DIS-08 Safety in industries 2nd SEM

CONTENTS
Unit – 1
Safety in specific industries

1. Safety in textile industry…………………………………………………………… 3

1.1 Need of safety in textile industry……………………………………………………. 3

1.2 Types of textile industry:…………………………………………………………… 4

1.3 . INDIAN STANDARDS…………………………………………………………… 5

1.4. Flowcharts of textile processes……………………………………………………… 6

1.5 Manufacture of Spun or Oriented Yarn (LOY, POY, HOY & FOY)…………….. 13

1.6 Safety and Environmental Factors……………………………………………….. 16

1.7 Hazards and safety measures of spinning preparatory

& spinning processes………………………………………………………………. 18

1.8 Hazards and safety measures of weaving preparatory

& weaving processes……………………………………………………………….. 24

1.9 Health hazards and controls………………………………………………………. 34

2. CEMENT INDUSTRY………………………………………………………….. 38

2.1 Manufacture………………………………………………………………………. 39

2.2 Hazards and Controls…………………………………………………………….. 39

3. Fertiliser industry……………………………………………………………….. 41

4. Leather industry………………………………………………………………….. 42

5. Sugar industry……………………………………………………………………… 42

5.1 Cane Milling Plant…………………………………………………………………. 43

5.2 Clarification Plant………………………………………………………………….. 44

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5.3 Evaporation and Boiling Plant:…………………………………………………… 45

5.4 Cooling, Curing and Grading Plant………………………………………………… 45

6. Ceramics industries………………………………………………………………… 46

6.1 Raw materials………………………………………………………………………. 47

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Unit-4
Safety in specific industries

1. Safety in textile industry:

1.1 Need of safety in textile industry:
Clothing is the basic need for all of us and with the modernization a want of more and more
attractive (durable, shining, anti-crease and colourful) fabrics is increasing day by day.
Therefore the foundation of textile industry is very old, ever changing and everlasting.

The continuous blow room line, replacement of mule spinning by ring spinning, rotor spinning,
high speed shuttle-less and workerless looms and computerized processing machinery has
rapidly changed the structure of textile industry and the mills not following such modernization
and automation are becoming sick in market competition. Yet it is a fact that the old textile
machines are still in use in some mills. From safety point of view, such old and poorly guarded
(and without built-in safety) machinery needs more attention.

Indian textile industry is the oldest one in the world. Cotton was invented and planted "by
'Grutsmad' Rushi some 20,000 years ago. Yarn and threads were manufactured by hands and
cloth was woven by hand looms. A reference is published that a ginning machine made in India
was sent to England. Dhaka's 'malmal' (the thinnest and lightest cloth) was famous. British
rulers cut off the palms and fingers of Indian weavers so that they cannot compete with cloth
from England. Dyeing by natural colours was also in use. Old Indian garments were white and
colourful.

The textile mills established during 19th century in Lancashire and in New England initiated
the Industrial Revolution and their cotton fabrics dominated the world markets for many years.
Indian textile mill industry is also as old as the first Indian Factories Act 1881 and Gujarat is
still leading in textile industries.

In 1979 there were 19728 cotton textile factories working with 1147000 workers and 3244
wool, silk and synthetic fibre factories working with 179000 workers out of total 135173
working factories with total workers 6797000 in India. This gives 10.33% textile (cotton and
others) factories and 19.50% textile workers.

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In 1999 estimated registered textile factories in India and Gujarat were ©16000 and 4000
respectively. Similarly estimated textile workers in India and Gujarat were @14 lakhs and 3.0
lakhs respectively.

1.2 Types of textile industry:

Cotton being the natural and old product, light, human body (particularly for hot days), cotton
textile is pioneering and oldest industry. But with invention; of new fibres, natural and
synthetic, it has, now become a mixed industry.

The industry includes the spinning, weaving, knitting and finishing of all type; of natural,
synthetic and artificial fibres. The machine; vary from handlooms of cottage industry to very
expensive and intricate modern machines. Some are only spinning mills, weaving units or
dyeing and finishing houses while some are composite textile mill; carrying out all operations
at one place.

A classification of various types of the fibres is as follows:

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All these fibres are used for various purposes such as garments, protective wears, ropes, carpets
etc. They are the raw materials for various types of textile industries.

1.3. INDIAN STANDARDS

From a variety of IS on textile machinery, some are given below :

Textile motors 2972 (Part I for loom motors, Part II for card motors. Part III for spinning frame
motors). Code for fire safety in cotton textile mills 3079, rings for spinning and doubling frames
3078, 6317, ring doubling and twisting frames 5938, 7614, ring frame, warp spindle 3698, tin
rollers 838, metal travellers 3523, shaft bottom for cotton looms 833, shuttle blocks for

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automatic looms 9280, 9287, shuttles-classification of terms 8684, spinning frames-bottom

rollers 2510, spindles 3934, top roller 3176, machinery nomenclature 6068, methods for
identification of application classes of dyes on textile materials 4472 (Part I for cotton and
cellulosic fibres, Part II for wool, silk and protein fibres. Part III for man-made fibres), natural
fibres 2364, drafting in spinning machinery 4474, finishing machines, nominal widths 7952,
treatment and disposal of effluents 9508, tolerance limits for effluents 2490 (Part I to 10), water
for quality tolerances 201, twisting machinery 6068, warp bobbins 1724, warper's beams 9292,
warp stop motion 3683, warp ring frame 3698, weavers 'beams 3165, weaving looms and
preparatory machines 3199, weft pirns for shuttles 3265, winders-cone and cheese 8567, pirn
8568, winding rollers for finishing -machines 8304, wooden bobbins for ring doubling and
twisting frames 7614, woven fabrics testing 9, 2977, 7903, 10100, yarn acetate and rayon
filament 1229, blended 7866, polyester and polyamide 7703, 7867, cotton count determination
237, cotton winding cones 4888, twist determination 832, linear density determination 1226,
textile conditioning 6359.

Cotton handloom colour fastness 6906, residual chlorine 2350, scouring loss determination
1383.

Dyes fastness 1688, Fibres, methods of identification 667, flammability and flame resistance
test 11871, water quality tolerances 201, textile items made up, glossary 14281, processing
glossary 9603, testing handbook SP'.15, textile terms - wool and animal fibres 11206, mmf
1324, natural fibre 232, woven fabrics 2364, textile belting 1891, floor coverings, flame
resistance 12722, asbestos yarn 13362, electrical insulation and plastic laminate 13128.

1.4. Flowcharts of textile processes

1. Composite (Textile Mill) Flowchart:
It is essential to understand a textile process flow chart before proceeding towards the textile
machines

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Flowcharts of different types of fabrics:

1. To understand flowcharts of fabric manufacturing it is necessary to understand
sequence or stages of manufacture from fibres to fabrics and then bleaching, dyeing,
printing and other finishing processes on the fabrics.
2. The first stage in the production of a fabric is to clean and mix fibres thoroughly. The
fibres are then generally straightened, but for the production of certain types of fabric
they must be brought into a condition in which they are all parallel.

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3. The fibres are next drawn out into the form of sliver, which resembles a flat rope but
with the fibres having no twist. Repeated drawing (extenuating) and twisting follow.
This twisting is to give the resulting roving i.e. just sufficient strength to prevent
breakage in its manipulation (extenuation). Thus a fine roving is produced which is
finally twisted into yarn. The yarn is used to produce fabrics by either knitting or
weaving.
4. It will be realised that for the carrying out of these manufacturing processes a wide
range of different types of complicated machines and a great variety of methods are
used. Such processes have taken more than two centuries to perfect and even now,
partly owing to the increasing use of rayon and synthetic fibres, modifications are
constantly being introduced.
5. Fibres are of two types - staple fibre and continuous fibre.
6. Staple fibres are of certain lengths while continuous fibre is a very long filament made
from chemicals. Continuous fibre can be cut to required lengths which may be short or
long, for the purpose of mixing with other short or long staple fibres.

Short and Long staple Fibres:

1. Staple fibres are classified as short, medium or long. Normally less than 2 inch (5 cm)
long are short staple fibres and longer than that are called long staple fibres.
2. Wool is called short staple if less than 2.5 inch long and called long staple or worsted
if more than 2.5 inch long.
3. In short staple spinning process, gilling machine (gill box) is not used. In long staple
process 'gilling' machinery is used to straighten the sliver. Carding is an excellent
method for straightening and attenuating short fibres. Gilling is not satisfactory if the
fibres are short.
4. Therefore in the preparation of wool fibres for combing, it is preferred to straighten
diem by carding if the fibres are less than about 9 inch (230 mm) in length and to gill
if the fibres are longer, say up to 15 inch (380 mm) in length.
5. Long staple worsted wool, jute, coir and flex can be classified as long staple fibres,
cotton as short staple fibre and man-made synthetic filament including -stretchable
'textured' yarn as continuous fibre.

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1.4.1 Process Flowchart of Short Staple i.e. Cotton Spinning and Finishing

Cotton Processing Flowchart

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1.4.2 Process Flowchart of Long Staple (i.e. Worsted Wool) Spinning:

Raw greasy wool

Sorting, selection and blending to suit type of yarn required

Opening-out and loosening of fibre packages

·1
Scouring to remove grease and suint (sheep's dried perspiration)
and carbonisation (if necessary) to remove cellulose impurities
(in lap form)

(in sliver form) Carding

(in sliver form)

Backwashing (scouring) Condensing

(in sliver form) (in roving form)

Gilling Spinning on mule

(in sliver form) machine into woollen
yarn
Backwashing
(in sliver form)

Gilling
(in sliver form)

Combing
(in sliver form)

Gilling
(in roving form)

Wool tops
(in roving form)

Drawing and doubling

(several stages)
(in roving form)
Spinning by flyer, cap, ring
or mule machine into
worsted yarn

Process Flowchart of Wool spinning

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1.4.3 A complete flowchart of wool processing - spinning, weaving & finishing is shown
below in

Wool Processing Flowchart

1.4.4 Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon and Synthetic Fibre Manufacture :

Process Flowchart of Viscose Rayon Manufacture

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1.4.5 Process Flowchart of Spun and Filament Yarn :

1. Manufacture of Nylon-6:

Process Flowchart of Filament Yarn (Nylon-6)

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1.5 Manufacture of Spun or Oriented Yarn (LOY, POY, HOY & FOY) :

1. Polyesters:

1. Polyesters were initially discovered and evaluated in 1929 by W.H. Carothers, who
used linear aliphatic polyester materials to develop the fundamental understanding of
condensation polymerisation, to study the reaction kinetics, and demonstrate that high
molecular weight materials were obtainable and could be melt-spun into fibres.
2. Polyethylene Terephthalate (PET) is a fibre of great commercial significance, useful in
cordage, apparel fabrics, industrial fabrics, conveyor belts, laminated and coated
substrates, and numerous other areas. However, to engineer specific properties for
special uses, many product variants have been developed and commercialised. These
variants include alternative cross sections, controlling polymer molecular weight,
modifying polymer composition by using co-monomers and using additive including
delusterants, pigments and optical brighteners.
3. High molecular weight polymer is used for high strength fibres in tyres, ropes, and
belts. High strength and toughness are achieved by increasing the polymer molecular
weight from 20000 to 30000 or higher by extended melt polymerisation or solid-phase
polymerisation.
4. Special spinning processes are required to spin the high viscosity polymer to high
strength fibre. Low molecular weight fibres are weak but have a low propensity to form
and retain pills, i.e. fuzz balls, which can be formed by abrasion and wear on a fabric
surface. Most pill-resistant fibres are made by spinning low molecular weight fibres in
combination with a melt viscosity booster.
5. Most of the textile fibres are delustered with 0.13.0% wt TiO, to reduce the glitter and
plastic appearance. Many PET fibres also contain optical brighteners.

