LGR Cheat Sheet

LGR Cheat Sheet

LGR Cheat Sheet
 LGR Cheat Sheet version 1.0.7

Table of Contents
Basic Types & Variables
Control Flow
References, Ownership, and Borrowing
Pattern Matching
Iterators
Error Handling
Combinators
Multiple error types
Iterating over errors
Generics, Traits, and Lifetimes
Functions, Function Pointers & Closures
Pointers
Smart pointers
Packages, Crates, and Modules

YouTube Channel: https://www.youtube.com/c/LetsGetRusty

Basic Types & Variables

bool - Boolean

Unsigned integers
u8, u16, u32, u64, u128

Signed integers
i8, i16, i32, i64, i128

Floating point numbers

f32, f64

Platform specific integers

usize - Unsigned integer. Same number of bits as the platform's pointer type.

isize - Signed integer. Same number of bits as the platform's pointer type.

char - Unicode scalar value

&str - String slice
String - Owned string
Tuple
LGR Cheat
let coordinates Sheet
= (82, 64);
let score = ("Team A", 12)

Array & Slice

// Arrays must have a known length and all
elements must be initialized
let array = [1, 2, 3, 4, 5];
let array2 = [0; 3]; // [0, 0, 0]

// Unlike arrays the length of a slice is

determined at runtime
let slice = &array[1 .. 3];

HashMap
use std::collections::HashMap;

let mut subs = HashMap::new();

subs.insert(String::from("LGR"), 100000);
// Insert key if it doesn't have a value
subs.entry("Golang Dojo".to_owned())
.or_insert(3);
Struct
// Definition
struct User {
username: String,
active: bool,
}

// Instantiation
let user1 = User {
username: String::from("bogdan"),
active: true,
};

// Tuple struct
struct Color(i32, i32, i32);
let black = Color(0, 0, 0);

Enum
// Definition
enum Command {
Quit,
Move { x: i32, y: i32 },
Speak(String),
ChangeBGColor(i32, i32, i32),
}

// Instantiation
 let msg1 = Command::Quit;
let LGR
msg2 = Cheat Sheet x: 1, y: 2 };
Command::Move{
let msg3 = Command::Speak("Hi".to_owned());
let msg4 = Command::ChangeBGColor(0, 0, 0);

Constant
const MAX_POINTS: u32 = 100_000;

Static variable
// Unlike constants static variables are
// stored in a dedicated memory location
// and can be mutated.
static MAJOR_VERSION: u32 = 1;
static mut COUNTER: u32 = 0;

Mutability
let mut x = 5;
x = 6;

Shadowing
let x = 5;
let x = x * 2;

Type alias
// `NanoSecond` is a new name for `u64`.
type NanoSecond = u64;

Control Flow
if and if let
let num = Some(22);

if num.is_some() {
println!("number is: {}", num.unwrap());
}
// match pattern and assign variable
if let Some(i) = num {
println!("number is: {}", i);
}

loop
let mut count = 0;
loop {
count += 1;
if count == 5 {
break; // Exit loop
 }
} LGR Cheat Sheet
Nested loops & labels
'outer: loop {
'inner: loop {
// This breaks the inner loop
break;
// This breaks the outer loop
break 'outer;
}
}
Returning from loops
let mut counter = 0;

let result = loop {

counter += 1;

if counter == 10 {
break counter;
}
};

while and while let

while n < 101 {
n += 1;
}

let mut optional = Some(0);

while let Some(i) = optional {

print!("{}", i);
}

for loop
for n in 1..101 {
println!("{}", n);
}

let names = vec!["Bogdan", "Wallace"];

for name in names.iter() {

println!("{}", name);
}

match
let optional = Some(0);

match optional {
 Some(i) => println!("{}", i),
None LGR Cheat Sheet
=> println!("No value.")
}

References, Ownership, and Borrowing

Ownership rules
1. Each value in Rust has a variable that’s called its owner.
2. There can only be one owner at a time.
3. When the owner goes out of scope, the value will be dropped.

Borrowing rules
1. At any given time, you can have either one mutable reference or any number of immutable
references.
2. References must always be valid.

