HISTORY OF SOUTH INDIA

South India
Region lie South Krishna and
Tungabhadra
PRE – HISTORICAL PERIOD

PALAEOLITHIC AGE
- South India was inhabited by
human beings
- the stone industry found
- core tools such as fine hand-axes,
formed by striking off flakes from a
large pebble
 - had better command over their
material than the northern
Palaeolithic men.
- Madras stone industry Industry
had affinities with similar core tool
industries in Africa, Western
Europe, and southern England
- In Africa, Western Europe, and
southern England core tool
industries were associated
advanced human being ie homo
sapiens.

NEOLITHIC AGE
- neolithic settlements in south
India are not older than 2500
BC; in some parts as late as
1000 BC.
- The neolithic people settled on
the granite hill tops or on
plateaus near the river banks in
south India usually.
- used stone axes and stone
blades.
- From fire baked earthen
figurines, it can be concluded
that they kept a large number
of cattle, sheep and goats.
 - used rubbing stone querns -
acquaintance with the art of
producing cereals.
- Important neolithic sites: T.
Narsipur, Paiyampalli.
NEOLITHIC – CHALCOLITHIC CULTURE
- the neolithic phase imperceptibly
faded into the chalcolithic phase :
neolithic – chalcolithic cultures;
but no copper implements found.
- the Stone Age succeeded by the
Iron Age.

NEOLITHIC AGE
- The neolithic – chalcolithic
amalagam continued upto the
 middle of the first millennium
BC.
- Then, neolithic – chalcolithic
cultures overlapped by the
megalithic culture.
- Agastya, a sage of the later
Vedic period in the north
crossed the Vindhyas to
aryanise the south.
Megalithic culture
- use of iron swords, spears, arrow-
heads and axes
- black-and-red pottery
- fractional burials with lithic
appendage.
- actual settlements of megalithic
people are rare; so, megalithic
people are known not from their
actual settlements, but from their
graves.
- Their graves are called megaliths
because they were encircled by big
pieces of stone.
- Tools, pottery, etc., were buried in
these graves along with skeletal
remains of the dead; so, they had
belief in life after death.
- megaliths are found in all upland
area of the peninsula, but mainly
concentrated in eastern Andhra
and in Tamil Nadu.
- Megalithic phase persisted even as
late as the early centuries of the
Christian era in few places.
- The Cholas, Pandyas and
Keralaputras (Cheras) mentioned
in Asokan inscriptions were
probably in the late megalithic
phase of material culture.
- However, despite the use of iron,
the megalithic people depended
partly for settlement and burials
on the hill slopes.
- they produced paddy and ragi; but
the area of cultivable land was
limited
 - generally they did not settle on
the plains or the lowlands due to
the thick forest cover.