Manufacturing and Processing:

Terephthalic Acid (TA) or dimethyl terephthalate (DMT) reacts with ethylene glycol (EG)
to form bis (2-hydroxyethyl) terephthalate [959-26-2] (BHET) which is condensation
polymerised to PET with the elimination of EG.

Molten polymer is extruded through a die (spinneret) forming filaments that are solidified by
air cooling. Combinations of stress, strain and thermal treatments are applied to the filaments
to orient and crystalize the molecular chains. These steps develop the fiber properties required

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for specific uses. The two general physical forms of PET fibers are continuous filament and
cut staple.

Raw Materials:
1. For the first decade of PET manufacture, only DMT could be made sufficiently pure to
produce high molecular weight PET. After about 1965, processes to purify crude TA
by hydrogenation and crystallisation became commercial.
2. In Japan, oxidation conditions are modified to give a medium purity TA suitable to
manufacture PET, provided colour toners such as bluing agents or optical brighteners
are added during polymerisation.
3. Compared to DMT, advantages of TA as an ingredient are lower cost, no methanoi by-
product, lower investment and energy costs, higher unit productivity, and more pure
polymer because less catalyst is used. Catalysts are used in the transesterification
reaction of DMT with EG and in polycondensation.
4. Many compounds have catalytic activity. Divalent zinc and manganese are the
prevalent transesterification catalysts. Antimony, titanium and germanium are the
predominant polycondensation catalysts. Up to 3% delusterant is added to many PET
fibre products to make them more opaque and scatter light; titanium dioxide is the most
common delusterant.
5. PET fibre blended with cotton for apparel frequently contains small amounts of
fluorescent optical brighteners added during polymerisation.
6. Commercial production of PET polymer is a two-step process carried out through a
series of continuous staged reaction vessels. First, monomer is formed by
transesterification of DMT or by direct esterification of TA with EG.
7. In general, esterification is conducted in one or two vessels forming low molecular
weight oligomers with a degree of polymerisation of about I to 7. The oligomer is
pumped to one or two pre-polymerisation vessels where higher temperatures and lower
pressures help remove water and EG; the degree of polymerisation increases to 15 to
20 repeat units.
8. The temperatures are further increased and pressures decreased in the final one or two
vessels to form polymer ready to spin into fibre. For most products, the final degree of
polymerisation is about 70 to 100 repeat units. Average molecular weight is about
22,000; weight average molecular weight is about 44,000.

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Spinning:

1. PET fibres are made either by directly spinning molten polymer or by melting and
spinning polymer chips. A special, precise metering pump forces the molten polymer
heated to about 290°C through a spinneret consisting a number of small capillaries,
typically 0.2 to 0.8 mm in diameter and 0.3 to 1.5 mm long, under pressures up to 35
MPa (5000 psi).
2. After exiting the capillary, filaments are uniformly cooled by forced convection heat
transfer with laminar-flow air.
3. Following solidification, the threadline is passed over a finish applicator and collected.
A spin finish is applied to reduce friction and eliminate static change.
4. It is convenient to classify commercial PET spinning processes according to the degree
of molecular orientation developed in the spun fiber.
5. Generally, the classification is a function of spinning speed. Low oriented yarn (LOY)
is spun at speeds from 500 to 2500 m/min; partially oriented yarn (POY) is spun at 2500
to 4000 m/min; highly oriented yarn (HOY) is spun at 4000 to 6500 m/min; and fully
oriented yarn (FOY) is spun at greater than 6500 m/min.

Drawing and Stabilisation:

Drawing is the stretching of low orientation, amorphous spun yarn {LOY) to several times their
initial length. This is done to increase their orientation and tensile strength. Drawing in two or
more stages is useful to optimise tensile properties and process continuity. Stabilisation is
heating the fibre to release stress within the molecular chains melt and reform crystals and
increase the level of crystallinity in order to stabilise the fibre structure.

Staple Processes:
In staple processing, the containers of combined spun ends are further combined to form a tow
band and fed to a large drawline. The tow band is spread out into a flat band tracking over
multiple feed and draw rolls. Crimping is the process by which two dimensional configuration
and cohesive energy is imparted to synthetic fibres so they may be carded and converted to
spun yarns. The tow band is cut to precise lengths using a radial multiblade cutter, normally 30
to 40 mm for blending with cotton, 50 to 100 mm for blending with wool and up to 150 mm
for making carpets. Cut staple is packaged in up to 500 kg. bales at densities greater than 0.5g/
m3 .

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1.6 Safety and Environmental Factors :

Health & Safety: PET Fibres pose no health risk to humans or animals. Fibres have been used
extensively in textiles with no adverse physiological effects from prolonged skin contact. PET
has been approved by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration for food packaging and bottles.
PET is considered biologically inert and has been widely used in medical inserts such as
vascular implants and artificial blood vessels, artificial bone arid eye sutures.

Environmental Factors: PET materials are no dangerous to the environment and cannot
contamination surface or ground water. During polymerisation, non-condensable organic by-
products are stripped from this process outflow streams and burned. Glycol and water are
separated by refining. The water is treated in standard water spray facility. The glycol is reused
The method from the DMT transesterification is refined and reused.

Block Diagram for Polyester Manufacturing by Continuous Polymerisation Process

Jute manufacture:
The jute plant flourishes in hot and damp regions of Asia, mainly in India, Bangladesh,
Pakistan, Burma and Thailand. Jute is a natural fibre and is used to make sack cloth, jute ropes,
bags, camp beds, filter cloths etc.,

In 1820, jute was sent to England from India and was spun experimentally at Abingdon near
Oxford. In 1822 Dundee mills in Scotland began spinning of jute. By 1850 the jute industry
was well established.

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In India and Bangladesh, the jute plants (Corchorus) are harvested with a hand sickle. Jute plant
grows to 5mt with a stalk diameter of 2 cm. The fibres are separated from the stem.

The strands of fibre, as much as 2mt long, are washed and hung up in the sun to dry. They are
compressed into bales and sent off to the mills for spinning disposed of properly to avoid litter
and can bi disposed of by landfill or incineration.

A key environmental advantage for PE" materials is the ability to recycle. Polyester materials
especially bottles, can be separated from contammated materials such as aluminium caps and
paper label and remanufactured by direct remelt extrusion into fibres for filling products or
carpets or into layered constructions for good-grade bottles.

Jute Processes:
Raw jute is first passed through the softening machine. Oil and water emulsion is sprayed on
to the jute. Sometimes sodium alkyl phosphate (Teepol) is also used. This process is known as
'batching'.

After preparation, the fibres are carded or combed, drawn and spun. Then cop and spool
winding, weaving, finishing, cropping, cutting and lapping complete the processing.

Bleaching and dyeing of jute is also possible. Dyestuffs used for cotton, are also useful for jute.
The fibre has a special affinity for basic dyes, which provide brilliant effects even on
unbleached base. The increased demand for rugs, mats and carpets require dyed jute yarns and
fabrics suitable for these applications. Azoic and vat dyes give very bright and fast results but
their high cost limits their use with jute. The tendency of jute to turn brown in sunlight is a
permanent disadvantage. Hazards and Controls:

Machinery hazards are high as in case of cotton textile machinery. Main drives, gears, in-
running nips of rollers or bowls, spindles and shafts, knives and cutters, flying shuttles etc.
need efficient guarding. Fire may occur due to friction and heat. Water hydrants are necessary.
Pesticides used in cultivation of jute may cause poisoning. Dust is given off in bale opening
and spinning. Local exhaust ventilation is a must. Dermatitis gives skin trouble due to dust,
batching oil, dyes etc. Excessive noise in weaving operation may cause hearing loss. Ear
protection is necessary. Carrying heavy loads may cause strains. Medical examination of
workers is necessary.

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1.7 Hazards and safety measures of spinning preparatory and spinning

processes

1.7.1 Opening and Blow Room Machines:

Purpose is to open cotton bales, to open and beat cotton to remove dirt/dust from it and to make
it loose for the next process of spinning.

1.7.2 Types of machines used are :

1. Bale opener or breaker. Hard waste breaker, step cleaner. Super cleaner. Cotton opener
- Porcupine or Chrighton opener. Roving waste opener. Scutcher, Combined opener
and Scutcher Scutcher and Lap machine, Axi-flo, hoppel feeder etc. Tinting room is
used to colour the cotton or synthetic fibres for their mixing.
2. Each machine should be driven by separate motor or by separate counter-shaft with fast
and loose pulleys and efficient belt shifting device All main drives, counter drives and
reductior gears shall be securely guarded.
3. All beater covers or doors giving access to any dangerous part of the machine should
be interlocked or be securely fenced. Dirt door or desk door should have hinged or fixed
grill as a guard and door for dirt/dust removal.
4. Dust chamber opening should be so fenced that while admitting light, prevents contact
between any portion of a worker's body and the beater grid bars.
5. All belt and chain drives should be guarded.
6. In Roving waste opener, cage-wheel and side shaft wheel should be guarded.
7. In opener machine, door giving access to the nip between the lattice and the fluted guide
roller of the lattice and evener rolls etc, be interlocked.

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8. Inspection doors (covers) on trunkings should be properly situated and closed. If their
location is dangerous, it should be changed or interlocked.
9. Spiked or fluted rollers which feed the materials from conveyors should be guarded. In-
running nips of Feed and Calendar rollers must be guarded or interlocked.
10. Safe means of access i.e. catwalk, guard-rails, steps, ladders, hand-rails etc., should be
provided on top of the machine where a worker has to work.
11. Lap rods - Lap stand should be proper. Lap rods should not fall out of it. Stacking of
lap-rods should be proper
12. Knock-off lever - Its design or placement should be proper and the knock-off wheel
should not hit a person.
13. Unsafe actions : The interlocks (micro-switches) on machines should not be tempered
with. The supervision should he-proper for loading dead weight on a buckley opener,
handling a guard, cleaning the inside of a buckley cage or bottom dust chamber
collecting cotton or waste from near any revolving part, placing spiked lattice on a bale
breaker, removing jam med material from rack and rack wheel, climbing the opener,
feeding the lap on a scutcher and removing choked cotton through anopening in a
pneumatic pipe.