Creating references
let s1 = String::from("hello world!");
let s1_ref = &s1; // immutable reference

let mut s2 = String::from("hello");

let s2_ref = &mut s2; // mutable reference

s2_ref.push_str(" world!");

Copy, Move, and Clone

// Simple values which implement the Copy
trait are copied by value
let x = 5;
let y = x;

println!("{}", x); // x is still valid

// The string is moved to s2 and s1 is

invalidated
let s1 = String::from("Let's Get Rusty!");
let s2 = s1; // Shallow copy a.k.a move

println!("{}", s1); // Error: s1 is invalid

let s1 = String::from("Let's Get Rusty!");

let s2 = s1.clone(); // Deep copy
// Valid because s1 isn't moved
println!("{}", s1);

Ownership and functions

fn main() {
let x = 5;
takes_copy(x); // x is copied by value

let s = String::from("Let’s Get Rusty!");

 // s is moved into the function
LGR Cheat Sheet
takes_ownership(s);

// return value is moved into s1

let s1 = gives_ownership();

let s2 = String::from("LGR");
let s3 = takes_and_gives_back(s2);
}

fn takes_copy(some_integer: i32) {
println!("{}", some_integer);
}

fn takes_ownership(some_string: String) {
println!("{}", some_string);
} // some_string goes out of scope and drop
is called. The backing memory is freed.

fn gives_ownership() -> String {

let some_string = String::from("LGR");
some_string
}

fn takes_and_gives_back(some_string: String)
-> String {
some_string
}

Pattern Matching
Basics
let x = 5;

match x {
// matching literals
1 => println!("one"),
// matching multiple patterns
2 | 3 => println!("two or three"),
// matching ranges
4..=9 => println!("within range"),
// matching named variables
x => println!("{}", x),
// default case (ignores value)
 _ => println!("default Case")
} LGR Cheat Sheet
Destructuring
struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}

let p = Point { x: 0, y: 7 };

match p {
Point { x, y: 0 } => {
println!("{}" , x);
},
Point { x, y } => {
println!("{} {}" , x, y);
},
}

enum Shape {
Rectangle { width: i32, height: i32 },
Circle(i32),
}

let shape = Shape::Circle(10);

match shape {
Shape::Rectangle { x, y } => //...
Shape::Circle(radius) => //...
}
Ignoring values
struct SemVer(i32, i32, i32);

let version = SemVer(1, 32, 2);

match version {
SemVer(major, _, _) => {
println!("{}", major);
}
}

let numbers = (2, 4, 8, 16, 32);

match numbers {
(first, .., last) => {
println!("{}, {}", first, last);
}
}
Match guards
LGR
let num Cheat Sheet
= Some(4);

match num {
Some(x) if x < 5 => println!("less than
five: {}", x),
Some(x) => println!("{}", x),
None => (),
}

@ bindings
struct User {
id: i32
}

let user = User { id: 5 };

match user {
User {
id: id_variable @ 3..=7,
} => println!("id: {}", id_variable),
User { id: 10..=12 } => {
println!("within range");
},
User { id } => println!("id: {}", id),
}

Iterators
Usage
// Methods that consume iterators
let v1 = vec![1, 2, 3];
let v1_iter = v1.iter();
let total: i32 = v1_iter.sum();

// Methods that produce new iterators

let v1: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3];
let iter = v1.iter().map(|x| x + 1);

// Turning iterators into a collection

let v1: Vec<i32> = vec![1, 2, 3];
let v2: Vec<_> = v1.iter().map(|x| x +
1).collect();

Implementing the Iterator trait

struct Counter {
count: u32,
}

impl Counter {
fn new() -> Counter {
 Counter { count: 0 }
} LGR Cheat Sheet
}

impl Iterator for Counter {

type Item = u32;

fn next(&mut self) -> Option<Self::Item>

{
if self.count < 5 {
self.count += 1;
Some(self.count)
} else {
None
}
}
}

Error Handling
Throw unrecoverable error
panic!("Critical error! Exiting!");

Option enum
fn get_user_id(name: &str) -> Option<u32> {
if database.user_exists(name) {
return Some(database.get_id(name))
}

