, always galvanized iron pipe of 15
mm dia is used. From municipal mains to house, the pipe line may be
buried underground by arranging elbows, nipples, clamps, sockets, bends, bib-
taps, check nut/ unions, gate valves/ball valves etc.. and finally connected to
bath rooms, kitchens, wash basins, sinks. A water meter is also provided to
the municipal mains at the entry level of water mains to a building.

SANITARY LINES & FITTINGS:

For collection of water, various types of sanitary fittings are required and
to be fitted in the building. All these fittings should be as far as possible be
fitted against an external wall. Following are some of the examples for
sanitary fittings:

WASH BASINS: These are used for washing hands, tooth brushing, face
washing etc and usually fixed that the height from the floor to the top of
the basin is 78.5 cm.

SINKS: These are used cleaning of utensils in kitchens or glassware items

in laboratories. Sinks are rectangular basins made from glazed earthen ware
or stone-ware with flat bottom and all their internal angles are made round
for easy cleaning.. Sinks are fixed in such a way that height of
the top of the sink from floor is 90 cm.

BATH TUBS: These are made from enameled iron, plastic, Cast Iron,
porcelain, marble. Normal dimensions of bath tubs are as follows:

Length……… 1.7 - 1.85 mts

Width ......... 70 – 75 cms
Overall height ....... 58 – 60 cm

The bath tub is provided with a tap to fill it with water and an outlet to drain
the water. In some tubs two taps are provided, one for hot and another for
cold water supply. Bath tub should also be provided with one over-flow
pipe to take away excessive spilling water.

WATER CLOSET (W.C.): It is used to receive human excreta directly from

persons using it. The appliance is connected to the porcelain pipe by means
of a trap. The water closets may be Indian type or European type.
Both these WC’s have an arrangement of flushing the discharged excreta
by the persons with the help of water.

Indian W C European W C
URINAL SYSTEMS: Urinal systems are used to discharge urine. They may
be bowl type or stack type.. Urinals are discharged into the pipe through
a nehani trap. Urinals should be designed to allow a minimum clear width of
60 cm between partition. The number of stack urinals draining into any one
outlet should preferably be not more than 5 in case of public buildings.

Bowl type urinals Stack type urinals

DRAINAGE SYSTEM: Drainage of a locality can be divided into public drainage

and private drainage systems.

Under public drainage category, municipal sewers/drains are laid along the
roads and are properly maintained by municipal / corporation authorities.
Houses and buildings are constructed along both the sides of the roads by
laying own sewer lines inside the house / building premises under the
category of private drainage system. These sewer lines collect sewage /
waste water from bathrooms, kitchens, water closets etc fitted in the
building and convey it to the municipal sewers.

So, the system of sewer lines or drains laid in the premises of a building
is called the house drainage.

Principles of house drainage:

 House sewers / drains should be laid as far as possible by the side

of a building rather than below the building..

 The size of drain should be adequate for maximum discharge from

the house.

 Drains should be laid at proper gradient so that the lowest level of

the building may drain in it.
 Drain should be laid on good foundation and protected against
external loads.
 As far as possible, drains should be laid in straight lines with
successive inspection chambers.

 The house drain should be connected to the public sewer line which
is always lower than the level of house sewer else, the flow in reverse
direction may take place.

VENTILATIONS AND AIR-CONDITIONING OF BUILDINGS:

The process
of supplying fresh air and removing contaminated air by natural /
mechanical process is termed as ventilation. To provide excellent
conditions to live and work air movement, temperature, humidity conditions
etc are important. The simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air
motion and air purity is known as air-conditioning.

SYSTEMS OF VENTILLATION: A good ventilating system should fulfill the

following requirements:
 It should admit required amount of fresh air in the room.
 All the corners of the room should get proper ventilation.
 Desired humidity should be maintained.
 Effective temperature should be maintained
 The ventilating air should be free from impurities such as dust,
odour etc
The systems of ventilation may be divided into two categories:

NATURAL VENTILATION: Natural system of ventilation is considered

suitable for small houses and not for big buildings such as government
offices, assembly halls, theatres, auditoriums and factories.
This natural ventilation system largely depends upon the scientific location
of doors, windows, ventilators and other openings. Fresh air inside the
building is cool and heavy. After sometime, the air becomes hot and lifted
up in due course of time. The heated air is driven out through ventilators
provided near the ceiling. For proper ventilation the top of this opening area
should be not more than 45 cm below the ceiling.

Fresh air again comes in the building gets lifted up by heating and again
escapes through openings provided near the ceiling. This effect cause flow
of wind in upward direction and is known as stack effect.
General considerations for natural ventilation:
 Inlet openings should be located that all parts of the room are
uniformly ventilated.
 Inlet openings should not be obstructed by trees, partitions, adjoining
buildings etc.
 Outlet openings ( ventilators) should be located near the ceiling.
 Outlet openings should be just opposite to inlets. This ensures
better cross-ventilation.
 More height of the room gives better ventilation due to stack effect.
 If wind direction is variable , then openings should be provided in all
the walls.
 In sloping or pitched roofs, ventilators are to be fixed at the ridge.

MECHANICAL VENTILATION: The system of ventilation in which some

mechanical arrangements are made to provide adequate ventilation in the
room is termed as mechanical ventilation.
Though the mechanical ventilation provides better comfortable conditions
than natural ventilation, it is costlier method but it results in considerable
increase in the efficiency of the persons working under such conditions.
Mechanical ventilation can be classified broadly under the following
headings:

(a) Extract or exhaust system: By fixing the blowers / fans, fresh air flow
inside the room can be maintained.

(b) Supply or plenum system: Fresh air is forced with the help of input fans
or blowers into the room and polluted air is allowed to leave the room by
itself. The fresh air may be cooled or heated where required by installing
cooling and or heating systems at the inlets. In this case, better control on
humidity and temperature of incoming air can be exercised.

(c) Balanced system: This system uses fans to supply air. In this case
entry of hot air is prevented by closing the doors or openings.

(d) Air conditioning: The simultaneous control of temperature, humidity, air

motion and air purity is known as air-conditioning.

AIR CONDITIONING is one type of mechanical arrangement. This process

consists of conditioning air w. r. t. humidity, temperature, odour, bacteria
content, dust content and air movement so that comfortable conditions are
maintained inside the room.

Types of air-conditionings:
 Comfort air-conditioning creates such conditions of the air inside
the room, as would give maximum human comfort.

 Industrial air-conditioning creates and maintains the air to the needs

of the industry during the material processing, manufacturing process,
storage etc.

 Summer air-conditioning cools and control the inside temperature of

the room.