1.7.3 Carding Machines :

1. Purpose is to spin and open cotton fibres.

2. Spacing between the cards should be sufficient. All dangerous parts such as belts, ropes,
pulleys, gears etc., should be securely guarded. Main drive shall be guarded.
3. The cylinder-doors must be interlocked (R. 54, Sch. 1) and effective. Stripping
(cleaning cylinder) operation with open doors should be done by a trained man. The
newer machines have safer stripping attachment.
4. The belt shifting devices for fast and loose pulleys should be properly maintained.

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5. The nip between the plate-wheel and the side shaft wheel should be guarded.
6. Coiler : (i) Coiler head should not fall down (ii) Gears of the coiler box be guarded, (iii)
The nip between the calendar roller wheel and the coiler back shaft wheel should be
guarded or fenced.
7. Licker-in : (i) The access to the underside of the licker-in should be properly guarded
by a hinged swing door or flap guard swinging back upwards to prevent contact while
collecting dust (ii) The checking of the clearance between the licker-in and its casing
while the licker-in is in motion must be prohibited (it may be done while the licker-in
is stationary).
8. Doffer & Comb Blade : (i) Covers on doffer wheels should be closed, (ii) Work at or
near the doffer cover and doffer comb blade must be done with care and properly
supervised.
9. High Speed Carding machine : The in running nip between cross rolls should be
securely guarded.
10. Mounting or dismounting of belt or rope and stripping and grinding operations should
be done with care and should be properly supervised. It should be checked that while
such stripping or grinding, the stripping brush is properly positioned so that it may not
be loosened, the idler wheel and the umbrella wheel are properly fitted (so that they
may not get loosed and fell down) (ii) Gauging the clearance between the flats and the
card-cylinder should 130 done with the cylinder stationary (not rotated even manually)
and by a standard angular gauge for this operation. It should be so supervised.
11. Local Exhaust Ventilation : Modern card machines have built-in local exhaust system
with dust collection chamber to extract the cotton dust generating in the machine and
to prevent its exposure in the work environment. This system should be efficiently
maintained

1.7.4 Sliver and Ribbon Lap Machines:

Purpose is to make a sliver and lap from spinned cotton.
1. Types of these machines are : Sliver lap, lap m/c or lap-former, Derby doubler. Ribbon
lap m/c etc. The main and counter drive shall be securely guarded.
2. Nip between the lap forming rollers (lap roller and fluted roller) should be guarded. It
is desirable if it is interlocked (R. 54, Sch. 1).
3. Ribbon lap m/c : The lap drum and calendar drum gap should be interlocked.

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4. Sliver lap m/c : Nip guard at the intake end of the calendar rollers necessary.
5. The carding slivers should be made parallel and combined to form a lap sheet suitable
for feeding to a combing m/c.
6. Unsafe actions : Care must be taken during operations such as cleaning cap bars of a
lap m/c, placing laps on lap rack, putting a lap rod on a lap stand, removing the chain
drive from lap forming m/c, cleaning the ribbon of lap m/c and putting a lap end around
a spool.

1.7.5 Combers and Drawing Frames :

Purpose is to comb (to make fibres parallel), pull and draw the fibres of lap of cotton.

1. Comber Machine : (i) The main drive shall have fixed guard (ii) The moving spiked
cylinder should be interlocked, (iii) The cylinder covers i.e. hood of the comb near comber
cylinder and the coiler covers should be fixed so as not to fall down and hit (iv) Hinged
transparent guard to prevent contact with rotating segment i.e. nipper or gripper (v) Guard on
top comb and detaching rolls (vi) Guard on calendar rollers and gears (vii) Interlock guard on
coiler and draw-box gears.

2. Drawing frames : (i) Guards be provided on moving calendar rollers and gears (Nip between
rollers should be covered), (ii) The gear wheels should be guarded or fenced, (iii) The head
stock gearing must be guarded, (iv) The mango vacuum box of the top roller should be securely
fixed, (so as not to fall down) (v) Sharp projections on the coiler bottom plate should be
removed or rounded (vi) Off-end gear cover should be guarded.

Roving (Speed) Frames :

Roving means drawing of the first thread from the sliver. Purpose is drawing and twisting of
fibres (thread).

1. Types of these m/cs are: Slubbing frames, inter frames etc. The main drive shall be securely
guarded.

2. The head stock gearing (jack box wheels) should be interlocked. (R. 54, Sch I GFR).

3. Slubber Frames: (i) The driving bevel and bevel wheel should be guarded, (ii) The spindle
shaft wheel should be guarded, (iii) Bobbin and spindle bevel gears should be guarded, (iv)
The ratchet wheel should be guarded, (v) Work close to revolving flyers should be done only

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after stopping the flyers. It should be supervised so. (vi) Care should be exercised while
handling of rollers and weights.

4. Inter (Speed) Frames : (i) The guard of the head stock gearing should be adequate or
interlocked (ii) The stacking of bobbins on creel top should be done in safe manner, (so that
the bobbins may not fall down) (iii) The height of creel top should be proper, (so as to reach
easily). If not suitable, foot boards and hand holds should be provided (iv) Work close to
rotating flyers should be done after stopping them (v) Draft rolls, draft gears, inter gears (jack
box), cone drive and main drive should have guards.

The new open end or rotor spinning system eliminates some steps of the spinning preparatory
operation and reduces many accidents.

1.7.6 Ring (Spinning) Frames :

Main process is twisting (rotating) and winding thread on bobbins.

Return-air system with humid air suppliers (diffusers) is used for better ventilation and
humidification. Purpose of humidification is to prevent thread breaking. It provides large duct
area through floor openings, air cleaning, rapid air changes, more humidification and more
reduction in flying fluffs.

1. Transmission parts :

a) The main drive and the other driving belts and ropes should be guarded,
b) Mounting of taps on jockey pulleys should be done after stopping the pulley by cutting of
power,
c) The headstock gears should be interlocked. Tieing ribbon on limitswitches and making
interlocking ineffective is noticed many times. By frequent checking such unsafe practice
must be discouraged,
d) Drafting gear and drafting rollers, warm and warm wheel should be guarded.

2. Damaged Bobbin Shields:

Sharp edges of the broken metal shields of bobbins cause many injuries on fingers while
piecing or doffing operations.

Following remedies should be provided,

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a) Inspection and rejection of damaged shields,

b) Use of plastic bobbins instead of wooden with metal shields,
c) Suitable knee brake or hand brake as shown in the figure for each spindle to stop it. The
.height of this brake should coincide with the knee of the worker. This is the design
(ergonomic) aspect.

3. Struck against various m/c parts: (i) The sharp edge of a protruding metal sheet on the
frame and broken edge of a ring frame may cause struck injury. Such damaged components
should be replaced, (ii) Care should be taken while creeling, de-creeling, piecing, cleaning
rollers, cleaning cotton fluff, stopping bobbins for piecing, fixing bobbins on spindles, doffing
and adjusting arbor so as not to be struck against rollers, their supporting brackets or roller
beams; work near lappet rail, filter-box, lappet middlerollers, top arm and cradle and middle
arbor and cradle assembly, pocker rod, tube bracket and dashing against the frame of the
machine while attending to different jobs. Proper supervision necessary.

4. Fall of bobbins from creel top: (i) Stacking of bobbins on creel top should not be
haphazard. Only one row of bobbins should be stacked, (ii) Safe means of access i.e. suitable
foot-boards and hand-holds should be provided for climbing up.

5. Fall of rollers: (i) Fall of clearer rollers and dead weight rollers occur in the course of
operations such as releasing auto-lever, piecing, removing the rollers or holding them for
cleaning. Care is necessary, (ii) Mechanism holding the rollers in position should be maintained
in good condition.

6. Auto-lever: (i) Care should be taken while releasing or replacing the auto-lever, (ii)
Condition of the saddle should not be defective.

7. Ring travellers: These can fly and injure persons unless there is an effective system of
periodical replacement. Also the travellers should be of good quality and properly fitted.

8. Dotting boxes: (i) the hook on the doffing boxes for placing them on the rail should be
proper. (ii) Splintered condition of the boxes and the protruding metal band may cause
accident. Their periodical inspection and repair is necessary.

9. Suction pipes: Sharp or broken edge of a suction pipe may cause injury. It should be
checked and required or replaced. Suction fan with duct is provided to collect broken ends.

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10. Others: (i) Side plate of a frame may get loose and fall down. It should be periodically
inspected, (ii) All motor fans should be closed by the covers.

1.7.8 Doubling Machines (frames) :

Two or more threads are joined, twisted and wound on bobbin.

1. Drives:

Main drive pulley belt and head stock gearing should have guards. Delivery roll gears should
be guarded.

2. Knee-brakes:

They should be provided to stop bobbin for piecing operation and maintained properly. They
should be at proper knee height.

3. Cans:

(i) The edges of cans for storing bobbins should not be broken or sharp,
(ii) They should be inspected and repaired or replaced,
(iii) Plastic cans are desirable.

4. Ring Travellers:

(i) They should be of good quality and properly fitted,

(ii) They should be periodically inspected and replaced.

5. Machine Parts:

The creel tops to store bobbins should be within the arms reach. Foot rails should be provided.

6. Unsafe actions:

Striking against knee-brakes, ring travellers, top roller, tap on a spindle, rough edge of jockey
pulley etc., may cause accidents. Care should be exercised and supervised.

1.8 Hazards and safety measures of weaving preparatory and weaving

processes
1. Winding Machines:
Purpose is to wind weft on bobbins.

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Types of machines used are: Barber-Coleman ITI/C, Auto-coner, pirn winder etc.

a) Guards should be provided on main drive, revolving drum, drum drive motor, timer
drive, cam drive, traveller pulley and track nip and conveyor drive. Knotter-carriage
assembly & spindle assembly should have cover.
b) The gap between the moving parts of conveyor and fixed parts should be checked all
along its length and reduced to the minimum by suitable covers/guards.
c) Bobbins/sleeves used on the m/cs should be inspected for broken edges, burrs etc. as
also for their proper fitment on driving spindles.
d) Haste in loading spindles with empty bobbins should be avoided. Also, dust and other
extraneous materials on spindle and moving yarn should not be removed while they are
in motion. Dust collecting blower and bag are useful.
e) Automatic winders like cone winder and spoolers prevent hands reaching near the
rotating drum and are preferable.

1.8.1 Warping Machines:

Purpose is to wind warp on warp beam. Different types of warping m/cs are available.

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a) The flanges of rotating beam should be properly guarded. Aluminium flange beam
without metal flange ring is safer. Metal flange ring may open, fly out and hit.
b) The main drive, gear wheels, motor pulley, clutch pulley-belt and other parts should be
properly guarded.
c) The nip between the driving roll and warp beam should be guarded. Trip cum distance
guard should be provided for protection from rotating beam.
d) Beam side distance guard (rod) should be interlocked (contact switch) with drum which
drives the beam-.
e) Multiple photo-electric device is more safe.
f) Hydraulic braking system should be provided to stop the beam within shortest possible
time.
g) Stop motion indicator lamp is useful.
h) Wheels of moveable stands should have guards.
i) Drum drive motor pulley, beam drive chain, beam ends and section warping gears
should be guarded.
j) Unsafe actions : Dashing against rotating beam, leading the thread from the creel to
the drum (at this time the m/c should be stopped), removing ball bearing from the shaft
of the warp roll, stepping on the slopping platforms of the m/c, removing empty pegs
from bobbins on creels and loading and unloading the beams can cause injuries.