None
}

Result enum
fn get_user(id: u32) -> Result<User, Error> {
if is_logged_in_as(id) {
return Ok(get_user_object(id))
}

Err(Error { msg: "not logged in" })

}

? operator
fn get_salary(db: Database, id: i32) ->
Option<u32> {
Some(db.get_user(id)?.get_job()?.salary)
}

fn connect(db: Database) ->

Result<Connection, Error> {
 let conn =
LGR Cheat Sheet
db.get_active_instance()?.connect()?;
Ok(conn)
}

Combinators
.map
let some_string = Some("LGR".to_owned());

let some_len = some_string.map(|s| s.len());

struct Error { msg: String }

struct User { name: String }

let string_result: Result<String, Error> =

Ok("Bogdan".to_owned());

let user_result: Result<User, Error> =

string_result.map(|name| {
User { name }
});

.and_then
let vec = Some(vec![1, 2, 3]);
let first_element = vec.and_then(
|vec| vec.into_iter().next()
);

let string_result: Result<&'static str, _> =

Ok("5");
let number_result =
string_result
.and_then(|s| s.parse::<u32>());

Multiple error types

Define custom error type
type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T,
CustomError>;

#[derive(Debug, Clone)]
struct CustomError;

impl fmt::Display for CustomError {

fn fmt(&self, f: &mut fmt::Formatter) ->
 fmt::Result {
LGR Cheat
write!(f, Sheet
"custom error message")
}
}
Boxing errors
use std::error;

type Result<T> = std::result::Result<T,

Box<dyn error::Error>>;

Iterating over errors

Ignore failed items with filter_map()
let strings = vec!["LGR", "22", "7"];
let numbers: Vec<_> = strings
.into_iter()
.filter_map(|s| s.parse::<i32>().ok())
.collect();

Fail the entire operation with collect()

let strings = vec!["LGR", "22", "7"];

let numbers: Result<Vec<_>, _> = strings

.into_iter()
.map(|s| s.parse::<i32>())
.collect();

Collect all valid values and failures with partition()

let strings = vec!["LGR", "22", "7"];

let (numbers, errors): (Vec<_>, Vec<_>) =

strings
.into_iter()
.map(|s| s.parse::<i32>())
.partition(Result::is_ok);

let numbers: Vec<_> = numbers

.into_iter()
.map(Result::unwrap)
.collect();

let errors: Vec<_> = errors

.into_iter()
.map(Result::unwrap_err)
.collect();

Generics, Traits, and Lifetimes

Using generics
 struct Point<T, U> {
x: T,LGR Cheat Sheet
y: U,
}

impl<T, U> Point<T, U> {

fn mixup<V, W>(self, other: Point<V, W>) ->
Point<T, W> {
Point {
x: self.x,
y: other.y,
}
}
}

Defining traits
trait Animal {
fn new(name: &'static str) -> Self;
fn noise(&self) -> &'static str { "" }
}

struct Dog { name: &'static str }

impl Dog {
fn fetch() { // ... }
}

impl Animal for Dog {

fn new(name: &'static str) -> Dog {
Dog { name: name }
}

fn noise(&self) -> &'static str {

"woof!"
}
}

Default implementations with Derive

// A tuple struct that can be printed
#[derive(Debug)]
struct Inches(i32);

Trait bounds
fn largest<T: PartialOrd + Copy>(list: &[T])
-> T {
let mut largest = list[0];

for &item in list {

if item > largest {
 largest = item;
} LGR Cheat Sheet
}

largest
}

impl trait
fn make_adder_function(y: i32) ->
impl Fn(i32) -> i32 {
let closure = move |x: i32| { x + y };
closure
}

Trait objects
pub struct Screen {
pub components: Vec<Box<dyn Draw>>,
}

Operator overloading
use std::ops::Add;

#[derive(Debug, Copy, Clone, PartialEq)]

struct Point {
x: i32,
y: i32,
}

impl Add for Point {

type Output = Point;

fn add(self, other: Point) -> Point {

Point {
x: self.x + other.x,
y: self.y + other.y,
}
}
}
Supertraits
use std::fmt;

trait Log: fmt::Display {

fn log(&self) {
let output = self.to_string();
println!("Logging: {}", output);
}
}