 Winter air-conditioning is just the reverse of summer air-conditioning.

 Composite air-conditioning required to be done for the whole year

irrespective of the temperature variation.

Principles of air-conditioning:

The temperature range which is liked by majority of the people is called the
comfortable zone. A temperature of 21 oC to 22.5oC is regarded as most
likely comfort temperature in a room.
The air movement or velocity of air is important factor in air-conditioning. The
velocity of air should be between 6 to 9 mts per minitue. It is remembered
that the increase in air velocity decreases the inside effective temperature.

Humidity control of air is also important. An average value of relative

humidity between 40 – 60% is considered desirable.

ROOM AIR-CONDITIONERS: These are self-contained air-conditioning

units comprising a compressor, evaporator fan, and air-cooled condenser.
This unit is used for single rooms having limited occupancy. These are
suited for bed rooms, office cabins, hotel rooms and hospitals. Room
air-conditioners are available in the normal range of 1.0; 1.5; 3.0, 4.5 tons capacity.

CENTRAL SYSTEM OF AIR-conditioning: In this system, various

processes such as filtering; cooling or heating; humidification etc are all installed
at a central place and conditioned air is distributed in all the
parts of the building through system of ducts. This system is economical
than other systems and better control on conditions inside the hall can be
maintained.. However, this system requires an elaborate system of ducts
which occupy considerable space.

ACOUSTICS
Acoustics is a science of sound that deals with the origin and propagation
of sound waves. Hence, vibrations cause sound waves.
Vibrations causing sound, develop series of compressions and refractions
in the medium and cause waves. These waves propagate the sound in all
the directions from the source. Medium through which sound waves travel
may be in solid, liquid or gaseous state. Sound waves cannot travel in
vacuum as there is no medium for sound waves to travel. The speed
with which sound waves travel through the medium, is known as velocity of
sound .

Acoustics is used as a knowledge for the design and construction of

theatres, cinemas etc with proper acoustical conditions.

For obtaining better acoustical conditions, some materials which could

absorb all excess of sound energy are required to be incorporated on the
surfaces of the room. Such materials are known as sound absorbing
materials.

Sound absorbing material should be water-proof, fire-proof, quite strong ;

good looking and economical in construction and maintenance. Sound
absorbing capacity of the materials depends on the thickness, density,
softness and porosity of the materials. Less density, more thickness, and
more of softness of the materials are the favourable properties for any
sound absorbing material. Some of the sound absorbing materials are:

Straw board with 12 mm thickness has sound absorption coefficient of 0.30.

Pulp boards are quite cheap and can be fixed by ordinary paneling. Its
coefficient of absorption is 0.17.

Acoustic plaster with 20 mm thick having density of 0.11 gm / cm3 has sound
absorbing coefficient of 0.3 at 500 cycles / sec. It is also known as fibrous plaster.

Perforated plywood has the absorption coefficient value may be as high as

0.95 when made with mineral wool and cement asbestos

Wood wool boards with 2.5 cm thick has its absorption coefficient is 0.20
Quilts and mats are made from wool or glass wool and are mostly used
as sound absorbing materials.

Straw board Pulp material Acoustic plaster board

Quilts and mats Wood wool

FACTORS TO BE CONSIDERED IN THE ACOUSTIC DESIGN OF A HALL:
Volume: The volume of the hall should be in a relation to the intensity of
the sound likely to be produced in the hall and also on the capacity of
the hall. In fixing the volume of the hall, its height plays a more
significant role than length and breadth.
Eg: cinema halls ---- 3.7 to 4.2 cum per seat
.
Shape: Echoes and other defects generated due to sound wave
reflections can be eliminated by scientifically shaping the hall. Concave
walls are considered not good from the acoustic point of view due to the
formation of focal points where sound waves get concentrated and thus
acoustic behavior of the hall is disturbed. Plain walls are considered good
but convex walls are considered excellent. Height of the ceiling should
be about ½ to 2/3rd of the width of the hall. However, the radius of curvature
of the ceiling should be studied properly.

FIG: 21.13 OF PAGE 21.46 MAHABOOB BASHA

Sound Absorption material: while making the selection of sound absorbing
material, cost, durability, appearance, fire resisting properties etc should be
considered along with about absorbing properties..

UNIT: 5
MASONRY AND FINISHINGS, FORM WORK

MASONRY .. Introduction..
Definitions of terms
BRICK MASONRY Types of bricks
Classes of bricks
Bonds in brick works
FINISHERS .............. Plastering Tools for plastering
Methods of plastering
Types of mortars
Number of coats of plaster
Materials used in plastering
Pointing
Painting
Claddings
Tiles

MASONRY AND FINISHINGS

Masonry is defined as the art of construction in which building units such as clay
bricks, sand, lime, stones, pre-cast hollow concrete blocks, concrete slabs,
combination of some of these building units etc are arranged systematically and
bonded together to form a homogeneous mass in such a manner that they can with
stand the loads.
Masonry can be classified into the following categories.
1. Stone masonry
2. Brick masonry
3. Hollow block concrete masonry
4. Reinforced masonry
5. Composite masonry

These can be further sub-divided into various types depending upon

workmanship and type of materials used.

Definitions of terms:

Air brick A brick with perforations to allow the passage of air through a wall.

Bat It is a portion of a brick cut across the width. ( a cut brick )

Beveled It is the portion of a

brick / stone in
closer
which the whole
length is made for

maintaining half
width at one end
and

full width at the

other.

Bond The method of arranging bricks so that the individual units are tied

together

Bullnose

Bricks are of rounded edges, useful for window sills

Cant brick a header that is

angled at less than
90

degrees

Brick Various cut bricks usually at the ends of walls or reveals used to
Closures finish off the wall. Also called Closers

Coping It is the course

placed upon the

exposed top of an
external wall to

prevent the seepage

of water.

Corbel It is the extension of

one or more

course of stone or
brick from the face

of a wall to serve as
a support for wall

plates.

course A course is a horizontal layer of bricks or stones.

Cramp a tie used to secure

a window or door

frame

Creasing a flat clay tile laid as a brick to form decorative features or

waterproofing to the top of a garden wall

Dog leg a brick that is

specially made to
bond

around internal
acute angles.
Typically

60 or 45 degrees

Dog tooth a course of headers

where alternate

bricks project from

the face.
Fire wall a wall specifically
constructed to

compartmentalize a
building in order

to prevent fire
spread.

Honey a wall, usually

stretcher bond, in
comb wall
which

the vertical joints are

opened up to

allow air to circulate.