Sangam Age

The Sangam Age constitutes an

important chapter in the history of
South India. According to
Tamillegends, there existed three
Sangams (Academy of Tamil
poets) in ancient Tamil Nadu
popularly called Muchchangam.
These Sangams flourished under
the royal patronage of the
Pandyas. The first Sangam, held at
Then Madurai, was attended by
gods and legendary sages but no
literary work of this Sangam was
available. The second Sangam was
held at Kapadapuram but the all
the literary works had perished
except Tolkappiyam. The third
Sangam at Madurai was founded
by Mudathirumaran. It was
attended by a large number of
poets who produced voluminous
literature but only a few had
survived. These Tamil literary
works remain useful sources to
reconstruct the history of the
Sangam Age.
Sangam Literature
The corpus of Sangam
literature includes
Tolkappiyam, Ettutogai, P
a t t u p p a t t u ,
Pathinenkilkanakku, and
the two epics –
Silappathigaram and
Manimegalai.
Tolkappiyam authored by
Tolkappiyar is the earliest
of the Tamil literature. It
is a work on Tamil
grammar but it provides
information on the political
and socio economic
conditions of the Sangam
period.
 The Ettutogai or Eight
Anthologies consist of eight
works –
⮞ Aingurunooru
⮞ Narrinai
⮞ Aganaooru
⮞ Purananooru
⮞ Kuruntogai
⮞ Kalittogai
⮞ Paripadal and
⮞ Padirruppattu
The Pattuppattu or Ten Idylls
consist of ten works –
⮞ Thirumurugarruppadai
⮞ Porunararruppadai
⮞ Sirupanarruppadai
⮞ Perumpanarruppadai
⮞ Mullaippattu
⮞ Nedunalvadai
⮞ Maduraikkanji
⮞ Kurinjippatttu
⮞ Pattinappalai and
⮞ Malaipadukadam
Both Ettutogai and Pattuppattu
were divided into two main
groups – Aham (love)
 and Puram (valour).
Pathinenkilkanakku contains
eighteen works mostly dealing
with ethics and morals. The most
important among them is
Tirukkural authored by
Thiruvalluvar. Silappathigaram
written by Elango Adigal and
Manimegalai by Sittalai Sattanar
also provides valuable
information on the Sangam polity
and society.
Sangam Details
Cheras
ruled by three dynasties
namely the Chera, Chola and
Pandyas during the Sangam
Age. The political history of
these dynasties can be traced
from the literary references.
 In addition to the Sangam
literature, the Greek authors like
Megasthenes, Strabo, Pliny and
Ptolemy mention the commercial
contacts between the West and
South India. The Asokan
inscriptionsmentionthe
Chera,CholaandPandya rulers on
the south of the Mauryan empire.
The Hathikumbha inscription of
Kharavela of Kalinga also
mentions about Tamil kingdoms.
The excavations at Arikkamedu,
Poompuhar, Kodumanal and other
places reveal the overseas
commercial activities of the
Tamils.
Period of Sangam Literature
The chronology of the Sangam
literature is still a disputed topic
among the scholars. The sheet
anchor of Sangam chronology lies
in the fact that Gajabhagu II of Sri
Lanka and Cheran Senguttuvan of
the Chera dynasty were
contemporaries. This is
confirmed by Silappathigaram as
well as the Dipavamsa and
Mahavamsa. Also the Roman
coins issued by Roman emperors
of the first century A.D were
found in plenty in various places
of Tamil Nadu. Therefore, the
most probable date of the
Sangam literature has been fixed
between the third century B.C. to
third century A.D. on the basis of
literary, archaeological and
numismatic evidences.
⮞ The Cheras ruled over parts
of modern Kerala.
⮞ Their capital was Vanji and
 their important seaports were
Tondi and Musiri.
⮞ They
flowers had the palmyra
as their
garland.
⮞ The Pugalur inscription of
the first century A.D refers to
three generations of Chera
rulers.
⮞ Padirruppattu also
provides information on
Chera kings.
⮞ Perum Sorru Udhiyan
Cheralathan,
Imayavaramban Nedum
 Cheralathan and Cheran
Senguttuvan were the
famous rulers of this
dynasty.
Cheran Senguttuvan belonged to
2nd century A.D. His younger
brother was Elango Adigal, the
author of Silappathigaram.
Among his military
achievements, his expedition to
the Himalayas was remarkable.
He defeated many north Indian
monarchs. Senguttuvan
introduced the Pattini cult or the
worship of Kannagi as the ideal
wife in Tamil Nadu. The stone for
making the idol of Kannagi was
brought by him after his
Himalayan expedition. The
consecration ceremony was
attended by many princes
including Gajabhagu II from Sri
Lanka.
Cholas
⮞ The Chola kingdom of the
Sangam period extended from
modern Tiruchi district to
southern Andhra Pradesh.
⮞ Theirat capital was first
located
 Uraiyur and then shifted to
Puhar.
⮞ Karikala was a famous king
of the Sangam Cholas.
⮞ Pattinappalai portrays his
early life and his military
conquests.
In the Battle of Venni he
defeated the mighty confederacy
consisting of the Cheras, Pandyas
and eleven minor chieftains. This
event is mentioned in many
Sangam poems. Vahaipparandalai
was another important battle
fought by him in which nine
enemy chieftains submitted
before him. Karikala’s military
achievements made him the
overlord of the whole Tamil
country. Trade and commerce
flourished during his reign
period. He was responsible for the
reclamation of forest lands and
brought them under cultivation
thus adding prosperity to the
people. He also built Kallanai
across the river Kaveri and also
constructed many irrigation
tanks.
Pandyas
⮞ The Pandyas ruled over the
present day southern Tamil
Nadu. Their capital was
Madurai.
⮞ The earliest kings of the
Pandyan dynasty were
Nediyon, Palyagasalai
Mudukudumi Peruvaludhi
and Mudathirumaran.
⮞ There were two
Neduncheliyans. The first
one was known as
Aryappadai Kadantha
Neduncheliyan (one who
won victories over the Aryan
forces). He was responsible
for the execution of Kovalan
for which Kannagi burnt
Madurai.
⮞ The other was
Talaiyalanganattu Cheruvenra
(He who won the battle at
Talaiyalanganam)
Neduncheliyan. He was
praised by Nakkirar and
Mangudi Maruthanar. He
wore this title after defeating
his enemies at the Battle of
Talaiyalanganam, which is
located in the Tanjore district.
By this victory Neduncheliyan
gained control over the entire
Tamil Nadu.
⮞ Maduraikkanji written by
Mangudi Maruthanar
describes the socio-
economic condition of the
Pandya country including
the flourishing seaport of
Korkai.
 ⮞ The last famous Pandyan
king was Uggira
Peruvaludhi. The Pandyan
rule during the Sangam Age
began to decline due to the
invasion of the Kalabhras.
Minor Chieftains
The minor chieftains played a
significant role in the Sangam
period. Among them Pari
(Parambu Nadu), Kari
(Malaiyaman chiefs ruled over
the Tirukoyilur area also known
as Kovalur), Ori (Kolli Hills), Nalli
(Nalli Malai Nadan), Pegan
(Palani Hills), Ay (Pothigai Hills)
and Adiyaman (Tagadur present
day Dharmapuri) were popular
for their philanthropy and
patronage of Tamil poets.
Therefore, they were known as
Kadai Yelu Vallalgal. Although
they were subordinate to the
Chera, Chola and Pandya rulers,
they were powerful and popular