1.8.2 Sizing Machines :

Purpose is to apply starch on yarn or cloth.
a) Nips : Nip guards should be provided on in running nips between the driving rolls and
other revolving rolls at the front of the m/c. Guards on drag rolls and squeeze rolls are
essential.
b) The main drive, beam drive chain, size box drive chain and speedometer chain should
be guarded.
c) Suction hood necessary to arrest steam vapour.
d) Gears: The gears of the marking mechanism of the m/c should be guarded. Other m/c
parts be guarded.
e) Beam weights: The counter weights of a beam should be properly placed so that they
may not fall down while touching.
f) Loading and unloading of beams can cause accidents. Care should be exercised.

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1.8.3 Looms (power looms):

Purpose is to weave cloth by using weft (pirn) bobbins and warp beam by a machine known as
loom.

1. Types of looms are: Ordinary power looms, automated jacquard looms, drop-box, dobby,
air-jet, water-jet, rapier etc. Loom sizes are 46", 52", 56", 60" and 64".

2. Flying Shuttles: (i) Shuttle flight may be caused by warp breakage, broken or improper held
(heddle) wires, slackness in picking mechanism and other causes. Shuttle less looms (auto
looms) is the best remedy for shuttle flights, but it is not economical. Therefore, the practical
remedy is the shuttle guard. The shuttle guards be properly provided. It should extent
sufficiently forward and the gap below it should not be too much. Because of possibility of
change in this gap and despite the guard the shuttle car fly and hit Certainly they protect the
upper body of a worker from hitting, (ii) To protect from injury due to shuttle flying from the
adjacent loom, every loom must be equipped with barrier guard placed close to each end of the
slay beam Such guards of strong wire netting or similar material are advisable, (iii) Reasons
for shuttle flights should be properly recorded, investigated and removed.

3. Shuttles: (i) Shuttle receptacle should be provided near each end of the slay to place the
shuttle properly, (ii) Removing empty pirn (bobbin in shuttle) 'and loading wound pirn into the
shuttle may cause injury. Also care should be exercised while placing shuttle on the slay. (iii)
Automation of process of filling up the empty shuttle can reduce these hazards where a pirn
battery loads the shuttle as soon as the weft yarn on it is exhausted. This device of modern
looms is advisable.

4. Picking stick assembly: (i) Vertical picking stick is less dangerous than horizontal one.
Work near the proximity of the stick should be done carefully, (ii) Spacing between two looms
should be at least 55 cm measured from the farthest projecting point of an adjacent loom or
wall. The aisles (alleys) should at least be one meter wide. It is so desirable for safe movement,
(iii) Picking stick (arm) should be securely guarded along its fixed path of movement so that
hitting by it can be avoided, (iv) The loom spindle on which the picker moves may crack or fly
out and hit. Defective spindle should be found out and replaced, (v) Picking spring should be
inserted in position carefully (vi) The picking wheel should be guarded, (vii) All parts of
picking mechanism and heald frame should be sound for proper fitment, wear and tear.

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5. Beam Weighing: (i) Compound lever should be adopted for beam weighing wherever
possible. The shape of the weights should be such that they would not come off the lever and
hit. Weights of shape '8' should be preferred to those of shape 'C'. Weights must be harnessed
to the beam by strings or straps of adequate strength (ii) Spring loaded mechanism used for
beam weighing should be inspected at least once in a week and defects, if any, rectified. Defects
of spring, lever handle, threads used if any, should be found and removed.

6. Cloth and Emery rolls : (i) The support brackets of the cloth roll should be examined once
a week for any defects to ensure that the cloth roll sits tight in the brackets, (ii) Care should be
taken from hitting the cloth or emery rolls while walking near them (iii) Heavy cloth rolls
should be handled mechanically or by more workers, (iv) Guards should be provided on emery
roll and guide roll, crank tappet gears, take-up gears, bottom cam drive gears, motor drive,
shedding motion etc.

7. Slay beam : (i) The slay moving towards and away from the weaver may hit the hand and
fingers may get trapped between the moving slay and the front rest head frame, temples etc.
Hands should not be placed on the slay or at places near its path. (ii) Clearance between the
slay bolts of two adjacent looms should be adequate, (iii) Setting of die weft fork holder and
hammer should be proper, (iv) Removing fluff or wastes and attending to minor adjustment on
the loom must be done only after stopping the loom.

8. Duck bill and Hitter : The duck bill and hitter should be guarded on every loom to prevent
contact with sharp edges of these moving parts or being trapped between them. Such guards
can be in the form of close pitched springs surrounding the duck bill and extending 3 to 5 cm
beyond so that approach to the sharp edges from the sides is prevented.

9. Others : (i) Driving pulley-belts (main drive) of the loom must be securely guarded by a
fixed guard. (ii) Ratchet and pawl or crank and tappet mechanism (including gears) should be
guarded. The edges of the guards should not be sharp so that it may injure, (iii) The tuning of
the loom should be checked once in every shift and adjusted wherever necessary (iv) Spare
pirns and their boxes should be examined for their broken edges etc., and should be rectified,
(v) The operators must be alert to join the broken ends. They should be joined only after
stopping the loom. (vi) Pall of various improperly fitted loom parts on workers while cleaning,
oiling etc., dashing against loom parts, getting caught between loom parts due to accidental
starting, striking weft box while loading or unloading pirns, striking heald wire while drawing

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ends or doing adjustments nearby etc., may cause accidents. Care should be exercised and
supervised in such operations, (vii) Suction device for pirn-battery return air system, diffusers,
sprinklers, hydrants, fire extinguishers etc. should be in good working order.

10. Noise : Hearing loss is possible due to high noise in loom shed. Noise level should be below
90 dBA. Shuttle less loom gives less noise. Good lubrication and maintenance, proper tuning,
quick replacement of damaged parts of picking mechanism and stroke resistors help to reduce
noise. Workers should wear ear protection.

1.8.5 Hazards and safety measures of processing (finishing) and folding machines
General Precautions:
1. Types of machines in use are : Shearing, singing, washing, bleaching, kiers, yarn and
cloth dyeing, printing, polymerising, sanforising, stentering, padding, finishing,
folding, bale (cloth) pressing machine etc.
2. The in-running nips between rollers and similar parts, unless the nips are inaccessible,
should be securely guarded with nip guards (bars) along the whole length on the intake
3. In dryers and similar machines where there is a risk of access from the sides to nips
referred to in item (2) above and driving gears should-be guarded to prevent such
access.
4. Other machine parts such as main and counter drive, belts, pulleys, shafts, gears and
flappers should be guarded.
5. Removing crease from die cloth on rollers should never be done when the machine is
in motion.
6. Oiling, greasing, adjustment or repairing near dangerous parts should not be done with
the machine running.
7. Entanglement with the cloth in process is a serious hazard in some of die machines.
While working here, care should be exercised and supervised.
8. To the extent possible, splash guards should be provided for containing the likely
splashes of chemicals and hot liquids at those parts of machine where- splashes
generally occur. These would also facilitate keeping the floor free from spillage.
9. Wherever risk of splashes from chemical or hot solutions exists, operators should be
provided with PPE such as face shields or goggles, hand gloves, aprons and gum-boots.
10. Wherever persons have to reach and work at parts of machine situated at heights,
suitable means of access in the form of catwalks and platforms should be provided.

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Wherever these are not provided due to infrequency of the operations or any other
reason, alternative arrangements such as scaffolding or safe ladder should be provided
and the operations carried out confirming to standard safe practices.
11. Dismantling and fitting of heavy parts of machine should be done with care. To the
extent possible, mechanical handling devices should be used for the purpose.
12. Acids, alkalis, bleach liquors or whitening agents, dyestuffs and solvents are used for
process or cleaning purpose. Their storage should be kept away in a separate room.
They should be handled in small containers with lids. Their spillage or leakage should
be avoided and cleaned immediately. Cleaning by solvent is risky. Source of ignition
must be avoided while using solvent to clean printing machine, vessel, container etc.
Then nearby electric fitting should be flameproof or switched off. Ordinary short circuit
has caused many accidents.

1.8.6 Bleaching Process:

1. Purpose is to whiten the cloth or yarn (threads). Normally chlorine, sodium

hypochlorite or hydrogen peroxide are used as bleach liquors. Their concentration
should be within safe limits. They should be stored in minimum quantities. Transfer
from bulk storage to small containers should be safe.
2. Flexible connections must be checked for safety. Emergency kit to handle chlorine leak
should be kept ready. Proper respirator, eye goggles and gloves should be worn while
working near chlorine gas or hydrogen peroxide fumes. Addition of chlorine in caustic
solution to make sodium hypochlorite should be in closed and safe system.
3. Open bleaching tanks should have fencing to prevent fall inside.
4. Bleaching machine should have fume exhaust device. Bleaching range should have nip
guard on rolls.

1.8.7 Processing Machines (Dyeing, Printing etc.):

Purpose is to wash, dye (colour), print, dry, heat, press, stretch, carbonise, mercerise, sunforise
and fold the cloth etc.

Water is used in large quantities in processing machines. Reverse Osmosis (RO) Plant should
be used to remove hardness as well as total dissolved solids (TDS) if the water available is hard
and saline (salty). Such soft and salt less water decreases rate of corrosion and increases life of
the vessels/ machines.

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Safety measures for some processing machines are stated below.

1. Washing machine : Purpose is to wash the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure) (i) Nip
Guards on rollers (ii) Catwalk and platforms to reach and work at the required places
with sufficient handhold and foothold (iii) Guard on moving flappers, (iv) Distance
guard, belt and chain guard (v) FRP and acid-proof lining if acid/alkali is used. (vi)
Clean overflow "pipe with water tank (vii) Nip guard on draw nip (viii) Air regulator
for pneumatic loading of rolls (ix) Guards on chain drives of nip rolls (x) Doors on soap
tanks (xi) safely of steam lines and (xii) Guard on chain drive of a plaiter. (xiii) Nif
guard on padding mangle.
2. Washing Tanks : Purpose is to wash the cloth (i) Railing near hot water tanks to
prevent falling into it (ii) Drain pipes and valves to drain hot water from the tank.
Simple hole, cotton plug (stopper) and bamboo use is an unsafe practice.
3. Hydroextractor : Purpose is to remove water from wet cloth, (i) Interlock basket cover
(ii) Fixed guard on pulley-belts (iii) Brake to stop basket.
4. Jigger machine: Purpose is to colour the cloth in open tub (i.e. no pressure), (i) Nip
guards on rollers and gears (ii) Splash guards should be provided on each of such
machines to minimise chances of chemicals and colour solutions splashing on persons,
(iii) Aprons and chemical goggles should be given to workers (iv) Periodic inspection
and maintenance of the floors. They should be free from water and solution so as not to
keep it slippery, (v) Pneumatic valve to control steamy flow (vi) Cover on motor pulley
belt drive and gearbox (vi) Roll motion controller.
5. Calendar machine : Its function is to give fine finish (ironing) by passing the cloth
through calendar rolls or bowls, (i) Auto temperature control to prevent over heating
(ii) Nip guards on in-running nips (iii) Guards on main motor drive and reduction gears,
(iv) Heavy rolls should be handled mechanically (v) Contact with hot rolls may cause
burn injury. Care should be taken while working at heights (vi) When steam pressure
is above atmospheric pressure. Rule 61 GFR should be complied with. All safety
devices should be properly maintained.
6. Drying machines: Purpose is to dry cloth, (i) Nip guards on rotating rolls and mangle
rolls. Guards on chain, bevel gears, winch drive and stack drive, (ii) Platform, foothold
and handhold to work at heights (iii) Hot cylinders of drying range may cause burn
injury.