Header Brick in widthwise

King closer a brick that has

been cut diagonally

over its length to

show a half-bat at

one end and nothing

at the other

Queen it is the portion of a

brick obtained by
closer
cutting a brick
length-wise into two

portions.

Quoin The stones used for

the corners of

walls of structure.

Racking . stepping back the bond as the wall increases in height in order to

back allow the work to proceed at a future date

Squint a brick that is specially made to bond around external quoins of

 obtuse angles. Typically 60 or 45 degrees

Stretcher

Voussoir a masonry brick piece used in an arch, to ensure that the joints

appear even.

BRICK MASONRY:
Bricks are manufactured by moulding clay in regular blocks of
predetermined size, drying and then burning in a kiln. Good bricks should
be thoroughly burnt so that they become hard and durable.

Brick masonry is made of brick units bounded together with mortar. Brick
masonry consists of two essential components such as bricks and mortar.
Mortar acts as a cementing material and makes the individual brick units
together to act as a homogeneous mass. Following types of mortar may be
used in brick masonry:
Cement mortar
Lime mortar / Cement – Lime mortar Mud
mortar.
Cement mortars are used for high rise buildings whereas lime mortar /
cement-lime mortar are used for all types of construction. Mud mortar is
used only for low-rise buildings which carry light loads.

The strength of brick masonry chiefly depends upon:

Quality of bricks
Quality of mortar
Method of bonding

 Brick masonry is preferred due to the following reasons:

 All the bricks are of uniform size and shape and hence they can be
laid in any definite pattern.

 Bricks are light in weight and small in size and can be handled
easily by hand.

 Bricks do not need any dressing .

 Art of brick laying can be understood easily and even unskilled

masons can do the brick masonry work.

 Bricks are easily available at all places and do not require

transportation

 Light partition walls can be easily constructed .

TYPES OF BRICKS: Bricks used in masonry can be of two types: Traditional

bricks are those which have not been standardized in size. The dimensions of
traditional bricks vary from place to place. Their length, width and thickness
vary from 20 – 25 cm; 10 – 13 cm and 5 – 7.5 cm respectively. The common
size of traditional brick is 23 x 11.4 x 7.6 cm ( 9” x 4 ½” x 3”).

Modular bricks confirm to the size as laid down by Bureau of Indian

Standard ( BIS ). The nominal size of the modular brick is 20 x 10 x 10 cm while
the actual size of the brick is 19 x 9 x 9 cm.

CLASSES OF BRICKS: Quality wise, masonry bricks are classified into

three classes:

First class bricks: These confirm standard size, color and shape (19 x 9 x 9 cm
size).

Second class bricks: These also confirm to the standard size but slightly
irregular in shape and color.

Third class bricks are quite irregular in their size and shape and finish.
These are not used for quality brick-masonry.

Moulded bricks are those which are manufactured in special shapes and
sizes to be used for giving architectural shapes.

BONDS IN BRICK WORK / BRICK BONDING: The look of brickwork is greatly

affected by the pattern the bricks are laid in, known as ‘bonding’. The long face of
the brick is called the ‘stretcher’ and the short face the ‘header’; the arrangement
of headers and stretchers normally follows a prescribed pattern.
Bricks used in masonry are all of uniform size. If they are not arranged or
bonded properly vertical joints result which cause for little strength and stability.

There are five commonly used bond patterns; Running Bond, Common Bond,

English Bond, Flemish Bond, and Stack Bond. It is important that the corners be
started correctly when laying out any bond pattern.

Running Bond / Stretcher Bond:

The most common and simplest of pattern

is the Running Bond. The length of the

bricks are thus along the direction of

the wall. This pattern is used as partition

walls. The vertical mortar joints

between stretchers line up vertically

Common Bond / American Bond

This Pattern is with a course of full headers

at

regular intervals. These intervals may be

every

fourth, fifth, or sixth course. Three-quarters

of a

brick must be used at the corner of each

header

course.

English Bond

The English Bond pattern consists

of
alternate courses of headers
and
stretchers with the headers
centered on
the stretchers . Corners require
a quarter
brick closure .
 Flemish Bond / Dutch Bond

The Flemish Bond consists of alternate

headers

and stretchers with the headers centered

over

the stretchers in the intervening courses.

The

corner requires a three-

Stack Bond

Also referred to as the Block Bond. All vertical

mortar joints are aligned with no overlapping of

units.

HEADER BOND is the one in which the width of the bricks are thus along
the direction of the wall. This bond does not have strength to transmit
pressure in the direction of the wall and this type of bond is unsuitable
for load bearing walls.

FACING BOND is used where bricks of different thickness are to be used

in the facing and backing of the wall. This type of bond is not structurally
good and load distribution is not uniform.

HEADER BOND Facing bond

BRICK ON EDGE BOND ( SILVERLOCK’S BOND / SOLDIER’S CASE ) : This

bond is weak in strength, but is economical. Hence, it is used for garden
walls, compound walls etc.. The bricks are arranged as headers and
stretchers in such a manner that headers are placed on bed and stretchers
are placed on edge thus forming a continuous cavity. Due to this, the bond
consume less number of bricks.
BRICK ON EDGE BOND Silverlock’s bond

RAKING BOND: This bond is used in thick walls. In this type of bond, the bricks
are kept at an inclination to the direction of the wall. This bond is introduced at
certain intervals along with height of the wall.
Raking bonds are of two types:

Diagonal bond: In this type of bond, bricks are arranged at 45 o in such a

way that extreme corners of the series remain in contact with the external
line of stretchers. Triangular and suitable sizes of bricks are packed at the
ends. This bond is best suited for walls which are 2 – 4 bricks thick.

Herring – bone bond: This bond is more suitable for walls which are thicker
than 4 bricks. Bricks are arranged at 45o in two opposite directions from the centre
of the wall thickness. The bond is also used for face work and also
for brick flooring.

Diagonal bond Herringbone bond

Zig-zag bond: This bond is similar to herringbone bond except that the
bricks are laid in zigzag fashion and used in case of flooring.
.
Zigzag bond Fancy tricks with colored bricks

PLASTERING
Plastering is the process of covering rough surfaces of walls, columns,
ceilings with a thin coat of plastic mortar to form a smooth surface.
Plastering on external exposed surfaces is known as Rendering. Plastering
is done to achieve the following objects:

 To protect the external surfaces against rain water and other

atmospheric agencies.

 To give smooth surface in which dust and dirt cannot lodge.

 To give decorative effect.

 To protect surfaces against Vermin. (To protect the external surfaces

against penetration of rain water )
 To conceal the defective workmanship.