in their respective regions.
Sangam Polity
Hereditary monarchy was the
form of government during the
Sangam period. The king had also
taken the advice of his minister,
court-poet and the imperial court
or avai. The Chera kings assumed
titles like Vanavaramban, Vanavan,
Kuttuvan, Irumporai and Villavar,
the Chola kings like Senni,
Valavan and Killi and the Pandya
kings Thennavar and Minavar.
Each of the Sangam dynasties had
a royal emblem – carp for the
Pandyas, tiger for the Cholas and
bow for the Cheras. The imperial
court or Avai was attended by a
number of chiefs and officials.
The king was assisted by a large
body of officials who were
divided into five councils. They
were ministers (amaichar),
priests (anthanar), military
commanders (senapathi), envoys
(thuthar) and spies (orrar). The
military administration was also
efficiently organized during the
Sangam Age. Each ruler had a
regular army and their respective
Kodimaram (tutelary tree).
Land revenue was the chief
source of state’s income while
custom duty was also imposed on
foreign trade. The Pattinappalai
refers to the custom officials
employed in the seaport of Puhar.
Booty captured in wars was also a
major income to the royal
treasury. Roads and highways
were well maintained and
guarded night and day to prevent
robbery and smuggling.
Sangam Society
 Tolkappiyam refers to the five -
fold division
of lands,
⮞ Kurinji (hilly tracks)
⮞ Mullai (pastoral)
⮞ Marudam (agricultural)
⮞ Neydal (coastal) and
⮞ Palai (desert)
 The people living in these five
divisions had their respective
chief occupations as well as gods
for worship.
⮞ Kurinji – chief deity was
Murugan – chief occupation,
hunting and honey
collection.
⮞ Mullai – chief deity Mayon
(Vishnu) – chief occupation,
cattle-rearing and dealing
with dairy products.
⮞ Marudam – chief deity
 Indira – chief occupation,
agriculture.
⮞ Neydal – chief deity
Varunan – chief occupation
fishing and salt
manufacturing.
⮞ Palai – chief deity Korravai –
chief occupation robbery.
Tolkappiyam also refers to four
castes namely arasar, anthanar,
vanigar and vellalar. The ruling
class was called arasar.
Anthanars played a significant
role in the Sangam polity and
religion. Vanigars carried on
trade and commerce. The vellalas
were agriculturists. Other tribal
groups like Parathavar, Panar,
Eyinar, Kadambar, Maravar and
Pulaiyar were also found in the
Sangam society. Ancient
primitive tribes like Thodas,
Irulas, Nagas and Vedars lived in
this period.
Religion
The primary deity of the
Sangam period was Seyon or
Murugan, who is hailed as Tamil
God. The worship of Murugan
was having an ancient origin and
the festivals relating to God
Murugan was mentioned in the
Sangam literature. He was
honoured with six abodes known
as Arupadai Veedu. Other gods
worshipped during the Sangam
period were Mayon (Vishnu),
Vendan (Indiran), Varunan and
Korravai. The Hero Stone or
Nadu Kal worship was significant
in the Sangam period. The Hero
Stone was erected in memory of
the bravery shown by the
warrior in battle. Many hero
stones with legends inscribed on
them were found in different
parts of Tamil Nadu. This kind of
worshipping the deceased has a
great antiquity.
Position of Women
There is a plenty of
information in the
Sangam literature to
trace the position of
women during the
Sangam age. Women
poets like Avvaiyar,
Nachchellaiyar, and
Kakkaipadiniyar flourished in this
period and contributed to Tamil
literature. The courage of women
was also appreciated in many
poems. Karpu or Chaste life was
considered the highest virtue of
women. Love marriage was a
common practice. Women were
allowed to choose their life
partners. However, the life of
widows was miserable. The
practice of Sati was also
prevalent in the higher strata of
society. The class of dancers was
patronized by the kings and
nobles.
Fine Arts
Poetry, music and dancing were
popular among the people of the
Sangam age. Liberal donations
were given to poets by the kings,
chieftains and nobles. The royal
courts were crowded with
singing bards called Panar and
Viraliyar. They were experts in
folk songs and folk dances. The
arts of music and dancing were
highly developed. A variety of
Yazhs and drums are referred to
in the Sangam literature.
Dancing was performed by
Kanigaiyar. Koothu was the most
popular entertainment of the
people.
Economy of the Sangam Age
Agriculture was the chief
occupation. Rice was the
common crop. Ragi, Sugarcane,
Cotton, Pepper, Ginger, Turmeric,
Cinnamon and a variety of fruits
were the other crops. Jack fruit
and pepper were famous in the
Chera country. Paddy was the
chief crop in the Chola and
Pandya country.
 The handicrafts of the Sangam
period were popular. They
include weaving, metal works
and carpentry, ship building and
making of ornaments using
beads, stones and ivory. There
was a great demand for these
products, as the internal and
external trade was at its peak
during the Sangam period.
Spinning and weaving of cotton
and silk clothes attained a high
quality. The poems mention the
cotton clothes as thin as a cloud
of steam or a slough of a snake.
There was a great demand in the
western world for the cotton
clothes woven at Uraiyur.
Both internal and foreign trade
was well organized and briskly
carried on in the Sangam Age.
The Sangam literature, Greek
and Roman accounts and the
archaeological evidences provide
detailed information on this
subject. Merchants carried the
goods on the carts and on
animal-back from place to place.
Internal trade was mostly based
on the barter system. External
trade was carried between South
India and the Greek kingdoms.
After the ascendancy of the
Roman Empire, the Roman trade
assumed importance. The port
city of Puhar became an
emporium of foreign trade, as
big ships entered this port with
precious goods. Other ports of
commercial activity include
Tondi, Musiri, Korkai,
Arikkamedu and Marakkanam.
The author of Periplus provides
the most valuable information on
foreign trade. Plenty of gold and
silver coins issued by the Roman
Emperors like Augustus, Tiberius
and Nero were found in all parts
of Tamil Nadu. They reveal the
extent of the trade and the
presence of Roman traders in the
Tamil country.
The main exports of the Sangam
age were Cotton, Fabrics, Spices
like Pepper, Ginger, Cardamom,
Cinnamon and Turmeric, Ivory
products, Pearls and precious
stones. Gold, horses and sweet
wine were the chief imports.
End of the Sangam Age
Towards the end of the third
century A.D., the Sangam period
slowly witnessed its decline. The
Kalabhras occupied the Tamil
country for about two and a half
centuries. We have little
information about the Kalabhra
rule. Jainism and Buddhism
became prominent during this
period. The Pallavas in the
northern Tamil Nadu and
Pandyas in southern Tamil Nadu
drove the Kalabhras out of the
Tamil country and established
their rule.
 Cultural Heritage of
Tamil Nadu