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7. Kiers and Agers: Purpose is heating by steam pressure, (i) While tightening the eye
bolts of kier, bars used should be of such construction that they hold the eye bolt
securely and do not slip off. (ii) Catwalks and platforms to work on the top of the Kier
(iii) Care form coming into contact with the hot parts of the kier (iv) Pressure reducing
valve, safety valve, pressure gauge, stop valve etc. should be properly maintained for
the safe working pressure inside. Safety valve and pressure gauge should be provided
on jacket also (v) Hydraulic pressure test at every two years (vi) Chain pulley block or
hoist to lift heavy parts.
8. Stenter machine: Purpose is to dry cloth by passing it through heat chambers. Padding
mangle, feeding zone, heating zone (chambers), batching and plaiting are main
divisions (i) Nip guard between in-running rolls and rollers of the padding mangle,
guard on uncurler nip, main drive and bevel gears (ii) Catwalks or platforms for
working at heights, (iii) Temperature control devices (iv) Effective exhaust hood and
chimney for removal of fumes from the machine, (v) Effective and sufficient exhaust
fans in the workroom (vi) Scouring process i.e. oil removal from fabric before feeding
it to the stenter machine to reduce the oil fumes, (vii) Textometer to detect moisture
content, (viii) Covers on roll drive chain box, overfeed chain drive, batching and plaiter
drive (ix) 3-way pneumatic oil flow control valve where oil heaters are used.
9. Pladding machine: (i) Nip guard on in-running rolls and padding mangle (ii) Guard
on main drive, roll chain drive and gear drive (iii) Pressure regulator for pneumatic
loading of rolls. drive, roll chain drive and gear drive, (iii) Pressure regulator for
pneumatic loading of rolls.
10. Jet Dyeing machines -.Purpose is to colour the cloth under steam pressure, (i) PRV or
pressure regulator in pressure feed line (ii) Adequate safety valve and rupture disc -
both of at least .1.5 inch (dia) size and in parallel on the top of the vapour cell (iii) High
pressure alarm and automatic or manual de-pressure (venting) device to operate at that
alarm (iv) Use of heat exchanger for indirect heating and cooling (v) Periodical
hydraulic tests and NDT for corrosion effects (vi) Non-corrosive metal, joints and body
parts (vii) Flap guard near filter cover at the bottom and internal disc to restrict outflow
(viii) Temperature gauge near the pressure gauge on the vessel (ix) Water, steam and
air control valves (x) Manhole cover interlocked with depressure device (xi) Maximum
pressure indicator and automatic pressure controller (xii) Trained operator (xiii)
Effective supervision and auto programming.

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11. Drum washer : It is a washing machine under steam pressure, (i) Fixed guards on belt
and chain drive (ii) Pressure Reducing Valve, Safety Valve, rupture disc, proper nut
bolts and fitting or welding, proper material of construction and Pressure Gauge on
steam supply line (iii) Drum motion fixing device (locking) while loading and
unloading. Internal drum should not rotate while loading or unloading it. It should be
mechanically locked. Power should also be deenergised at that time.
12. Expander machine : (i) Nip guard on rollers and between the cloth in process and the
rollers (ii) Parts of machine should be periodically examined to detect defective
conditions such as protruding nails.
13. Stitching and sewing machine : (i) Gap between the needle and the machine table
should be guarded to 'prevent access to this zone. (ii) Electric earthing should be proper
and ELCB should be provided in power supply line.
14. Printing machine: Purpose is to print the cloth by machine. Various types of machines
are in use. (i) Nip guards on the printing roller, cloth roller and on the lapping and a
roller (ii) While removing a heavy roll from the machine, care should be taken' or the
mechanical handling should be used. (iii) Care should be exercised while changing a
design roller otherwise a hand may be caught between the design roller and control
roller (iv) Care should be taken while turning a handle to apply pressure to the printing
rollers otherwise a worker may slip and fall from height (v) The doctor blade of the
machine should be removed carefully otherwise it may slip and its sharp edge may
cause injury. (vi) Fixed guards on pulley-belt drive, sector, connecting (eccentric) rod,
repeat-setting device and under table rollers (vi) Safety while cleaning blanket.
15. Stretching machine: Nip guard between running cloth and roller.
16. Shearing and Cropping machine: (i) Rotating cutters should be interlocked by a
transparent cover, (ii) Guards on main drive, suction blower and dust chamber and (iii)
Metal detector are necessary.
17. Sanforizing and Palmer machine: Its function is to give final finish (ironing) to the
cloth.
18. Mercerising machine: Nip guard on mangle rolls, guards on main drive coupling, chain
drive, bevel gears, mangle roll gears, chain return wheel, squeeze roll belt drive,
squeeze rolls, impregnator nip between float roll and top roll, stabilizer-tension roll and
top roll nip and splash guard on caustic tank are necessary.

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19. Carbonising unit: Its function is carbonising i.e. acid burning of cotton fibre of the
blended cloth. (i) Acid bath (70% H,SO„) should have safe overflow device and
splash, guards on both sides (ii) Nip guard on squeeze rolls (iii) FRP tray and acid-proof
flooring, PVC valves for acid use and use of PPE and safety shower by workers.
20. Folding machine: (i) The crank-wheel and reciprocating arm should be guarded to
prevent hit injury, (ii) Fixed guard on main drive.
21. Towel cutting machine : Cutting edge should be guarded at the feeding end of towel.

In addition to above textile machine guarding, general safety measures for metal working
machinery, lifting machines, material handling, hand tools, hand trucks, chemicals,
flooring, fire and health hazards, must also be provided and maintained. Welfare facilities
of canteens, lunch/rest room, ambulance room, creche, welfare and safety officers should
also be provided.

1.9 Health hazards and controls:

Some important health hazards in a textile industry are as follows:

Accidents to fingers, hands and other body parts are due to a variety of textile machinery and
their hundreds of moving parts. Constant machine guarding is the best solution. Noise and
vibration are incidental hazards.

Byssionosis is a lung disease due to prolonged exposure to high concentration of cotton dust.
Extraction and suppression is the best remedy. Increased humidity and temperature cause
discomfort to workers. Limits of dry and wet bulb temperatures should be maintained. Well
designed and maintained AC plants are more comfortable.

1. Health Hazards in Cotton Textile Industry:

Cotton Dust and Byssinosis: According one survey 20% (approx. 3 lakh) of the textile
workers in mills were found victim of byssionosis. It was 14% in carding section and 10% in
spinning and winding sections.

Measurement of cotton dust concentration in 8 units in India showed it from 3.4 to 5.6 mg/m"
in blow room and 0.1 to 2.2 mg/m3 in card room. Another survey showed cotton dust level as
under:

At Kanpur - 7.85 mg/m3

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At Delhi - 5.50 mg/m3

At Ahmedabad - 4.00 mg/m3

At Mumbai - 3.90 mg/m3

The threshold limit suggested is 0.2 to 0.75 mg/m3 2nd Schedule of the Factories Act prescribes
0.2 mg/m3 lint free raw cotton dust. ILO prescribed cotton dust values are as under: TWA
OSHA -

0.2 mg/ m3 in yarn manufacturing.

0.5 mg/m3 in other operations.

0.75 mg/ m3 in slashing and weaving.

Vacuum stripping and suction exhaust arrangement attached to carding machines, lint and dust
collectors and general exhaust ventilation are necessary to minimise the flying cotton dust.
Proper dust mask or cotton cloth should be given to workers.Byssionosis is an occupational
disease caused to many mill workers by the cotton -dust. This name was given by Proust in
1877. It is a lung disease like TB or Asthma and reduces working capacity of a worker. After
working for 5 to 10 years in cotton dust area, respiratory problem starts. Initial symptoms are
cough or bronchitis, chest pain, breathlessness, emphysema and phlegm. Ultimately the lungs
are damaged. The victim gets exhausted soon by a small work. He feels energy loss and
becomes unfit to work. Its major hazard area is spinning department, though it can happen to
winders and weavers and also to flax, hemp or jute workers. Under section 89 and the Third
Schedule of the Factories Act, byssionosis is a notifiable occupational disease and the medical
practitioner noticing this disease has to report to the Inspector of Factories, otherwise he is
liable for penalty.

For its diagnosis (1) Occupational history of the worker and (2) Lung function test are required.
The effected worker is examined on tKo-first day after his holiday and also at the"~nd of his
shift after working. His loss of working capacity is measured. Workman Compensation is
available under WC Act or ESI Act.

Factory Medical Officer should check such workers periodically. His workplace must be
changed soon after the first detection. X-ray and gradation reports should be maintained. There
is no medical remedy for this disease. Therefore its prevention is the only best solution. Local

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exhaust ventilation attached with machine, room exhaust ventilation, water sprinklers and use
of cotton dust mask or respirator are the effective remedial measures.

Workers engaged in cleaning of cotton dust or in its high concentration must be provided with
air line respirator and hood or efficient face mask. Instead of broom-stick cleaning, vacuum
cleaning machine should be used to minimise the flying particles.

2. Heat and Humidity: Higher temperature due to closed operations and work rooms,
humidity (to reduce thread breakage), heat generating processes such as sizing, kiers, drying
range, stenter, hotdyeing, singeing, polymerising or curing, steam and oil heaters, hot air
dryers, boilers etc., create higher temperature in spinning and processing departments which if
exceeds 29.5°C (85°F) (threshold or effective temperature), or humidity is increased, causes
discomfort and fall in productivity. Therefore the room temperature" must be, controlled @
25.5 to 29.5°C (78 to 85°F) by good natural and mechanical ventilation (See Chapter 10).
Workers should be relieved at short interval from high temperature zone. Air conditioning is
desirable. Hot metal parts should be insulated.

Noise : High noise in weaving and ring frame department causes mental stresses and may result
in a hearing loss which is an occupational disease under the Factories. Act. Permissible limit
of 90 dB for 8 hr. working should not be exceeded.