TOOLS FOR PLASTERING:

Gauging trowel: It is used for gauging small quantities of materials and for
applying mortar to corners. The end of the trowel blade may be either
pointed or bull-nosed.

Pointed gauging trowel Bull-nosed gauging trowel

Float: A float is used for applying and spreading mortar on the surface. It is
made of either metal or wood. Metal float, made of thin tempered steel, is
known as Laying trowel. The wooden float , commonly known as skimming float
is used for the finishing coat of plaster.

The size of float varies from 10 x 30 cm to 11 x 33 cm with a thickness of

10 to 12 mm.

Float ( metal ) Float ( wooden )

FLOATING RULE: It is used for checking the level of the plastered surface
between successive screeds.

MISCELLANEOUS TOOLS: These include plumb bob; spirit level, set square,
straight edges brushes, scratchers etc…

METHODS OF PLASTERING: For plastering new surfaces, joints should

be raked to a depth of 10 mm in brick masonry and 15 mm in stone
masonry. All mortar droppings, dust, laitance ( an accumulation of fine
particles on the surface of fresh concrete ) should be removed with the help
of stiff wire brush.
Any unevenness is leveled before plastering. For finishes applied in three
coats, local projections should not be more than 10 mm and local
depressions should not exceed 20 mm. For two coat plaster, these
limitations are 5 mm and 10 mm respectively.

The surface should be washed with clean water. If plaster is to be applied

on old surfaces, all dirt, school, oil, paint etc.. should be cleaned off.

TYPES OF MORTARS FOR PLASTERING: Following types of mortars are

commonly used for plastering.

LIME MORTAR: Lime used for plastering may be either Fat lime or
Hydraulic lime. However, fat lime is preferred since it yields good putty
after slaking. If hydraulic lime is used for plastering, it should be ground
dry with sand. It is then left for 2 to 3 weeks and then reground before
use. The mix proportion of lime and sand varies from 1: 3 to 1: 4 for Fat
lime and 1 : 2 for hydraulic lime.

The adhesive and tensile properties of lime mortar can further be improved
by mixing chopped hemp (The tough, coarse fiber of the cannabis plant) at the rate of 1
kg per cubic metre of mortar. Such a treatment prevents the formation of
Tensile Cracks on the plastered surface.

CEMENT MORTAR: Cement mortar is the best mortar for external

plastering work. It is preferred even in damp climates. Cement mortar is
much stronger than lime mortar. The mix proportion of cement and sand may
vary from 1:4 to 1:6. Sand used for plastering should be clean, coarse and
angular. Before mixing water, dry mixing is thoroughly done.

LIME CEMENT MORTAR: Lime - cement mortar contains properties of both

the lime mortar as well as cement mortar. Cement mortar alone itself doesn’t
possess sufficient plasticity, addition of lime to it impart plasticity, resulting in
smooth plastering surface. Mix proportion used as 1:1:6
( Cement : Lime : Sand ) . Generally fat lime is used.

NUMBER OF COATS OF PLASTER:

The background over which plastering is to be done depend upon the type
of wall construction such as rubble masonry, cement masonry, brick
masonry et. Different thickness of plaster is required for different types of
backgrounds. Plastering is therefore, applied in one, two or three coats.

Plaster in one coat is applied only for inferior work ( poor quality ).
Generally, lime plaster is applied in three coats while cement plaster is
applied in two coats.

The first coat ( rendering coat ) makes leveling an uneven surface. It

seals the surface of wall and to some extent prevent rain water
penetration.

The second coat is known as Floating coat and the third or final coat is
known as setting coat or finishing coat which provide smooth surface. The
average thickness of rendering coat and floating coats may be 10 -15 mm
and 6 – 9 mm respectively. The finishing coat may be 2 – 3 mm thickness.
MATERIALS USED IN PLASTERING:

A few special materials are used in plastering to meet some specific requirements
such as increased durability, attractive appearance, fire proofing, sound insulation
/ heat insulation etc…. Following are the usual special materials used for
plastering the surfaces.

1. Accoustic Plaster: This type of plaster contains gypsum mixtures applied as

final coat, Such a coat undergoes chemical reaction resulting in production of gas
bubbles and consequent formation of tiny openings in the coat. These minute
openings absorb sound. Such plaster is useful in the interior walls of halls,
auditoriums etc.. The plaster is applied in two coats each of 6 mm thick.

2. Asbestos marble plaster: This plaster is made of cement, asbestos and

finely crushed marble powder, to get marble like finish.

3. Barium plaster: It is made from cement, sand and BaSO4 and is coated in Xray
rooms to protect from harmful rays to the persons working in it.

4. Granite Silicon plaster: This plaster is used for superior type of construction
since it makes the setting time quickly and possess highly elastic properties
which eliminate cracks.

5. Plaster of Paris: (Gypsum plaster) : Plaster of Paris is obtained from heating

finely ground gypsum which is heated at 160°C - 170°C. It hardens within 3
- 4 minutes of adding water. To extend the softening time, suitable retarders
are used. Plaster of Paris is generally used in construction with lime for
repairing cracks, filling of holes etc… due to the following properties.

 It is fire resisting and can be effectively used on timber components of a

building.

 It is light weight.

 It has sound insulating property.

 It sets quickly with little change in volume.

However, gypsum plaster (POP) is soluble in water, hence it can be used only for
interior works.

6. Kenee’s cement plaster: It is obtained by the calcinating POP with alum. This
is very hard and sets in few days, taking white, glass like polish. Because of
its polishing characteristics, it is useful for decorative works.

7. Parian cement plaster: This plaster is obtained when borax is calcined with
pop. Like kenee’s cement, it is also used for interior works. However, it is
cheaper than kenee’s plaster.

8. Sirapite plaster: It is obtained when Plaster of Paris is slaked in petroleum. It

is quick setting and fire resisting.
Pointing
The term pointing is applied to the finishing of joints in masonry works. Joints are
considered to be the weakest and most vulnerable spots from which rain water can
enter.

The type of joint between bricks affects not only a wall's appearance, but also the
mortar's resistance to weather and, in turn, the longevity of the entire wal l.

Pointing is a process of raking the joints to a depth of 10 – 20 mm and filling it with

better quality mortar in desired shape. Pointing is done with the following mortar
mixes:

1. Lime mortar – 1:2 mix (1lime : 2 Sand)

2. Cement mortar – 1: 3 mix (1 cement : 3 Sand)

Before pointing, the old or new surfaces are raked down to a depth of 20 mm
wherever the joints are exposed. The joints and surface are cleaned and then
thoroughly wetted.