In the Pre-Vedic India, a

Dravidian Civilization flourished
with its nucleus in the Indus
Valley. Later with the coming of
Aryans the nucleus was shifted to
Peninsular India. The Tamil
Language and culture are the
oldest surviving once in the
Dravidian family of civilisations
in the ancient Pali and Sanskrit
literature the words Dramila and
Dravida meant both Tamil and
the Southern regions and
distinguished these from
Sankritised Northern region
(Aryavartha).
The Tamil language and
literature are noted for their
antiquity. The Sangam poets like
Mamulanar belonged to the age
of Nandas and Mauryas i.e. 4th
century
B.C. Thus the present Tamil
language has a continuous history
of atleast 2500 years. It’s antiquity,
Versatility and it’s distinct qualities
have bestowed Tamil with a
classical status. Unlike Sanskrit
but similar to Chinese, Tamil has
become the oldest, surviving,
popular language of the Indian
subcontinent and the eldest among
the Dravidian languages of South
India.
The political history of Tamil
Nadu from
500 B.C to 1300 A.d is divided
into three phases (1) The Sangam
age (2) Kalabhra age
(3) Age of Tamil Empires. During
the Sangam age the political control
of Tamil Nadu was divided
between the crowned monarchs
and petty chieftains. The Veliars
were the petty chieftains ruling
over hillytractse.g. Aayof
Podiyilhills, Adhiyaman of
Kudhirai hills, Paari of Parambu
hills. the fertile plains of river
valleys were ruled by three
crowned monarchs i.e. the Chera,
Chola, and Pandya. The petty
chieftains and crowned monarchs
patronized scholars and poets.
Some of the kings themselves
were excellent poets e.g.
Ariyapadai Kadantha
Nedunchezhian. The rulers were
engaged in wars among
themselves and with others like
Sinhalese, Kadambas, Yavanas
and Ariyas. Cheran Senguttuvan,
Karikala Cholan,
Ariyapadaikadantha
Neduncheziyan were a few of the
prominent monarchs of the
Sangam age.
The Kalabhras uprooted the
Tamil Kingdoms in the second
phase (3rd Century A.D.-6th
Century A.D). However the Tamil
literacy activities continued
during their regime too. A jain
monk named Vajranandhi
established a Dravida Sangha at
Madurai. Achyuta Vikrantha was
the most popular Kalabhra ruler
who ruled from Uraiyur.
 The Kalabhras were replaced by
the Pallavas of Kanchi in North
Tamil Nadu and the Pandiyas of
Madurai in South Tamil Nadu.
The Pallavas were Simha Vishnu,
Mahendravarman I and
Narashimavarman I built a
powerful empire by overcoming
the challenges from Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas and Gangas. They
became patrons of Saivism and
Vaishnavism and built temples
for Vaishnavite and saivite
deities. In the South, the
Pandiyas political unity
patronised the Bakthi movement.
The Kalabhras were replaced by
the Pallavas of Kanchi in North
Tamil Nadu and the Pandiyas of
Madurai in South Tamil Nadu.
The Pallavas were Simha Vishnu,
Mahendravarman I and
Narashimavarman i built a
powerful empire by overcoming
the challenges from Chalukyas,
Rashtrakutas and Gangas. They
became patrons of Saivism and
Vaishnavite and saivite deities. In
the South, the Pandiyas political
unity patronised the Bakthi
movement.
By the end of 9th century
Vijayalaya and Aditya Chola of
Tanjore revived the Chola power.
Parantaka I, Rajaraja I and
Rajendra Chola transformed
Chola kingdom in to an empire.
They subdued the Vengi
Chalukyas, Pandyas, Chera and
conquered the Sinhala kingdom.
Rajendra sent expeditions to
Bengal and Kadaram. The Cholas
were ardent saivites who built
many magnificent temples for
Siva. The Brahadeeswarar
temple, Gangaikondacholapuram
and Darasuram are noteworthy
among them.
Extensive trade contacts were
established with far off countries
like Sri Vijaya and China. By the
end of 13th century the revival of
Pandyas at Madurai and the
emergence of Hoysalas of
Dwarsamudra led to the decline
and fall of the Chola empire.
Administrative System
 The Sangam age had monarchial
governments with an absolute
monarch as the head, who had no
checks on his authority. However
the king was amenable to the
advice of wise men of his court.
The king’s court known as Avai,
Naalavai, Manram etc consisted of
ministers, generals, high officials,
chief queen, their apparent
(Komahan) and junior princes
(Ilango). The king had no
standing army. Compulsory
military service was imposed
during the time of war.
The royal army was categorised
into four wings
1.Infantry
2.Cavalry
3.War elephant and
4.Chariots.
Naval expeditions were also
undertaken by Sangam kings e.g.
Cheran Senguttuvan against
Kadamba pirates and Karikala
Chola against Sinhalese.
Mandalam, Kottam, Ur were the
administrative subdivisions. The
village administration was
carried on by assembly of elders.
There was a regular system of
revenue administration. Besides
the loot from the wars excise,
tolls, duties on salt, periodical
gifts and tributes contributed to
the revenue of the king. The
kings especially the Pandyas and
Cholas encourages extension of
agriculture by deforestation,
embankment of rivers and
encouraging agrarian settlement
in newly conquered regions.
 During the phase of empires, the
king’s powers and
responsibilities increased
manifold. The number of
ministers and officials increased.
A powerful standing army
including naval units was
developed. A complex system of
provincial administration
emerged. The empire was divided
into Mandalams and Mandalams
into Nadus and Nadus into
Kottams. Each Kottam consisted
of a number of Perurs (large
towns) Urs (Villages) Nagarams
(market towns) and Pattinams
(coastal Towns). Autonomous
local bodies like ‘ur’ or ‘urar’ for
villages and Nattar for Nadus
looked after the local
administration.
The villages endowed to the
Brahmins (Brahmadeyam) were
governed by the assemblies of local
Brahmins. These Mahasabhas
enjoyed complete freedom from
external interference and
exempted from regular taxes. The
Chola age is known as the Golded
age of the Mahasabhas. Forced
labour was imposed for public
works and even for building
temples. Innumerable tanks,
canals and reservoirs were
created to increase food
production.
Society
The ‘Porulathikaram’ in
Tolkappiam describes the social
conditions of the Sangam Tamils.
The birthbasedcaste
andvarnasystems were absent
among the Tamils instead, the
land based Tinai divisions were
mentioned. The Tamil land was
topographically divided into
⮞ Kurinji - hills and hilly
region
⮞ Mullai - the Pastoral Slopes
⮞ Marudham - the fertile
cultivable plains
⮞ Neidal - the coastal or
littoral region and
⮞ Paalai - the desert region.
The population was
accordingly classified as
⮞ Kuravar or Vedar of Kurinji
⮞ Idayar of Mullai
 ⮞ Uzhavar of Marudham
⮞ Minavar or Parathavar of
Neidal
⮞ Kallar of Paalai
In the royal towns of Marudham
region the people were classified
as Arasar (princes) Anthanar
(wisemen), Vanikar (traders) and
Vellalar (agriculturists) Panar
(bards), Viraliyar (dancers),
Kuyavar (potters), Umanar (salt
merchants), Vannar (washermen),
weavers and other handicraft -
men, poets and teachers were
also mentioned. Names of women
poets were found revealing the
access of education to women.
Love marriages were approved
Chastity was considered the
meritorious quality of women.
There were very few instances of
sati being committed by widows
of royal families.
The Caste system received royal
recognition during the time of
the Pallavas. The Brahmins were
now given the highest status in
the society. They emerged as
religious leaders, political and
social advisors and ultimate
authority in legal issues. They
were given land grants and tax
concessions. All other castes
were treated as Sudras.
Untouchability became a
menacing factor, these landless
tillers were deprived of
education, offices and access to
temples. In the last phase of the
Chola empire there emered two
groupings of castes; Valangai and
Edangai which led to Social
tensions and regular clashes.
However it should be noted that
Sangam ethical literature like
Naladiyar and Thirukkural did
not approve of caste. Sangam
Tamils stressed more on ethical
conduct than on faith and rituals.
During the age of Tamil empires,
the Bhakthi movement, the
Nayanmars and Alwars
accommodated all the
communities as Bhakthas.
Symbolism
Classical Tamil love poetry
assigns the human experiences it
describes, and in particular the
subjective topics that those
experiences relate to, specific
habitats. Every situation in the
poems is described using themes
in which the time, the place and
the floral symbols of each episode
are codified. These codifications
are used as symbols to imply a
socio-economic order,
occupations and behaviour
patterns, which, in turn, are
symbolized, by specific flora and
fauna. Details of secondary aspects
are just as rigidly codified - the
seasons, the hour a god, musical
instruments and, above all, the
sentimental connotations of each
landscape: lovers’ meetings,
patient waiting, lovers’ quarrels,
separation, and the anxiously
awaited return. Geographical
and non-geographical
thinais
Under this codification, the inner
universe associated with love is
divided into seven modes, or
thinai, five of which are
geographical and associated with
specific landscapes, and two of
which are non-geographical and
not associated with any specific
landscape. Four of the
geographical landscapes are
described as being landscapes that
occur naturally in the Tamil lands.
These are: kurinci - mountainous
regions, associated with union,
mullai - forests, associated with
waiting, marutam
- cropland, associated with
quarreling, and neytal - seashore,
associated with pining. The fifth -
palai, or desert, associated with
separation - is described in the
Tolkappiyam as not being a
naturally existing landscape.
From these basic associations of
landscape and subject, a wide
range of specific themes suitable
for each landscape were derived.
Thus, for example, the
commentary on the Iraiyanar
Akapporul states that as a result
of the association of the kurinci
landscape with union, it was also
associated with the fear of
separation, reassurance, the
hero’s or heroine’s discussions
with their friends, their being
teased or taunted by their
friends, their replies to their
friends, the friends’ role as
intermediary, the meeting of the
lovers, grief and doubt, and other
similar themes. According to the
Tamil nerivilakkam, a 9th-
century text on poetry, the love
themes described by the five
thinais constitute “the Tamil way
of life” or “the Tamil way of love.”
(tamilneri).
The two non-geographical modes
- kaikkilai and peruntinai - were
seen as dealing with emotions that
were non-conforming, and
therefore were not associated with
any specific landscape. Kaikkilai,
dealt with unreciprocated or one-
sided love, while peruntinai, dealt
with ‘improper’ love or love
against the rules of custom
 Poetic Attributes of the Landscapes
Kur Mu Mar Ney Palai
unji llai uda dhal
m
Pati Lover Heroi Elop Longes Dange
ent s’ ne eme t rous
wait quarr expre nt separa journ
tion
ing els, sses ey by
over wife’s grief the
sepa irrita over hero
11