One survey in a mill'at Bombay indicated the noise levels in Spinning Dept. - 96.5 dB,
Doubling machines - 97.6 dB, Winding machines - 98.5 dB, Auto loom shed - 99 dB and Non-
auto loom shed - 102 dB. Use of sound absorbing material is effective but expensive. Use of
ear muffs or ear plugs (glass wool) is the most practical remedy and the workers must be trained
to wear them. In Nigeria, it was observed that due to use of ear protection individual efficiency
was increased by 12% and overall production by 1%. The long term solution is the design of
noiseless looms.

3. Weaver's Cough: This is caused by inhalation of sizing materials, 50% of which comes out
during weaving. As the name suggests the workers of loom shed are prone to it. Good
ventilation dilutes the effect.

4. Cancer and Coronary diseases : These diseases like bladder cancer, chrome eczema or
chrome poisoning, dermatitis are caused due to the chemicals like lead chromate, potassium or
sodium bichromate, toxic solvents, titanium dioxide, hydrogen sulphide, sulphur dioxide and

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trioxide. Local exhaust system near toxic fume generation, chemical respirators, gloves, aprons
etc. are useful. Non or less hazardous substitutes should be utilised. Medical health check-ups
and advice should be followed. Training and supervision will also help.

5. Machinery hazards: Foregoing parts 6 to 8 have classified and explained process-wise

machine hazards in textile industry. Newer machinery has reduced many of these hazards. The
most dangerous parts of textile machines are main motor and gear drives, head stock gearing
of spinning frames, revolving beaters of blow-room machines, card cylinder, flying shuttles
and loom gears, picking stick and in-running rolls of processing machinery. Specific hazards
of jet dyeing and other pressure vessels have also caused many accidents. The fixed guards,
interlocked guards, nip guards and other safety devices should not be tempered with or kept
open while machinery is in motion:

6. Material handling: Heavy rolls and other machine parts and bulk containers are to be
handled in textile industry. Excessive weights may cause health injuries, strain and pain.
Mechanical aids should be used to lift, carry and handle such heavy loads.

7. Poor lighting: Many textile processes require high standards of illumination, such as
drawing in threads through healds and reed, weaving and processing of coloured cloth, jacquard
(design) weaving, fabric defect checking, folding and packing etc. Poor lighting on such
processes causes eye strain. Poor lighting in passage ways, corners, stairs, platforms, confined
spaces, tanks, pits and vessels, unguarded machinery and slippery surfaces may cause
accidents. Therefore in addition to providing sufficient lighting (see Part 5 of Chapter-9),
window glasses, lamps and tubes should be regularly cleaned and local lighting should be
provided where required.

8. Shuttle Kissing: Suction shuttles of ordinary (non-auto) looms need thread (weft) sucking
by mouth through shuttle eye (small hole) and pirn bobbin many times during a day. Dirt, dust
or broken fibre ends are drawn into the throat. The same shuttle may be used by different
workers in different shifts. Therefore this is unhygenic and infectious method. Non-suction
shuttle or pirn bobbin battery requiring no kissing by mouth is the only remedy.

9. Overtime work : Legal limit of 8 hours a shift is hardly followed in thousands of small and
medium scale textile industries. 12 hours a shift has become a routine working. This certainly
causes health hazards. This causes more harm to women and child workers. More working

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hours cause physical, mental and nervous strain and result in more accidents and sickness rates.
Full co-operation of employers and employees can solve this problem.

10. Welfare provisions: Large scale factories have lunch room, rest room, canteen, ambulance
room, creche, washing facilities, free medical examinations, transport facilities etc. But
majority of small and medium scale factories do not have such facilities. This affects the health
and general wellbeing of the workers.

11. Fire and Explosion hazards: Cotton is easily combustible material. Solvents used in
processing department can cause fire and explosion both. For details see part just following.

2. CEMENT INDUSTRY

2.1 Manufacture:

Cement is mainly made from limestone, clay and small amounts of other metallic oxides,
which, when mixed with a small amount of water, sets to a hard stone-like substance in a few
hours. It is a main building material working as a hydraulic bonding agent.

Types of cement are portland, pozzolana, calcium aluminate and special or corrosion-resistant
cement. Grades are more than fifty.

Cement is a mixture of four essential raw materials i.e. 'calcium, silicon, aluminium andiron.
Calcium is obtained from limestone or cement rock or hydraulic calcium silicate i.e. clinker or
chalk. Silicon, aluminium and iron can be obtained together from clay or shale or slate or
separately from sand, bauxite on and iron ore respectively. Gypsum, fly ash and bias furnace
slag are also added in certain proportions Composition of these materials should be proper
otherwise the property or quality may change.

Manufacturing process is wet process (old one) dry process (new) or the combined process.
The raw materials are finely ground, mixed and heated (burned) in a rotary kiln to form cement
clinker During calcining, clinker compounds are also obtained. Various reactions such as
evaporation of water, evolution of CO and reaction between lime and clay take place during
burning. Liquid formation begins at 1250 °C and fusion occurs near the end of the process.
Closed circuit grinding is preferred to open circuit grinding. Process flow chart of the combined
process is shown below.

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2.2 Hazards and Controls:

In quarries where limestone, clay, gypsum etc. are extracted, hazards of dusts during drilling
and crushing, fall of rock and earth, blasting and bad weather conditions are obvious.

In cement processing area dust levels were found from 41 to 384 mg/m", the highest being at
sieving, cement packing and clinker grinding. Modern plants using wet process have 15-20
mg/nr" level. Free silica content in dust is also possible. Electrostatic filters are useful to reduce
the air pollution.

High temperature near furnace doors, high noise (upto 120 dB) near ball mills, CO near
limestone kiln and dusting at most of the places including conveyor and manual handling cause
health hazards. Pathological disorders are found in respiratory, digestive and nervous system,
and also in skin, hearing, vision and rheumatic disorders.

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Cement Pneumoconiosis may appear after prolonged exposure. Silicosis may not occur in
cement plant (because of. absence of free silica) but may occur in refractory processes due to
dust containing free silica.

TLV (ACGIH) for Calcium oxide is 2 mg/ m3 and Aluminium oxide 10 mg/ " USSR-MAC
values are as under-:

Cement dust without free silica 6 mg/ m3

Cement dust with free silica <10% 5 mg/ m3

Asbestos cement dust with 5 mg/m3

asbestos >10%

Similarly, the same Schedule prescribes 2 mg/ m3 respirable dust fraction containing less than
5% quartz as TLV for coal dust.

Cabins of excavators in quarries should be fully closed and the drivers should be supplied fresh
air through respirators. Modern surface mining machines do many operations safely. They dig
the surface, collect extracted material in ,a trailer, resurface the dug land and utilise wet process
and dust suppression system. Dust suppression measures near drilling, crushing and blasting,
keeping away (at a distance) from CO possibility at blasting points (fumes), enclosures to dusty
processes and to conveyor belts including their drives and transfer points, electrostatic and bag
filters at clinker kiln stacks, sieving and packing processes, cold air flow (showers) at hot
places, thermal screening, shower baths and barrier creams for skin protection and
desensitisation treatment in case of eczema are all important safety measures.

IS : Cement, hydraulic - glossary 4845, sampling 3535, physical tests 4031, flow table 5512,
chemical analysis 4032, colorimetric analysis 12423, bag, jute cloth 12001, jute bag for packing
2580, polypropylene 11653, high alumina for structural use 6452, masonary 3466, mastic
3709, test for permeability 3085, oil-well 8229, paint 5410, pipe asbestos 9633, 9627, plants-
emission limits for particulate matter 10693, control of air pollution 12002, plaster finishes
1661, Portland - blast furnace Slag 455, high strength 8112, hydrophobic 8043, low heat 269,
12600, pozzolana 1489, rapid hardening 8041, sulphate resisting 12330, white 8042, rotary
kilns 8125, refractories for kilns 10607, standard sand for testing 650, Testing apparatus -
10078, 5516, 5514, 5536, 7509, 7510, 9350, 5724, 5513, waterproofing compounds 2645, Coal

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for manufacture 12770, cement concrete 12727, tiles for canal lining .10646, asbestos cement-
2098, 1626, 3140, 7639, 11450, bone cement 8681.

3. Fertiliser industry:
Fertilisers are natural (manure) or artificial. Artificial fertilisers are produced in chemical plants
and they may be organic or inorganic, nitrogenous, phosphatic, potash and trace element
fertilisers. In the warehousing stage, phosphate. Potassium-salt and other dusts are released. In
chemical processing plant, air pollution by toxic gases (Fluorine compounds, H2SO4, NO, HCI,
CO and NH3, gases) and dust, high air temperature and noise are noticed. Closed and efficient
ventilation is necessary. In finishing processes, weighing, bagging and storing, gaseous
emissions and fluorine compounds are released. Phosphates and other raw materials contain
10% or more free silica which may cause pneumoconiosis. The dust of soluble fertilisers causes
irritation. The safety measures include:

1. Mechanisation and automation of production processes, provision of remote control, careful

assembly and safe operation of equipment and heat insulation.

2. Process segregation and walls and floor covering to absorb fluorine compounds.

3. General ventilation, exhaust ventilation of enclosed plant, cleaning of exhaust air and waste
water.

4. Education and personal hygiene.

5. Use of PPF and safety showers.

6. Safety and sanitary supervision.

7. Pre and post medical examination including radiographs of the locomotor system and lungs.

IS : Fertiliser - Glossary 1304, sampling and tests 6092, bagged, handling and storage 5985,
mixtures 7863, 9024, effluents - tolerances 2590, treatment and disposal 9841, application
equipment glossary 9855, Metering mechanism plate type 12599, feed roller type 12613, Urea
ammonium phosphate based 8359, nitrophosphate based 7131, seed drills 6316, 6813,
Phosphatic fertiliser industry. Limits of emissions 8635. -

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4. Leather industry
Leather is the skin of animals when tanned and prepared for human or industrial use. Leather
processing includes cutting and incision, chasing, moulding, embossing, hammering, mosaic
formation, trimming, bonding, stitching and dyeing. Industrial safety measures include :

1. Benzene and any aromatic solvents containing benzene should be replaced with
substances in the aliphatic series.
2. Toxic concentrations should be controlled by efficient exhaust ventilation.
3. As the solvents may produce fire and explosion, flameproof electric fitting and
elimination of sources of ignition are necessary.
4. Dyeing operations should be fully mechanised or enclosed to avoid human contact.
5. Personal protective equipment.
6. Medical check-ups.
7. Guarding of machinery and safe use of knives and hammers etc.