Lifetimes in function signatures

 fn longest<'a>(x: &'a str, y: &'a str) ->
&'a strLGR
{ Cheat Sheet
if x.len() > y.len() {
x
} else {
y
}
}

Lifetimes in struct definitions

struct User<'a> {
full_name: &'a str,
}

Static lifetimes
let s: &'static str = "Let’s Get Rusty!";

Functions, Function Pointers & Closures

Associated functions and methods
struct Point { x: i32, y: i32, }

impl Point {
// Associated function
fn new(x: i32, y: i32) -> Point {
Point { x: x, y: y }
}

// Method
fn getX(&self) -> i32 { self.x }
}

Function pointers
fn do_twice(f: fn(i32) -> i32, arg: i32) ->
i32 {
f(arg) + f(arg)
}

Creating closures
let add_one = |num: u32| -> u32 {
num + 1
};

Returning closures
fn add_one() -> impl Fn(i32) -> i32 {
|x| x + 1
}

fn add_or_subtract(x: i32) -> Box<dyn Fn(i32)

 -> i32> {
if x LGR
> 10 Cheat
{ Sheet
Box::new(move |y| y + x)
} else {
Box::new(move |y| y - x)
}
}

Closure traits
● FnOnce - consumes the variables it captures from its enclosing scope.
● FnMut - mutably borrows values from its enclosing scope.
● Fn - immutably borrows values from its enclosing scope.

Store closure in struct

struct Cacher<T>
where
T: Fn(u32) -> u32,
{
calculation: T,
value: Option<u32>,
}

Function that accepts closure or function pointer

fn do_twice<T>(f: T, x: i32) -> i32
where T: Fn(i32) -> i32
{
f(x) + f(x)
}

Pointers
References
let mut num = 5;
let r1 = &num; // immutable reference
let r2 = &mut num; // mutable reference

Raw pointers
let mut num = 5;
// immutable raw pointer
let r1 = &num as *const i32;
// mutable raw pointer
let r2 = &mut num as *mut i32;

Smart pointers
Box<T> - for allocating values on the heap
let b = Box::new(5);
Rc<T> - multiple ownership with reference counting
let a LGR Cheat Sheet
= Rc::new(5);
let b = Rc::clone(&a);

Ref<T>, RefMut<T>, and RefCell<T> - enforce borrowing rules at runtime instead of compile time.
let num = 5;
let r1 = RefCell::new(5);
// Ref - immutable borrow
let r2 = r1.borrow();
// RefMut - mutable borrow
let r3 = r1.borrow_mut();
// RefMut - second mutable borrow
let r4 = r1.borrow_mut();

Multiple owners of mutable data

let x = Rc::new(RefCell::new(5));

Packages, Crates, and Modules

Definitions
● Packages - A Cargo feature that lets you build, test, and share crates.
● Crates - A tree of modules that produces a library or executable.
● Modules and use - Let you control the organization, scope, and privacy of paths.
● Paths - A way of naming an item, such as a struct, function, or module.

Creating a new package with a binary crate

$ cargo new my-project

Creating a new package with a library crate

$ cargo new my-project --lib

Defining and using modules

fn some_function() {}

mod outer_module { // private module

pub mod inner_module { // public module
pub fn inner_public_function() {
super::super::some_function();
}

fn inner_private_function() {}
}
}

fn main() {
// absolute path
crate::outer_module::
inner_module::inner_public_function();

// relative path path

outer_module::
 inner_module::inner_public_function();
LGR Cheat Sheet
// bringing path into scope
use outer_module::inner_module;
inner_module::inner_public_function();
}

Renaming with as keyword

use std::fmt::Result;
use std::io::Result as IoResult;

Re-exporting with pub use

mod outer_module {
pub mod inner_module {
pub fn inner_public_function() {}
}
}

pub use crate::outer_module::inner_module;

Defining modules in separate files

// src/lib.rs
mod my_module;

pub fn some_function() {
my_module::my_function();
}

// src/my_module.rs
pub fn my_function() {}