rati bility separ

 on (husb ation
and
acuse
d of
visiti
ng a
courtes
an)
Flo Kurinji Mulla Marud Water Paalai
wer i am lily
(Jasm
ine)
Lan Mount Forest Agricu Seasho Parche
dsca ains , ltural re dwast
pe Pastu areas, eland,
re Plain Desert
or
valley
Tim Midni Eveni Shortl Sunset Noon
e ght ng y

before
sunris
e
Seas Winter Late Late Early Summ
on / /Cool Summ spring summ er
Cli and er / er
mat moist Cloud
e y
Ani Monke Deer Water Crocod Fatigu
mal y, ile; ed
Elepha Buffal Shark Elepha
nt, o, nt,
Horse, Fresh Tiger
Bull, water or wolf
Tiger fish
Crop Jackfru Konra Mang Punnai Cactus
/ it, i o
Plan bambo
t o,
Venkai
Wat Waterf River Pond Well, Dry
er all s Sea wells,
Stagna
nt
water
Soil Red Red Alluvi Sandy, Salt
and soil al Salines affecte
Black oil d soil
soils
 with
stones
and
pebble
s
Occ Hilltrib Pasto Farme Selling Travell
upa es,gath ral r fish, ers,
tion Salt, bandit
ering
Fisherf s
honey and a
olk
gric
ultu
 ral
occup
ations
God Murug Maay Indra Varun Kottra
an on a vai
The Geographical Thinais
In Tamil, each of the five
geographical thinais are named for
a flower that is characteristic of
that landscape. In English
translation, however, it is
customary to use the name of the
landscape rather than that of the
flower, largely because the flowers
lack the cultural association with a
specific language in English that
they have in Tamil.
Kurinji – Mountainous Region
The mountain is the scene of the
lovers’ union at midnight. It is the
cold, dewy season. The forest is
rich with lakes, waterfalls, teak,
bamboo and sandalwood. In this
region millet grows and wild bees
are a source of honey. Love in this
setting is exemplified by
Murugan, and one of his wives,
Valli, the daughter of a mountain
dweller. He wears the sparkling
red kantal flower and rides a
peacock, the bird of the
mountains.
The name of the region,
Kurinchi, is also the name of the
famous Kurinji flower
(Strobilantheskunthiana) from the
lofty hills of Tamil country. The
Strobilanthes, a shrub whose
brilliant white flowers blossom for
only a few days once every ten or
twelve years, blanketing the slopes
in radiant whiteness under the sun.
This event of jubilation and purity
symbolizes the frenzy of a sudden
love shared, in concert with the
unleashed forces of nature: the
amorous dance of peacocks, their
echoing cries, the splash of
waterfalls, the roar of savage
beasts. The lovers hold each other
tighter still and forget the dangers
of the mountain path.
Mullai – Forests
Mullai is the land of the forest.
The forest is rich with lakes,
waterfalls, teak, bamboo and
sandalwood. In this region millet
grows and wild bees are a source
of honey. Mullai or Jasmine
(Jasminumauriculatum) is the
flower of the forests.
The theme of the forest and of
shepherds at play, the image of
confident waiting for the loved
one, produced an original
offshoot; for this is the region of
Maayon (Ancient Tamil god), and
the love theme it represents
symbolizes the devotee waiting in
the hope that Maayon will
eventually come and fill his soul,
thus experiencing the joys of
expectation.
Marutham – Cropland
The plains were the scene of
triangular love plots in which the
hero’s visits to the courtesan
oblige the heroine to counter
with a mixed show of coquetry
and moodiness, tactics whose
limits are described in the
Thirukkural (“Sulking is like
flavouring with salt; a little
suffices, but it is easy to go too
far.”). Indra, the god of
thunderstorm, is the god of
Marutham land.
The Marutam (Lagerstroemia
speciosa) tree was the
characteristic tree of this region.
Neithal – Seashore
The seashore affords many
examples of the compelling
charm of Sangam poetry and the
extraordinary freshness of its
realism. From behind the
conventional symbolization of
waiting there emerges a picture
of the life of the fisherfolk; the
nets and boats drawn up on the
beach, scuttling crabs and cart
wheels bogged down in the sand,
the odour of drying fish, cut into
thick slices, which attracts the
birds, beautiful village girls
peering through the Pandanus
hedges, and the wind blowing
through the cracks in the roughly
constructed
straw huts at night. Varuna, the
water god, is worshiped in
Neithal.
Water lily is the characteristic
flower of the
region.
Palai – mixture of Mullai and
Kurinci
In classical Tamil prosody, the
palai or wasteland is not seen as
being a naturally occurring
ecology. Ilampuranar, in his
commentary on the Tolkappiyam,
explains that instead, the
landscape of the wasteland with
which the paalai is associated
emerges when other landscapes
whither under the heat of the
burning sun. . Paalai could thus
be seen as a mixture of Mullai and
Kurinci tracts, rather than as a
mere sandy area.
The theme of wasteland and
separation occupies half of one of
the most famous anthologies, the
theme of the mountain being only
secondary.
Paalai tree is identified as
 Wrightia
(Wrightiatinctoria).
Sangam Literature
The Sangam Literature, composed
by poets belongingto
differentsocialsegmentsincluding
women, was secular in character
and did not claim divinity. The
Sangam literature includes
Tolkappiam, (a grammar work)
Ettuthogai, Pathupattu, Pathinen
Keezh Kanakku and the two great
epics Silapadhikaram and
Manimegalai. War and love are
glorified Ettuthogai and
Pathupattu however most of the
Pathinen Keezh Kanakku works
were on morals. The 18 Minor
works, 5 major epics
(Silapadhikaram, Manimekalai,
Kundalakesi, Valayapathi and
Seevagasinthamani) and 5 minor
epics (Neelakesi, Sulamani,
Udayana Kumara Kaviyam,
Yasodhara Kaviyam and
Nagakumara Kaviyam) epics
and
grammatical works (Pingala
Nigandu and Yapperumkalam)
were produced during the
Kalabra period. During the age of
empires, Bhakti literature
became abundant. Thevaram,
Thiruvasakam, Divya Prabandam,
Periapuranam Kambaramayanam
propagated Saivism and
Vaishnavism, Muvarula,
Kalingathuprani,
Nandikalambakam, Nannul and
Veeracholiyam are some of the
noteworthy secular works. Tamil
studies were supported by the
chola grants (Pulavara Mutrool).
Though Sanskrit was the official
language during Pallava period
and Sanskrit studies received
royal patronage only few notable
Sanskrit works were produced,
for example,
Mattavilasaprakasanam,
Kirtarjuniyam, Avanti
Sundari Katha and Kavyadarsam,
However Sanskrit succeeded in
being accepted as the language of
religious rituals of the temples.
Sanskrit learning of the Brahmins
were supported by tax free land
grants (Bhatta Vritti and Veda
Vritti)
Religion
The religious practices during
Sangam age were Tinai based.
The people were liberal in their
religious out look and religion
did not dominate socio political
activities. Hero stones were
worshipped, Seyon, Mayon,
Vendan, Varunan, Valiyon and
Kotravai were popular deities.
Ganesa cult was absent. Singing
and dancing (Kuravai and
veriyattu) were associated with
worship, offering of flowers,
grains and animals were made to
deities. The Vedic yagnas of
Brahmins attracted a few kings
but had not become popular with
the people. Jainism, Buddhism
and Ajivikaism made inroads into
Tamil society during Sangam age
and became very popular during
Kalabhra period.
Bhakthi movement
gained momentum
during the Pallava
period. Nayanmars and
Alvars carried on
intensive propanganda
against Jain and
Buddhist. Siva, Thirumal
andtheir consorts
became important deities in the
later phase of the Chola period
Murugan cult became popular.
The Brahmins replaced local
priests in temples and Sanskrit
became the religious language.
The jains and Buddhists temples
were either demolished or
converted into Saivite or
Vaishnavite temples. The Chola
period witnessed Saivaite and
Vaishnavite clashes. The Thillai
Govindarajan idol was removed
from Chidambaram idol was
removed from Chidambaram
temple, and the Vaishnavite
Ramanuja was forced to seek
asyulum in Karnataka.
Virasaivism and Sri Vaishanvism
raised their voice against social
segregation. The Tamil Siddhars
put a rational and powerful
argument against caste
discriminations, temple system,
superstitions and rituals.
Art and Architecture
The Sangam Tamils
had their own system
of music, dance and
drama (Pann, Aadal
and Koothu). The
Panar and Viraliyar
were professional
musicians and dancers.
String instruments
(Yaazh) wind
instruments (Kuzhal)
and drums
(Muzhauu) were used in such
performances. Festivals and
worship were also associated
with dance and music (Kuravai,
Veriyattu) The Pallava inscription
at Kudumianmalai refers to a
great musician Rudracharya.