IS : Leather - glossary 1640, clothing protective 6153, garments 12718, chromed buff calf skin
8121, apron 3446, chemical testing, chrome- belt lace 575, high altitude gloves 5866, footwear
sampling 2051, gas meter diaphragms 9155, leg guard 3946, oil seals and washers 3020,
gauntlets - for steel workers 2574, mittens for steel Workers 2575, welders 2573, harness 580,
belting for power transmission 2240, round for small machines 2241, V-open ended, cogged
10022, endless flat for lenix drive system 12854, hydraulic 581, loom-pickers 8546, picking
band 1225, shuttle cock caps 4102, laces, footwear 7721, Safety-belt & strap, lineman's 3521,
boots for miners 1989, boots for metal industry 3737, shoes for women miners 11225, footwear
with moulding sole 11226, 5677, industry effluent 5183, lining 3840, polish wax emulsion
6045, sampling 5868, sandal for men 6493, sole 579, boards for insoles 5867, shoes non-slip
11543, leather cloth vinyl coated fabric 1259, leather roid for electrical purposes 4819, leathers
3840, chemical testing of leather 582, physical testing of leather 5914, utility glove 11230,
slickers for leather industry 5712.

5. Sugar industry
The growth of sugar factories is very wide and mostly in co-operative sector. Except some
small Khandsari units, generally the sugar mills are large factories running with heavy
machinery and big-sized vessels, employing more than 1000 workers and occupying a bigger
area for the mill plant, sugar cane transport vehicles, sugar godowns, bagasse (crushed fibrous

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waste) stocks and long conveyor belts, molasses tanks, solvent extraction plant if provided,
residential facilities for mill workers and offices for other related activities.

The nature of sugar mill machinery pose mostly the mechanical hazards like crush injuries,
falls or slipping from heights, falling into pit or hot sugar juice, hurt by falling bodies or sugar
bags, fumes and gases (SO , HCI, CO, CO,), steam at many places, sugar cane dust (may cause
bagassosis), noise and vibration due to centrifuge machines and vibrating screens, packing
machines and large size crushing gears.

In the process, sugar canes are put on feed (rolling) carrier, pushed ahead by steel beaters and
crushed in two to three sets of heavy rollers. The initial juice contains bagass fibres, clay, grit,
albumen, pectin etc. Bagass fibres cause lung disease known as Bagassosis. The juice is then
heated and chemical agents are added to remove impurities and to get saccharose. After
clarification (through heating) the juice is concentrated in vacuum evaporators till it
precipitates in the form of greyish crystals. The concentrated juice (molasses) contains 45%
water. By centrifuging the water is separated and brownish granulated sugar (brown sugar) is
filtered. White sugar is made by refining (Sulpher) process. The filtered syrup is evaporated in
quadruple effect evaporators, vacuum pans and crystallisers till it crystallises. Centrifugation
is again applied to get white crystalline sugar. Vibrating screens are used to separate sugar
crystals in different sizes (grades). It is then weighed, begged and sent to the sugar godowns.

The safety measures include -

5.1 Cane Milling Plant:

1. Cane handling platform with gantry and gantry columns (not more than 10 m. apart)
attendance platform, approach staircase, sling bar and grab attachment, mechanical/
electrical controls from crane operator's cabin.
2. Fixed sound guards on motor and gear drives of feeder tables, steel structure to
withstand heavy shocks, inclined tail end to feed into the main carrier.
3. Cane carrier (1800 mm wide), 3 strands chain (150 mm pitch) and sprockets with heavy
guards, hood 'to cover cane knives with inspection door and head-shaft and gears with
guards.
4. The cane carrier motors be interlocked with the cane leveller and cutter motors so that
the cane carrier stops when either of these motors trips.

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5. Cane feeding chute from cane carrier to the crusher at an angle of 50° from the
horizontal. The chute length should be more than 3.5 m.
6. Guards on gear and motor drives of cane kicker - a rotating shaft (dia > 125 mm)
mounted with more than 20 blades or arms.
7. Totally enclosed reinforced steel hood with suitable swing flaps and bolted top covers
on cane leveller with more than 42 knives and cane cutter with more than 52 knives.
The knives should be of specially shock resisting steel with carbide tips or stellited
cutting edges. Guard on flywheel of the shaft.
8. Crushing mills may be of following types:
a. Based on sugar cane crushing capacity per day-
b. For 2500 tonnes-12 rollers-4 steam turbines
c. For 3500 tonnes-18 rollers-6 steam turbines
d. Fixed guards on mill gearing, flexible couplings and mill rollers (max. speed 18
mt/min).
9. The juice gutter under the mills shall be made of brass or copper lined MS plates or
aluminium plates of sufficient strength.
10. Cylindrical whirler type pumps of 75 m3/h at 10 m head, non-corrosive, non-choking
type, and with bronze impellers.
11. Vertical guard or fencing on bagass elevator and conveyor and also surrounding floor
or feed opening and horizontal guards or grills on moving slats and bagass scrappers.
12. A gangway of open flooring with hand railing alongside the whole length of the
conveyor with access ladders at different platforms including boiler control platform.

5.2 Clarification Plant:

1. Juice heaters with necessary valves, venting and condensate extraction device with
collection tanks and safety for steam use. Solid drawn brass tubes for heaters with 42
mm ID, 45 mm OD and total length of tubes not exceeding 4.5 mt
2. Continuous juice sulphitation unit, with lime milk proportioning arrangement, guards
on lime slacker motors, couplings and gear drives and stirres drives. SO2 absorption
tower with safe vent, effective stirrer, sulphur furnace with cooling water jacket for
vertical gas pipes and scrubbers made of cast iron.
3. Clarifier with flash tank, juice overflow box, scrapper drive, mud overflow box,
liquidating pump etc.

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4. Vacuum rotary mud filter with bagacillo sifter, recirculation pump, juice trough, filtrate
pumps and receivers, mud conveyor belt, juice separator, air blower, cyclone separator
for vacuum filters, cake washing hot water pumps and guards for pump couplings and
motor drives.

5.3 Evaporation and Boiling Plant:

A quadruple effect evaporator with four bodies (vertical tanks) with two syrup extraction
pumps (one standby), safety valve in the vapour space to open at 0.2 kg/ m2, pressure and
vacuum (compound) gauges, thermometers, condensate extraction pumps, grit catchers, vapour
space height more than twice the calandria height, calandria (bottom heating zone) height not
exceeding 2 mt, domes and fittings of suitable save-all design, the calandria tubes should be
solid drawn with 42 mm ID, 45 mm OD, tubes spacing more than 10 mm. and vapour condenser
at the end.

Syrup and molasses tanks (13 to 15 tanks), bund or dyke, heating coil to molasses tanks, wash
out connection to each tank, wash out gutter with suitable valves, working platform with
handrails and approach stairs along the storage tanks. One molasses dilution tank with stirrer,
water and steam connection is also necessary.

Vacuum pans, condensers and injection water pumps requirement is as under :

For plant of Vacuum pans Condensers Water pumps

2500 T 5 6 6
3500 T 7 8 8

Vacuum pans are calandria of low head rapid boiling type with steam tubes (brass), compound
gauges, thermometers, various pipelines and fittings, connections with crystallisers and multi-
jet condensers, heavy molasses and hot water connection through nonreturn valves, guards on
stirrer drives and gears, the injection water pumps - centrifugal and directly coupled, are all
necessary.

5.4 Cooling, Curing and Grading Plant:

Heavy U-type air cooled and water cooled crystallisers are required with stirring arrangement,
guards on stirrer and gear drives and centrifugal machines (15 for 2500 T plant and 20 for 3500
T plant). Superheated wash water or steam connection, timer controlled automatic brakes,

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solenoid and pneumatic valves, ploughing speed not exceeding 60 rpm, connection with
magma mixtures, guards on magma mixture drives, guards on pug mill drives, reduction gears
and air-compressor drives, steam connections with NRV for magma and molasses lines, sugar
melter, grass hoppers and conveyors, hot and cold air blowing, sugar elevators and graders
(vibrators) with dust catching arrangement, sugar weighing machines, bag stitching machines,
molasses weighing scale and final molasses storage tank (3 to 4) each of 4000 m" capacity as
per IS specification.

Other plants viz. Boiler and steam generating plant. Power generating plant and Miscellaneous
e.g. reducing valves, pipelines, supporting structure, service tanks, water pumps etc. also need
due consideration.

Dust, fume and gas extractors, noise and vibration dampers and medical examination of
workers are also required.

IS : Sugar laboratories 1679, 5527, godown construction 4772, vacuum pan grading 498, filter
cloth 1178, inter-carrier chains 9069, sprockets 12198, effluent treatment 4903, crusher 1973,
6983, 6997, juice hygienic code for sale 8124, stripper 7789.

6. Ceramics industries:
A ceramics defined as inorganic, non-metallic, solid material comprising metal, non-metal or
metalloid atoms primarily held in ionic and covalent bond.

Ceramics are classified as inorganic and nonmetallic materials that are essential to our daily
lifestyle. Ceramic and materials engineers are the people who design the processes in which
these products can be made, create new types of ceramic products, and find different uses for
ceramic products in everyday life.

Ceramics are all around us. This category of materials includes things like tile, bricks, plates,
glass, and toilets. Ceramics can be found in products like watches (quartz tuning forks-the time
keeping devices in watches), snow skies (piezoelectric-ceramics that stress when a voltage is
applied to them), automobiles (sparkplugs and ceramic engine parts found in racecars), and
phone lines. They can also be found on space shuttles, appliances (enamel coatings), and
airplanes (nose cones).

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Depending on their method of formation, ceramics can be dense or lightweight. Typically,

they will demonstrate excellent strength and hardness properties; however, they are often brittle
in nature. Ceramics can also be formed to serve as electrically conductive materials, objects
allowing electricity to pass through their mass, or insulators, materials preventing the flow of
electricity. Some ceramics, like superconductors, also display magnetic properties.

Ceramics are generally made by taking mixtures of clay, earthen elements, powders, and water
and shaping them into desired forms. Once the ceramic has been shaped, it is fired in a high
temperature oven known as a kiln. Often, ceramics are covered in decorative, waterproof,
paint-like substances known as glazes.

6.1 Raw materials:

These are some raw materials used in ceramic industries for glaze preparation and ceramic
body preparation.

Alumina Cobalt Oxide Potassium Feldspar Tin Oxide

Ball Clay Dolomite Potassium Nitrate Titanium Dioxide

Barium Carbonate Iron Oxide Quartz Wollastonite

Bentonite Kaolin Silica Flour Zinc Oxide

Calcium Oxide Lithium Feldspar Sodium Carbonate Zirconium Silicate

Cerium Oxide Magnesium Oxide Sodium Feldspar

Chromium Oxide Nepheline Syenite Synthetic Micas

Clay Nickel Oxide Talcum

1. Clay

1. Clays are minerals composed of hydrated aluminum silicates, often containing large
amounts of crystalline silica.
2. Other impurities may include organic matter or sulfur compounds.
3. Sometimes, grog (ground firebrick), sand, talc, vermiculite, perlite, and small amounts
of minerals such as barium carbonate and metal oxides, are added to modify clay
properties.
4. Clays can be worked by hand or on the potter's wheel, or cast in a clay slurry into molds.