After preparing the surface as desired, the mortar of any kind is carefully placed in
the joints. A small trowel is used for placing the mortar in the joints by applying
pressure. The pointed surface is kept for atleast a week or till it sets after
application.

Types of Pointing: Pointing is carried out in the following common shapes:

1. Flush Pointing: This type of pointing is formed by pressing mortar in the

raked joints and by finishing the edges or neatly trimmed with trowel. This
type of pointing is more durable since it doesn’t provide any space for the
accumulation of dust, water etc

Rubbed pointing

2. Recessed pointing: The pointing is done by pressing the mortar back from
the edges by 5 mm or more. The pointing gives very good appearance.

3. Rubbed / Grooved pointing: This pointing is obtained by forming a groove

at its mid height by a painting tool.

4. Beaded pointing: This is the special type of pointing formed by a steel or

ironed with a concave edge. It gives good appearance but is liable to damage
easily.

5. Struck pointing: This is a modification of flush pointing in which the face of

the pointing is kept inclined by pressing the upper edge inside. This pointing
drains water easily.

6. V- Pointing: This pointing is formed by forming V- groove in the finishing

face.

7. Weathered pointing : This pointing is made by making a projection in the

form of V- shape.

Weathered pointing

PAINTING
An ideal paint should have uniform spread as a thin film, high coverage,
good workability and durability. The paints should also be cheap and
economical

Paints are classified as oil paints, water paints, cement paints, bituminous
paints, fire proof paints, luminous paints, chlorinated rubber paints ( for
protecting objects against acid fumes.

Paints are liquid compositions of pigments ( a substance that gives something

colour) which when applied to the surface in thin coats, forms a solid film to impart
the surface a decorative finish. Painting gives the protection to the materials such
as concrete, plaster surfaces, wood and metal surfaces etc from weathering,
corrosion and other chemical and biological attacks. Paints preserve timber against
decay. Most of the metals corrode if not painted at certain intervals.

Characteristics of an ideal paint: An ideal paint should posses the following

characteristics:

 Painting over surfaces give the durability of a material.

 It gives attractive appearance.
 It should be cheap and readily available.
 It should be applied to the surfaces in an easy way.
 It should have good spreading quality, so as to cover maximum area in
minimum quantity of paint.
 It should dry in reasonable time without any hair cracks after drying.
 It should form film of uniform color on drying.
 It should be stable for a longer period.
 It should not be affected by atmospheric agencies such as temperature, rain etc..

TILES
Tiles are thin slabs of low meting clays used for various purposes in engineering
constructions. Flooring tiles, Roofing tiles, wall tiles and partition tiles are some
of the examples and they give a very pleasing appearance.

Clays and shales are used in making tiles for floor surfaces. Wall tiles differ
from floor tiles principally in degree of burning. Wall tiles are burned at a
comparatively low temperature and fired again in muffle kiln at a still lower
temperature.

Tiles are made of clay ( pottery ) or terrazzo. These are available in different
sizes and thickness. These are commonly used in residential houses,
offices, schools, hospitals , etc……..

Tiles are made in the same manner as bricks, but are thinner and lighter, so
require greater care. These are manufactured from a clay mass with or
without colouring agents by moulding in machines and subsequent burning
upto 1300oC, in continuous kilns.

The following tiles are of three classes -- class 1, 2 and 3 and these are available
in the following sizes:

150 x 150 x 15 mm 200 x 200 x 20 mm 250 x 250 x 30 mm

150 x 150 x 20 mm 200 x 200 x 25 mm

Characteristics: A good tile should have the following properties:

 Uniform texture

 Accurate size & shape

 Free from cracks

 Water absorption of < 15%

 Resistant to atmospheric conditions

 Long durability
 Greater care is required for laying of tiles. Over the concrete base, a
25 – 30 mm thick layer of lime mortar 1 : 3 ( 1 lime : 3 sand ) is spread
to serve as building / bedding. This bedding mortar is allowed to
harden for 12 – 24 hours. Before laying the tiles, cement slurry is
spread over the mortar and the tiles are laid over it by gently pressing.

 A thin paste of cement is applied on the sides of tiles, so that the

tiles have a thin coat of cement, mortar over the entire perimeter
surface. The tiled flooring is then cured for 7 days.

TESTING OF TILES: Various types of tiles must comply the following tests:

 The roofing tiles must comply with two tests….viz the transverse
strength test and the water absorption test.

 Ridge tiles are tested for Water Absorption test and Breaking strength
test.

 Flooring tiles needs Impact test, Transverse test and Water

Absorption Test.

The Transverse Strength Test (IS 2690):: It consists of applying the load
along the centre line at right angles of the tile ( which has been immersed
in water for twenty four hours ). Six tiles are tested and the average
breaking should not be less than as specified in the code.

The rate of loading is kept uniform and may vary in the range of 450 –
550 N/minute.

Strength ( N / mm2) = 15 W S / bt2 where W = breaking load

S = span in mm ( ¾ of tile )
b = width
t = thickness

Water Absorption Test ( IS 2690): Six tiles are dried in oven at 105oC and
cooled at the room temperature. They are then immersed in water for 24
hours. Thereafter, wiped dry and weighed.

Absorption in % = ( W2 – W1/W1 )* 100 where W1 and W2 are the respective

weights of dry and the immersed specimens.

Impact Test (IS 1478):

Breaking test (IS 1464):
Transverse test Water absorption Impact test Breaking /abrasion
machine test
test machine machine
machine

FORM WORK
Introduction: The form work or shuttering is a temporary construction
used as a mould for a civil structure, in which concrete is placed. The
construction of form work involves considerable expenditure of time and
material. The cost of form work may be upto 20 – 25 % of the cost of the
structure in building works and even higher in bridges. In order to reduce
this expenditure, it is necessary to design economical types of form work
and to mechanize its construction.

When the concrete has reached a certain required strength, the form work
is no longer needed and is removed. The operation of removing the form work
is commonly known as Stripping. Similarly, when the components of form work
are removed and then reused for another parts of the civil structure and reused
the components for several times are known as Panel forms.

Forms are classified as wooden, plywood, steel, combined wood – steel etc..
Timber is the most common material used for form work. The disadvantage of
wooden form work is the possibility of warping, swelling and shrinkage of the
timber. However, those effects can be overcome by applying shuttering oil as
coating. This coating also prevents the material from adhering to concrete and
hence the stripping (removing of formwork material) makes easier.

Steel shuttering is used for major work where everything is mechanized. However
steel form work is comparatively more costly. Form work has many advantages
such as
 Can be used a number of times

 It provides ease stripping

 It ensures an even and smooth concrete surface.