The Devaram and Divya

Prabandam were set to Ragas.
The Puranic themes were
enacted in the form of koothu or
gaathas. The Devadasis or temple
servants were excellent dancers.
 In the field of architecture the
Sangam age did not produce
enduring structures with the
advent of the Pallavas a new
style in art and architecture
appeared in Tamilnadu. At first
Mandapams were excavated out
of rocks with excellent sculptural
representations (Mahisasura
Mandapam, varaha mandapam).
Then single rocks were
converted into ratha like temples
(monolithdic rathas at
Mahabalipuram). They built
structural temples by filling up
stone slabs. (Shore temple,
Kailasanathar Temple and
Vaikuntha Perumal Temple).
These Temples were noted for
their Vimanas. The imperial
Cholas developed this style
further. Elaborate campuses,
protective walls, Pillared halls,
huge towers and multi shrines
marked the Chola Temple
architecture. The Tanjore
Brihadeeswaram, Gangai Konda
Cholapuram and Darasuram
are outstanding specimens of
Chola architecture. All these
temples have excellent sculptural
representations. The Sittannavasal
caves Kailasanathar Temple and
Brihadeeswarar Temple have the
best specimens of paintings. The
Chola bronze images of Nataraja,
Siva, Vishnu and other deities have
earned global acclaim.
The Tamil had developed their
own system of mathematics time
calculation, astronomy, and
medicinal systems.
 The Sangam literature refers to
“Enn” Kanakku Nazhigai Yamam
Kaatham and Kol. They also refer
to seasons as Elavenil, Elaiudir
etc. References to native
medicines like Elathi,
Tirikadukam, Siru pancha Mulam
etc reveal Tamil’s versatile
achievements. Kaniyans were both
astronomers and astrologers. The
Tamil Siddhas produced excellent
treaties on Siddha system of
medicine and these treaties
elaborate diagnosis, treatment by
herbs and chemicals and also
provide pharmacological details.
To conclude with, it can be said
that the Tamils had excelled in
many fields of human activity and
philosophically they emphasised
on a universal outlook. Their
theism did not give too much
room for superstitions. Like the
Buddhists and Jains, the Tamils
opined, that good or bad, nothing
comes from others and held the
view that man is the maker of his
own destiny. The legacy of
Tamils is a glorious chapter in
Indian history.
 The Pallavas