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Hazards:

1. There have been known cases of silicosis, or "potter's rot, from chronic inhalation of large
amounts of free silica during clay mixing. Symptoms of silicosis include: shortness of
breath, dry cough, emphysema, and high susceptibility to lung infections such as
tuberculosis. The disease may take years to develop. Silica dust exposure is not hazardous
by skin contact or ingestion.`
2. Chronic inhalation of kaolin is moderately hazardous, and can result in kaolinosis, a disease
in which the lungs become mechanically clogged.
3. Asbestos is extremely toxic by inhalation and possibly by ingestion. Asbestos inhalation
may cause asbestosis, lung cancer, mesothelioma, stomach cancer, and intestinal cancer.
4. Sand, perlite, grog, and vermiculite contain free silica and are, therefore, highly toxic by
inhalation. Vermiculite is also frequently contaminated with asbestos.
5. There is a danger of accidents if clay or water can be added while the mixer is in operation.
6. Bags of clay and glaze materials can be very heavy, and lifting can cause back problems.
7. Hypersensitivity pneumonia, asthma, or other respiratory problems may occur with
exposure to molds growing in wet clay that is being soured or aged in a damp place, in slips
that stand for months, or with inhalation of dry aged clay. Molds can cause or exacerbate
skin problems and change the workability of clay.
8. Throwing on a potter's wheel for long periods of time can result in carpel tunnel syndrome
because of the awkward position of the wrists. Pain, numbness and/or pins and needles in
the thumb and first three fingers, are common symptoms. Back problems can occur from
bending over the potter’s wheel for long periods of time.
9. Hand contact with wet clay can result in abrasion and dryness of fingertips and
hands. Moving parts of kick wheels can cause cuts and abrasions.
10. Clay scraps on the floor; bench and other surfaces can dry and pulverize, producing an
inhalation hazard due to the presence of free silica. Similarly, reconditioning clay by
pulverization and sanding finished green ware can create very high concentrations of
hazardous silica dust.

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Precautions:

1. Use premixed clay to avoid exposure to large quantities of clay dust.

2. Clay storage and mixing should take place in a separate room. Bags of clay (and other
pottery materials) should be stacked on palettes or grids off the floor for easier clean-up.
3. All clay mixers should be equipped with local exhaust ventilation to remove fine silica dust
particles from the air.

1. Clay mixers should be equipped with proper machine guards so that they cannot be opened to
add clay or water while the mixer blades are turning.
2. Wear separate work clothes while in the studio. Choose clothes of material and design that
don't trap dust. Wash these clothes weekly and separately from other laundry.
3. Avoid contact of clay with broken skin. Use a skin moisturizer.
4. To prevent back problems, always lift with knees bent. Also, use a standup wheel or elevate
electric wheels to a height that doesn't require bending over. Exercise and massage may relieve
minor muscular pain.
5. Keep wrists in unflexed position as much as possible to prevent carpel tunnel syndrome. Take
frequent work breaks.
6. Be careful of the moving parts on kick wheels.
7. Recondition clay by cutting still-wet clay into small pieces, letting them air-dry, and soak in
water.
8. Finish green ware while still wet or damp with a fine sponge instead of sanding when dry. Do
not sand green ware containing fibrous talc.
9. Wet mop floors and work surfaces daily to minimize dust levels and prevent dry scraps from
becoming pulverized.

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2. Glazes
Glazes used to color or finish clay pieces are a mixture of silica, fluxes and colorants. Common
fluxes include lead, barium, lithium, calcium and sodium, and are used to lower the melting
point of silica. The actual colorants, which are an assortment of metal oxides usually account
for less than 5% of the glaze by weight

Glaze components are weighed, sorted and mixed with water. These materials are often in fine
powdered form, and result in high dust exposures. Glazes can be dipped, brushed, poured, or
sprayed on the ceramic piece.

Hazards:

1. Lead compounds are highly toxic by inhalation or ingestion. Symptoms of lead poisoning
include: damage to the peripheral nervous system, brain, kidney, or gastrointestinal system, as
well as anemia, chromosomal damage, birth defects and miscarriages.
2. Lead-glazed food ware can leach lead if not fired properly, or if the glaze composition is not
correctly adjusted. For example, the addition of copper to lead frits renders a higher solubility
of lead in the final fired ware. Acidic drinks and foods such as tomato juice, citric juices, sodas,
tea, or coffee, can increase this hazard.
3. A glaze label marked "lead-safe" means that the finished ware, if fired properly, will not release
lead into food or drink. The actual glaze is still hazardous to handle and fire and may contain
lead. Adequate control over firing conditions is very difficult in the craft studio.
4. Other fluxes such as barium and lithium are also highly toxic by inhalation, but less so than
lead.
5. Certain colorant compounds of particular metals are known or probable human carcinogens,
including: arsenic, beryllium, cadmium, chromium (VI), nickel, and uranium.

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6. Antimony, barium, cobalt, lead, lithium, manganese, and vanadium colorant compounds are
highly toxic by inhalation.
7. Antimony, arsenic, chromium, vanadium, and nickel compounds are moderately toxic by skin
contact.
8. Free silica occurs in many of the clays, plant ash, flint, quartz feldspars, talc, etc. used in
glazes. See the discussion above for the hazards of silica and the disease silicosis. Weighing
and mixing glazes can result in the inhalation of these toxic materials.
9. Soda ash, potassium carbonate, alkaline feldspars, and fluorspar used in glazes are skin
irritants.
10. Spray application of glazes is very hazardous because of the potential inhalation of glaze mists.
11. Dipping, pouring, and brushing certain glazes may cause skin irritation and accidental ingestion
due to careless personal hygiene habits.
12. Glazes containing solvents are both flammable and hazardous.

Precautions:

1. Use lead-free glazes. If the glaze does not state "lead-free" or "leadless" on the label, assume
it contains lead until proven otherwise.
2. Lead glazes should only be used on non-food ware items. Design lead-glazed pieces so that
they won't be used for food or drink. Lead-glazed pottery should be labeled as lead-containing.
3. If possible, don't use colorants that are known human carcinogens and avoid probable human
carcinogens. There is no known safe level of exposure to carcinogens.
4. Consider wearing a respiratory when weighing and mixing powdered. Wet glazes are not an
inhalation hazard. Good housekeeping procedures and cleanup of spills reduce the risk of
inhalation or ingestion of toxic dusts. Wet mop spilled powders.

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5. Gloves should be worn while handling wet or dry glazes.

6. Good dilution ventilation or local exhaust ventilation should be available when applying
solvent-containing glazes.
7. Basic personal hygiene rules should be followed including restricting eating, drinking, or
smoking in the studio, and wearing personal protective equipment such as gloves, and separate
work clothes or coveralls. Wash hands after work. Leftover glazes and glaze scrapings can be
homogenized, combined, tested, and used as a glaze.

3. Kilns:
Electric kilns and fuel-fired kilns are used to heat the pottery to the desired firing
temperature. The most common type is the electric kilns. Heating elements heat the kiln as
electric current passes through the coils. The temperature rises until the kiln is shut off.

Fuel-fired kilns are heated by burning gas (natural or propane), oil, wood, coke, charcoal or
other materials. Propane gas or natural gas is used most often. These kilns can be either located
indoors or outdoors. The fuels produce carbon monoxide and other combustion gases. Fuel-
fired kilns are usually vented from the top through a chimney.

Firing temperatures can vary from as low as 1382°F for raku and bisque wares, to as high as
2372 °F for stoneware, and 2642 °F for certain porcelains.

The early stage of bisque firing involves the oxidization of organic clay matter to carbon
monoxide and other combustion gases. Sulfur breaks down later producing highly irritating
sulfur oxides. Also, nitrates and nitrogen-containing organic matter break down to nitrogen
oxides.

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Galena, Cornish stone, crude feldspars, low grade fire clays, fluorspar, gypsum, lepidolite and
cryolite can release toxic gases and fumes during glaze firings. Carbonates, chlorides, and
fluorides are broken down to releasing carbon dioxide, chlorine, and fluorine gases.

At or above stoneware firing temperature, lead, antimony, cadmium, selenium and precious
metals vaporize and the metal fumes can either escape from the kiln, or settle inside the kiln or
on ceramic ware in the kiln. Nitrogen oxides and ozone can be generated from oxygen and
nitrogen in air.

Hazards

1. Chlorine, fluorine, sulfur dioxide, nitrogen dioxide, and ozone are highly toxic by
inhalation. Bisque firings of high-sulfur clay have caused the production of great amounts of
choking sulfur dioxide. Other large acute exposures to gases are not common. Inhalation of
large amounts of these gases can result in severe acute or chronic lung problems. Long-term
inhalation of low levels of these gases can cause chronic bronchitis and emphysema. Fluorine
gas can also cause bone and teeth problems.
2. Many metal fumes generated at high temperatures are highly toxic by inhalation. Since lead
vaporizes at a relatively low temperature, it is especially hazardous.
3. Carbon monoxide from fuel-fired kilns or the combustion of organic matter in clays is highly
toxic by inhalation and can cause oxygen starvation. One symptom of carbon monoxide
poisoning is an intense frontal headache, un-relievable by analgesics.
4. Hot kilns produce infrared radiation, which is hazardous to the eyes. There have been reports
of cataracts, from years of looking inside the hot kilns.
5. Heat generated by the kiln can cause thermal burns. The Edward Orton Jr. Ceramic Foundation
reported that when a kiln was operated at 2370 °F, the surface temperature was at and above
595 °F, and the temperature one foot away from the peephole was 156 °F.
6. Heat produced by even small electric kilns can cause fires in the presence of combustible
materials or flammable liquids.
7. If an electric kiln fails to shut off, the heating elements melt which can cause fires. Gas kilns
also generate a lot of heat, and room temperatures often exceed 100 °F.

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Precautions

1. Infrared goggles approved by the American National Standards Institute (ANSI) or hand-held
welding shields should be worn when looking into the operating kiln. Shade number from 1.7
to 3.0 is recommended, but a darker shade may be required if spots appear in front of one's
eyes after looking away from the kiln.

2. Do not uses lead compounds at stoneware temperatures since the lead will vaporize
3. Lumber, paper, solvents, or other combustible and flammable materials should not be stored in
kiln areas.
4. Always check that the kiln has shut off.
5. If gas leaks are suspected (e.g. gas odor): shut off gas at the source; shut off power to the kiln
room at the circuit breaker; and call the gas company. Test for leaks with nonfat, soapy water
or use approved leak-detection solutions.
6. Use kiln gloves to handle product

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Raku Firing:

Raku involves first firing ware at a low temperature in a regular gas kiln, and then removing the
still hot pieces and placing in them in sawdust, leaves or other organic materials for a reduction
phase.

Hazards

1. See above for the hazards and safety precautions used with gas kilns.
2. The reduction step produces large amounts of smoke and carbon monoxide.
3. Treated wood or other materials can yield an exposure to highly toxic preservatives or
pesticides, such as arsenic and chromium compounds.

Precautions

1. Raku should only be done outdoors because of smoke. Be careful to not locate raku near air
intakes or open windows of buildings.
2. Do not use materials that have been treated with preservatives or pesticides for the reduction
phase

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