 It is not liable to shrinkage.

Requirements:

A good form work should satisfy the following requirements:

 The material of the formwork should be cheap and it should be suitable for
re-use several times.

 It should be water proof so that it doesn’t absorb water from concrete.

 Shrinkage and swelling of material should be minimum.

 It should be strong enough to withstand all loads coming on it such as

dead load of concrete, live load of concrete during its pouring, compaction
and curing.

 The surface of the form work material should be smooth and should afford
easy stripping.

 All joints of the form work should be stiff so that lateral deformation under
loads is minimized.

Indian Standards on form work (IS 456 – 2000)

General: The formwork shall confirm to the shape, dimensions etc as shown on
the plans and so constructed as to remain the rigidity during the placing of the
concrete and the form work shall be sufficiently tight to prevent loss of liquid from
the concrete.

Cleaning and treatment of forms: All rubbish particularly chippings, saw dust
shall be removed from the interior of the form work material before the concrete
is placed.

Stripping time: When possible, the form work material should be left longer as it
would assist the curing. In normal circumstances (generally where temperatures
are above 20°C) and where ordinary cement is used, form materials may be struck
after the following periods:

Walls, columns etc… 24 to 48 hours Slab

soffits (props left under) …… 3 days

Beam soffits (props left under) …… 7 days

Removal of props to slabs

(a) Spanning upto 4.5 mm -------- 7 days
(b) Spanning over 4.5 mm -------- 14 days

Removal of pros to beams and arches

(a) Spanning upto 6 mts --------14 days
(b) Spanning upto 6 mts --------21 days

Procedure to be adopted for removing the form work

All form work materials are to be removed without creating vibrations as would
damage the reinforced concrete. Before the soffits and struts are removed, the
concrete surface should be checked thoroughly.

Tolerances: Form work shall be so constructed that the internal dimensions are
within the permissible tolerance specified by the designer.

Formwork material (PLYWOOD) modular steel frame work Plywood Column

Boxes

reusuable plastic form work steel and plywood formwork Column boxes
Shoring frame H – frame Adj stirupps

Adj base plates Props Cup lock system

Scaffolding
When the height of wall or column or other structure of a building exceeds about
1.5 mts, temporary structures are used to support the platform over which the work
men can sit and carry the activities. These temporary structures constructed are
very close to the wall, is in the form of timber or steel frame work,
commonly called scaffolding.

Scaffolding materials is also needed for the repairs or even demolition of a building.
The scaffolding should be stable and be strong enough to support work men and
other construction material placed on the platform supported by the scaffolding.
The height of the scaffolding goes on increasing as the height of construction
increases.

Components of Scaffolding:

Standards : These are the vertical members of the frame work supported on the
ground or embedded into the ground.

Ledgers: These are horizontal members, running parallel to the wall,

Braces: These are diagonal members fixed on standards.

Putlogs: These are transverse members, placed at right angles to the wall with
one end supported on ledgers and other end on the wall.

Transoms: These are those putlogs whose both ends are supported on ledgers.

Boarding: These are horizontal platform to support workmen and material and are
supported on the putlogs.

Various components or members of the scaffolding are secured by means of rope

lashings, nails bolts etc……

Standards / Ledgers Braces to standards

verticals

Putlogs ( p = putlog hole) Transoms Boarding

Cuplock material for shuttering Flathead pin braces

Types of Scaffolding:

1. Single / putlog scaffolding: In case of brick masonry all the standards,

ledgers, putlogs are arranged parallel to the wall at distance of 1.20 mts.

2. Double scaffolding: In case of stone masonry works, it is difficult to provide

holes in the walls to support putlogs.

3. Cantilever/needle Scaffolding: where ground is weak to support the

standards.

4. Suspended scaffolding: light weight scaffolding material used for repair

works such as pointing, painting etc..

5. Trestle scaffolding: the working platform is suspended from roofs by

means of wire ropes or chains. Such type of scaffolding is used for
painting and repairing works inside the room upto a height of 5 mts.
Tripods, ladders etc mounted on wheels.

6. Steel scaffolding: It is practically similar to timber scaffolding except that

wooden members are replaced by steel tubes. Such a scaffolding can be
erected and dismantled rapidly. Though its initial cost is more but its
salvage (The property so saved) value is higher.

7. Patented scaffolding: These scaffoldings are equipped with special

couplings, frames etc.. the working platform is supported on brackets
which can be adjusted at any suitable height.

SHORING
Shoring is a temporary structure to support an unsafe structure . Shoring can be
used in case of

(a) A wall cracks due to unequal settlement and need repairs.

(b) When an adjacent structure is to be dismantled.
(c) When openings are to be made or enlarged in the wall.
(d) When a wall shows signs of bulging due to improper workmanship which
needs rectification.
Types of shores:
Raking Shores: Rakers of inclined members are used to give lateral support to
the wall. Usually a raking shore consists of the following components:
 Rakers / inclined members

 Wall plates

 Needles

 Cleats

 Bracings

 Sole plates

 Folding wedges

Raking shore

The sole plate should be properly embedded into the ground at an inclination and
the sole plate should be accommodate all the rakers and a cleat provided along
the outer edge. For tall buildings the length of rakers can be reduced by introducing
Rider Raker. However the rakers should be inclined to the ground by 45° to make
them move effective.

Flying or Horizontal Shores: Such shores are used to give horizontal support
to two adjacent walls in which the shores do not reach the ground. If the walls are
quite near to each other (distance upto 9 mts), single flying shore can be
constructed. It consists of wall plates, needles, cleats, struts, horizontal / flying
shore, folding wedges etc…. When the distance between the walls is more, a
composed or double flying shore may be provided.

Flying shores have the advantage that building operations of the ground are not
obstructed. Flying shores are inserted when the old building is being removed, and
should be kept in position till the new unit constructed.

Dead or Vertical Shores: These consists of vertical members which support the
horizontal members (needles). The horizontal members transfer the load of the
wall to the vertical shores (vertical members). Such vertical shoring is provided to
serve the following purposes.

 To rebuild the defective part of the lower portion of the wall;

 To deepen the existing foundations.

 To make large openings at lower levels.

Holes are made in the wall at suitable heights and the horizontal members, which
are made of thick wooded sections or of steel are inserted in the steel. Each
horizontal is supported at its two ends by vertical ports / dead shores.

The horizontal members are spaced at 1 to 2 mts. A minimum of 3 horizontal

shores should be used for an opening. If the external wall is weak, raking shores
may be provided in addition to vertical shores.