After the decline of the Sangam

Age in the Tamil country, the
Kalabhra rule lasted for about
250 years. Thereafter, the
Pallavas established their kingdom
in Tondaimandalam with its
capital at Kanchipuram. Their
rule continued till
Tondaimandalam was captured
and annexed by the Imperial
Cholas in the beginning of the
tenth century A.D.
Origin of the Pallavas
There are different
views on the origin of
the Pallavas.
They were equated
with the Parthians,
the foreigners who ruled western
India. Another view was that the
Pallavas were a branch of the
Brahmin royal dynasty of the
Vakatakas of the Deccan. The third
view relates the Pallavas with the
descendents of the Chola prince
and a Naga princess whose native
was the island of Manipallavam.
But these theories on the origin of
the Pallavas were not supported by
adequate evidences. Therefore,
the view that the Pallavas were
the natives of Tondaimandalam
itself was widely accepted by
scholars. They are also identical
with the Pulindas mentioned in
the inscriptions of Asoka. When
Tondaimandalam was conquered
by the Satavahanas, the Pallavas
became their feudatories. After
the fall of the Satavahanas in the
third century A.D., they became
independent. The Pallavas issued
their earlier inscriptions in
Prakrit and Sanskrit because of
their Satavahana connections,
and also patronised Brahmanism.
Political History
The early Pallava rulers from 250
A.D. to 350
A.D. issued their charters in
Prakrit. Important among them
were Sivaskandavarman and
Vijayaskandavarman. The second
line of Pallava rulers who ruled
between 350 A.D. and 550
A.D. issued their charters in
Sanskrit. The most important
ruler of this line was Vishnugopal
who was defeated by
Samudragupta during his South
Indian expedition. The rulers of the
third line who ruled from 575
A.D. to their ultimate fall in the
ninth century issued their
charters both in Sanskrit and
Tamil. Simhavishnu was the first
ruler of this line. He destroyed
the Kalabhras and firmly
established the Pallava rule in
Tondaimandalam. He also
defeated the Cholas and
extended the Pallava territory up
to the river Kaveri. Other great
Pallava
rulers of this line were
Mahendravarman I,
Narasimhavarman I, and
Narasimhavarman II. Later Pallavas
(570-903 A.D.)
Simhavishnu was the first ruler
of the later Pallava dynasty. he
destroyed the Kalabhras and
firmly established the Pallava rule
in Tondaimandalam with his
capital at Kanchi. He seized the
regions of the Cholas. His
kingdom extended from Andhra
Kingdom, Vishnukundin up to the
river Cauvery. He assumed the
title ‘Avanisimha’ or the ‘Lion of
the Earth’.
Mahendravarman
A.D.) I (600 – 630
⮞ The long-drawn Pallava –
Chalukya Conflict began
during his period. Pulakesin
II marched against the
Pallavas and captured the
northern part of their
kingdom. Although a Pallava
inscription refers to the
victory of Mahendravarman I
at Pullalur, he was not able
 to recover the lost territory.
⮞ Mahendravarman I was a
follower of Jainism in the
early part of his career. He
was converted to Saivism by
the influence of the Saiva
saint, Thirunavukkarasar
alias Appar. He built a Siva
temple at Tiruvadi. He
assumed a number of titles
like Gunabhara, Satyasandha,
Chettakari (builder of
temples) Chitrakarapuli,
Vichitrachitta and
Mattavilasa.
⮞ He was a great builder of
cave temples. The
Mandagappattu inscription
hails him as Vichitrachitta
who constructed a temple for
Brahma, Vishnu and Siva
without the use of bricks,
timber, metal and mortar.
His rock-cut temples are
found in a number of places
like Vallam, Mahendravadi,
Dalavanur, Pallavaram,
Mandagappattu and
 Tiruchirappalli. He had also
authored the Sanskrit work
Mattavilasa Prahasanam. His
title Chitrakarapuli reveals
his talents in painting. He is
also regarded as an expert in
music. The music inscription
at Kudumianmalai is
ascribed to him.
Narasimhavarman
A.D.) I (630-668
⮞ Narasimhavarman I was
also known as Mamalla,
which means ‘great
wrestler’. He wanted to take
avenge the defeat of his
father at the hands of
Chalukyan ruler Pulakesin
II. His victory over Pulakesin
II in the Battle of
Manimangalam near Kanchi
is mentioned in Kuram
copper plates. The Pallava
army under General
Paranjothi pursued the
retreating Chalukya army,
entered Chalukya territory,
captured and destroyed the
capital city of Vatapi.
 Narasimhavarman I
assumed the title
‘Vatapikonda’. He regained
the lost territory. Another
notable achievement of
Narasimhavarman I was his
naval expedition to Sri Lanka.
He restored the throne to
his friend and Sri Lankan
prince Manavarma.
⮞ During his reign, Hiuen
Tsang visited the Pallava
capital Kanchipuram. His
description of Kanchi is vivid.
He calls it a big and beautiful
city, six miles in
circumference. It had 100
Buddhist monasteries in
which about 10,000
Buddhist monks lived.
According
 to his account the people of
Kanchi esteemed great
learning and the Ghatika at
Kanchi served as a great
centre of learning.
Narasimhavarman I was the
founder of Mamallapuram
and the monolithic rathas
were erected during his
reign.
Narasimhavarman II or
Rajasimha (695 -722
A.D.)
Narasimhavarman I was
succeeded by Mahendravarman II
and Parameswarvarman I and the
Pallava – Chalukya conflict
continued during their reign.
Thereafter, Narasimhavarman II
became the ruler of the Pallava
kingdom. He was also known as
Rajasimha. His regime was
peaceful and he evinced more
interest in developing the art and
architecture. The Shore temple at
Mamallapuram and the
Kailasanatha temple at
Kanchipuram were built in this
period. He was also a great patron
of art and letters. The famous
Sanskrit scholar Dandin is said to
have adorned his court. He sent
embassies to China and the
maritime trade flourished during
his reign. Rajasimha assumed
titles like Sankarabhakta,
Vadhyavidyadhara and
Agamapriya. He was succeeded
by Parameswaravarman II and
Nandivarman II. The Pallava rule
lasted till the end of the ninth
century A.D. The Chola king
Aditya I defeated the last Pallava
ruler Aparajita and seized the
Kanchi region. With this, the rule
of Pallava dynasty came to an
end.
Parameswaran-II (728-731 A.D),
the son of Narasimhavarman-II
came to power in 728
A.D. He was defeated by the
Chalukya ruler Vikramaditya-II.
He died in a battle with the
Gangas. The Simhavishnu line of
rule came to an with the death of
Parameswaram-II as his son did
not succeed him.
Nandivarman-II Pallavamalla
Nandivarman-II Pallavamalla
(731-796 A.D.) was the son of
Simhavishnu’s brother
Hiranyavarman. He was chosen
by the Pallava ministers, the
members of ghatika (college of
learning) and the common
people to succeed
Parameswaran-II. Nandivarman
II was a worshipper of Vishnu.
He built the Vaikunta PErumal
temple at Kanchi. The great
Vaishnava Saint Thirumangai
Alwar was his contemporary.
Decline of the Pallavas
The successors of Nandivarman-
II were not very strong and
powerful. They had to face
Pandya aggression. The last
Pallava ruler Aparajitha (885-
903 A.D.) was defeated by
Aditya-I, a Chola ruler. The
Pallava rule at Tondaimandalam
thus came to an end with his
downfall.
Administration
Pallavas of the
The Pallavas had a well
organized administrative system.
The Pallava state was divided
into Kottams. The Kottam was
administered by officers appointed
by the king. The king was at the
centre of administration in which
he was assisted by able ministers.
He was the fountain of justice. He
maintained a well- trained army.
He provided land-grants to the
temples known as Devadhana
and also to the Brahmans known
as Brahmadeya. It was also the
responsibility of the central
government to provide irrigation
facilities to the lands. A number
of irrigation tanks were dug by
the Pallava kings. The irrigation
tanks at Mahendravadi and
Mamandoor were dug during the
reign of Mahendravarman I.
Detailed information on the tax
system could
also be traced from the Pallava
inscriptions. Land tax was the
primary source of the
government revenue. The
Brahmadeya and Devadhana
lands were exempted from tax.
Traders and artisans such as
carpenters, goldsmiths, washer-
men, oil-pressers and weavers
paid taxes to the government.
The Pallava inscriptions throw
much light on the village
assemblies called sabhas and
their committees. They
maintained records of all village
lands, looked after local affairs
and managed temples.
Society under the Pallavas
The Tamil society witnessed a
great change during the Pallava
period. The caste system became
rigid. The Brahmins occupied a
high place in the society. They
were given land-grants by the
kings and nobles. They were also
given the responsibility of
looking after the temples. The
Pallava period also witnessed the
rise of Saivism and Vaishnavism
and also the decline of Buddhism
and Jainism. The Saiva
Nayanmars and the Vaishnava
Alwars contributed to the growth
of Saivism and Vaishnavism. This
is known as the Bakthi
Movement. They composed their
hymns in the Tamil language.
These hymns revealed the
importance of devotion or Bakthi.
The construction of temples by
the Pallava kings paved the way
for the spread of these two
religions.
Education and Literature
The Pallavas were great patrons
of learning. Their capital Kanchi
was an ancient centre of learning.
The Ghatika at Kanchi was
popular and it attracted students
from all parts of India and
abroad. The founder of the
Kadamba dynasty, Mayurasarman
studied Vedas at Kanchi.
Dinganaga, a Buddhist writer
came to study at Kanchi.
Dharmapala, who later became
the Head of the Nalanada
University, belonged to Kanchi.
Bharavi, the great Sanskrit
scholar lived in the time of
Simhavishnu. Dandin, another
Sanskrit writer adorned the
court of Narasimhavarman II.
Mahendravaraman I composed
the Sanskrit play
Mattavilasaprahasanam. Tamil
literature had also developed.
The Nayanmars and Alwars
composed religious hymns in
Tamil. The Devaram composed by
Nayanmars and the
Nalayradivyaprabandam
composed by Alwars represent
the religious literature of the
Pallava period. Perundevanar
was patronized by Nandivarman
II and he translatedthe
Mahabharata as Bharathavenba in
Tamil. Nandikkalambagam was
another important work but the
name of the author of this work
is not known. Music and dance
also developed during this
period.
Pallava Art and Architecture
It was a great age of temple
building. The Pallavas introduced
the art of excavating temples
from the rock. In fact, the
Dravidian style of temple
architecture began with the
Pallava rule. It was a gradual
evolution starting from the cave
temples to monolithic rathas and
culminated in structural temples.
The development of temple
architecture under the Pallavas
can be seen in four stages.
 Mahendravarman I introduced
the rock- cut temples. This style
of Pallava temples are seen at
places like Mandagappattu,
Mahendravadi, Mamandur,
Dalavanur, Tiruchirappalli,
Vallam, Siyamangalam and
Tirukalukkunram. The second
stage of Pallava architecture is
represented by the monolithic
rathas and Mandapas found at
Mamallapuram.
Narasimhavarman I took the
credit for these wonderful
architectural monuments. The
five rathas, popularly called as the
Panchapanadava rathas, signifies
five different styles of temple
architecture.
The mandapas contain beautiful
sculptures on its walls. The most
popular of these mandapas are
Mahishasuramardhini
Mandapam, Tirumurthi
Mandapam and Varaha Madapam.
In the next stage, Rajasimha
introduced the structural temples.
These temples were built by using
the soft sand rocks. The
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi
and the Shore temple at
Mamallapuram remain the finest
examples of the early structural
temples of the Pallavas. The
Kailasanatha temple at Kanchi is
the greatest architectural master
piece of the Pallava art.
The last stage of the Pallava art
is also represented by structural
temples built by the later
Pallavas. The Vaikundaperumal
temple, Muktheeswara temple
and Matagenswara temples at
Kanchipuram belong to this stage
of architecture. The Pallavas had
also contributed to the
development of sculpture. Apart
from the sculptures found in the
temples, the ‘Open Art Gallery’ at
Mamallapuram remains an
important monument bearing the
sculptural beauty of this period.
The Descent of the Ganges or the
Penance of Arjuna is called a
fresco painting in stone. The
minute details as well as the
theme of these sculptures such as
the figures of
⮞ Lice-picking monkey,
⮞ Elephants of huge size and
the figure of the ‘ascetic cat’
standing erect remain the
proof for the talent of the
 sculptor.
Fine Arts
Music, dance and painting had
also developed under the
patronage of the Pallavas. The
Mamandur inscription contains a
note on the notation of vocal
music. The Kudumianmalai
inscription referred to musical
notes and instruments. The
Alwars and Nayanmars
composed their hymns in various
musical notes. Dance and drama
also developed during this period.
The sculptures of this period
depict many dancing postures.
The Sittannavasal paintings
belonged to this period. The
commentary called Dakshinchitra
was compiled during the reign of
Mahendravarman I, who had the
title Chittirakkarapuli.
 The ancient Tamizhagam was
divided into three political units
under the Cheras, Cholas and the
Pandyas. Their period of
existence is known as the Sangam
Age. The Kalabhras who rose to
power during this period ruled
nearly for three centuries from
300-600 A.D. In this chapter we
will study in detail about the
Later Pallava dynasty, imperial
Cholas and the Pandyas.
Hieun Tsang: Hieun Tsang
visited the Pallava capital
Kanchipuram. According to him
Kanchi was about 6 miles in
circumference. There were more
than one hundred Buddhist
monasteries and many jain temples
here. Kanchi was the greatest
centre of education in the south.
Vatsyayana was a pandit of
Kanchi. Dharmapala went from
Kanchi to Nalanda. Dandi the
author of “Dandi Alangaram” a
poet from North India lived in
Kanchi.