Shores should be removed only when the mew work has gained sufficient strength,
but in no case earlier than 7 days of the completion of new work. An interval of two
days should be allowed between each one of these removal operations.

Flying shore Dead shoring

UNDER PINNING
The process of placing a new foundation under an existing one or strengthening
an existing foundation is called underpinning of foundations. Under pinning may
be required to serve the following purposes

1 To strengthen existing foundation which has settled and caused cracks in

the wall.
2 To deepen the existing foundation to bear higher bearing capacity.
3 To construct a basement in the existing building.

Underpinning can be carried out by the following methods

1 Pit method
2 Pile Method

UNIT V: BUILDING PLANNING

A building consists of a number of rooms including toilets / bath rooms,
kitchen, Hall, bed rooms etc interconnected through corridors, passages and
each room may contain a number of doors, windows, almirahs, cup boards
whereas building drawing reveals the details of all building elements such
as foundations, doors, windows, lintels, arches, roofs, floors, sanitary and
electrical fittings. Usually these fittings represent symbolically. The graphical
symbols are the shortest forms of the objects and components. Hence,
drawing is the language of Engineers and Architects.

BUILDING PLANS: A plan is the graphical representation to some scale on

the surface of the earth as projected and represented on the paper on which the
plan is drawn. In order to represent these elements on a plan, the
plan is conventionally prepare at the window sill level (The horizontal member at the
base of a window opening) rather than at the plinth level ( Within the context of
construction, it is the top of the foundation walls).

Window sill level Plinth level

The art of arranging various units of a building on all floors and at ground
level giving due consideration to planning, drawing; architectural,
engineering, finance and management aspects is known as building
planning. Hence, the building planning include drawing and is the
foundation subject for civil engineering students.

A building may be completely represented by the following types of plans:

Plan of a typical floor: The plan of a typical floor ( ground floor plan at
ground floor level , first floor plan at first floor level) is represented by a plan
cut at the window sill level so that all the windows, cup boards, almirahs etc
are also represented on the plan.
Foundation plan: Foundation is immediate beneath the lowest part of the
structure, near to the ground level is known as shallow foundations. Such
foundations are mostly placed on the hard strata available below the ground level.

Shallow foundations are further classified into the following types:

1. Open trench foundations
2. Grillage foundations
3. Raft foundations
4. Stepped foundations
5. Inverted arch foundations

Structural plan of a typical floor: A structural plan of a typical floor

contains location, nomenclature and details of various structural elements
at that floor level.

Terrace plan. The terrace plan is the plan at the roof level showing the
stair cabin, lift cabin, overhead water tanks alongwith roof drainage pattern,
parapet walls etc.

Classification of buildings: According to National Building code of India

1970, different classification of buildings on the basis of occupancy are:

Group A – Residential Buildings: All those buildings in which sleeping

accommodation is provided for residing permanently or temporarily with or
without cooking or dining or both facilities are termed as residential buildings, for
example Apartments, Flats, Bungalows, Dormitories, Private Houses, Hotels,
Hostels, Cottages, Holiday Campus, Clubs, outhouses, Inns, etc., These
buildings are further sub-divided in to 5 groups, namely; A- 1 Lodging Houses; A-
2 Family Private Dwellings; A- 3 Dormitories; A- 4 Flats; and A- 5 Hotels.

Group B – Educational Buildings: All those buildings which are meant for
education from a nursery to the university, are included in this group, for example,
schools, colleges, Universities, Training Institutes, etc. These buildings provide
facilities like class – rooms, staff cabins, drawing rooms, laboratories, admin
blocks, seminar halls; recreation halls, library, playfields, gymnasium etc.

Group C – Institutional Buildings: This group includes any building which is

used for the purposes such as medical, health, physical or mental disease, care
of infants or aged persons, etc. These buildings normally meant for healthcare
for the occupants.
These buildings are further sub – divided into three groups viz., C – 1 Hospitals ;
C - 2 Custodian Institutions ( a financial institution that has the legal responsibility
for a customer's securities) and C - 3 panel Institutions ( a group of persons
selected for some services ).
Group D – Assembly Buildings: This group includes any building where groups
of people assemble or gather for amusement / entertainment. For eg: theatres,
cinema halls, assembly halls, auditoriums, exhibition halls, museums,
restaurants, places of worship (temple, mosque, church, etc.), club rooms,
passenger stations, public transportation services; open air theatres, sports
pavilions( i.e., stadium), swimming pools, etc.

Group E – Business Buildings : A commercial building is a building that is used

for commercial use. Types can include office buildings, warehouses, shopping
malls, etc

Group F – Mercantile Buildings: This group includes any building or part of a

building which is used as shops, stores, market for sale and display of products
or wares either wholesale or retail.

Group G – Industrial Buildings: This group includes any building in which

products of different kinds and properties, are fabricated, assembled or processed.
For example, laboratories, assembling plants, laundries, gas plants, power plants,
refineries, diariesA

Group H – Storage Buildings: This group includes to store materials such as

cement, iron/steel; home appliances etc. eg: godowns

Group I – Hazardous Buildings: This group includes those building structures

which are used for the storage, handling, manufacture/ processing of materials
which are liable to burn and prove hazardous to building contents. Hazards may
be due to fire, poisonous fumes or gases , explosions, ignition, etc., from
materials subjected to various operations. Buildings used for storage of explosive
materials, manufacture of synthetic leather, explosives, fire works, etc., .

BASIC PRINCIPLES OF BUILDING PLANNING: The basic principles of building

planning in respect of residential buildings are:

(1) FLOOR AREA RATIO (FAR) is the ratio of the total covered area of all
floors in a building on a certain plot and to the area of the plot.
The Floor Area Ratio, describes the relationship between the size of a plot and the
amount of floor space it contains. For example, a 50' x 100' lot (5,000 sft) with a
single-story 50' x 50' building (2,500 sft) has a floor area ration of 0.5. If a building
with the same size footprint had 4 stories, the FAR would increase to 2. Higher
FARs tend to indicate more urban (dense) construction and is used by local
governments in zoning codes.
(2) FLOOR SPACE INDEX ( FSI): It is the ratio of built up area inclusive
of walls of all the floors and to the area of the land on which the building stands.

Floor Space Index = Total floor area including walls of all floors

Plot Area / Building Unit

Thus, an FSI of 2.0 would indicate that the total floor area of a building is two times the gross area
of the plot on which it is constructed, as would be found in a multiple-story building. FSI for
residential buildings in the city area is 4. The value of FSI is fixed by local
authority and it is different for different areas and for different buildings of
the town.
Use Area FSI Remarks

Residential Scheme 1 Only Ground floor is

allowed.

Residential City area 4 Facing street of >

12 mts width

Residential City are 3 Facing street of <

12 mts width

(3) ROAD SIDE MARGIN:

 Minimum Road

Side Margin (mts.) Remarks

Road up to 9mts . and less . 3.00 (1)For the existing built up

area the margins
More than 9 mts and upto . 4.50
12 mts requirement may be
relaxed on merits of
More than 12 mts and upto . 6.00 individual case subject to
18 mts other regulations.

More than 18 mts and upto . 7.50

40 mts (2) Minimum side Margin
shall be provided
.
as per regulation no.
More than 40 mts . 9.00 12.4.1(A)(ii).

(4) THE AREA OF ROOMS:

Bed rooms, living rooms, drawing room, dining room (min) A.9.4 sq mts
Kitchen and store rooms (min) 5.45 sq mts
Bathrooms and dressing rooms A 1.85 – 4.5 sq mts
Water Closet ( WC ); Urinal rooms . (min) 0.89 – 1.1 sq mts

( 5 ) HEIGHT OF ROOF: Roof height on each floor is 2.7 mts ( min ) and for bath
room and WC is 2.1 mts ( min)

(6) AREA OF DOORS, WINDOWS & VENTILATORS: This shall be 1/6th to

1/10th of the floor area of the room. In addition, every room should have
ventilator .

(7) STAIR CASE: The stair case shall have area not more than 12 sq
mts. The pitch shall be in the range of 30 o to 45o and flight shall have
steps neither < 3 nor > 12. Minimum width of stair shall be 900 mm.

(8) LIFT: This shall be provided for buildings having more than 3 floors
excluding the ground floor.

(9) SEPTIC TANK: shall be provided as per number of floors / rooms .

(10) HEIGHT OF COMPOUND WALL: The maximum height of compound

wall on road side shall not be more than 1.5 mts and the gates shall
open inwards. On other sides, the height of compound was shall be 1.8
mts.

(11) OPEN SPACE: The open space width shall be 1.8 mts ( min) and 3
mts ( max) for front, rear and sides .
(12) PARKING SPACE: Parking spaces for cars required for cinemas,
shopping areas and offices located in central areas are to be allocated as
per National Building Code.

BUILDING BYE-LAWS: Every locality has its own peculiarities in respect of

weather conditions, availability of material and labour and thus adopts its
own method of construction. In addition, every locality has certain rules and
regulations which help in controlling the development of locality. The rules
and regulations covering the requirements and ensure the safety of the
public, minimum use of rooms , area limitations are known as “Building bye-
laws”.

Building bye-laws are necessary to achieve the following objects:

 Gives guidelines to the architects / engineer and thus help in preplanning

the building activities.

 Allow to prevent haphazard development

 Afford safety against fire, noise pollution, structural failures etc..

While framing building bye-laws assistance of experts on various subjects such

as town planning, law, health, civil engineering, traffic, general administrations
etc should be sought due its weightage.

Indian Standard Institution, an organization of Govt of India has published

IS 1256 “code of building laws” covering all the salient aspect of building
activities.. National Building Code ( NBC) was published by the Govt of India
for smooth running of building activities by realizing the importance of
building bye-laws.

EARTHQUAKE RESISTANT BUILDINGS: Earthquake causes ground

motions in random fashion, both horizontally and vertically and also in all
directions radiating from the epicenter. The intensity, duration of seismic
vibrations depends upon magnitude of the earthquake , its depth of focus,
distance from epicenter etcA characteristics It is therefore essential to
ensure (i) stability, (ii) strength (iii) serviceability by means of design of the
building.

Earthquake causes shaking of the ground so that a building resting on it

will experience motion at its base and leads to collapse finally due to the
resulting inertia forces.

From Newton’s first law of motion even though the base of the building

moves with the ground, the roof has of tendency to stay in its original

position. But since the walls and columns are connected to it, they drag

the roof along with them. This gives rise to inertia forces on the roof
element

..
Structural elements such as floor slabs, walls, columns and foundations
and the connections between them must be designed to safely transfer
these inertia forces through them. Walls or columns are the critical elements
in transferring the inertia forces. But , in traditional construction, slabs and
beams receive more care and attention during design and construction than
walls and columns. Failure of masonry walls have been observed because
of their thin and materials used for it , in the past due to earthquake effect.
Hence, importance also is to be given for walls and columns.

Twist in buildings due to earthquake induces more damage of window

frames and walls. It is best to minimize this twist by ensuring that
buildings have symmetry in plan. Indian Seismic Code ( IS 1893: 2002)
has provisions to come certain issues.

INDIAN SEISMIC CODES for earthquake resistant building: An earthquake

resistant building has the following virtues:

(i) Good structural configuration: Its size, shape and structural system
carrying loads are such that they ensure a direct and smooth flow of
inertia forces to the ground.

(ii) Adequate stiffness: Load resistant system is to be followed so that the

earthquake induced deformations in it do not damage under low to
moderate shaking.

(iii) Lateral strength : The maximum lateral ( horizontal ) force can resist
the damage induced by an earthquake.

(iv) Good ductility: Favourable design and detailing strategies resist the
building from the earthquakes.

Considerable factors in case of earthquake zones:

Walls transfer loads to each other at their junctions and hence the masonry
courses from the walls meeting at corners must have good interlocking.
Large openings weaken walls from carrying the inertia forces and it is best
to keep all openings as small as possible and as far away from the corners
as possible.

A variety of masonry units are used in the country eg clay bricks, concrete
blocks, stone blocks. Since bricks are inherently porous and absorb
water resulting in poor bond between brick and mortar. Hence, bricks
with low porosity are to be used to minimize the amount of water drawn
away from the mortar.

Various mortars are used eg mud, cement – sand, cement-sand-lime.

Bricks must be stronger than mortar. Excessive thickness of mortar is not
desirable. Indian Standards prescribe the preferred types and grades of
bricks and mortars to be used in buildings in each seismic zone.
Wall thickness should not exceed 450 mm. Round stone boulders should
not be used in the construction.

Since the earthquake force is a function of mass, the building shall be as

light as possible.

As far as possible, the parts of the building should be tied together in

such a manner that the building acts as one unit.

Projecting parts shall be avoided as far as possible. If the projecting parts

cannot be avoided , they shall be properly reinforced and firmly tied
to the main structure and their design shall be in accordance with IS 1893: 2002.

Buildings having plans with shapes like L – T – E – Y shall preferably be separated

into rectangular parts by providing separation sections at appropriate places.

Structures shall not be founded on loose soils which will subside during
an earthquake.