Variyams were Executive

committees.
The Cholas
The Cholas
The Cholas were an antique
ruling family. References to the
Cholas are made in the
Mahabharata, the inscriptions of
Asoka and the works of
Megasthenese and Ptolemy.
During the Sangam Age, the
Cholas ruled Tiruchi and
Tanjore region. Their capital
was Uraiyur. Tiger was their
emblem. Their greatest ruler
Karikala built Kallanai across
the river Cauvery near Trichy.
 The Chola rule declined as they
became feudatories of the rulers
of Uraiyur.
Later
Cholas Cholas or Imperial
The Cholas who emerged to
power in the middle of the ninth
century were known as later
Cholas or Imperial Cholas. They
were called as Imperial Cholas.
They were called as Imperial
Cholas because their kingdom
extended to a major portion of
south India, Srilanka and
Kadaram (including Sumatra and
Malaya).
Vijayalaya (850-871 A.D) laid
the foundation for the rise of
later Cholas.
Aditya I (871-907 A.D) son of
Vijayalaya became the ruler of
Tondaimandalam as well as
Cholamandalam. He defeated
Gangas and Kongu country.
Parantaka-I, son of Aditya-I
defeated the Pandya ruler and
took up the title-Maduraikondan.
He was defeated by the
Rashtrakuta ruler Krishna-III in the
battle of Takkolam. Parantaka
died in 955 A.D.
Successors of Parantaka-I
Gandaraditya 949-957 A.D.
1.

Arinjaya 956-957 A.D.

2.

Parantaka-II 956-973 A.D.

3.

Aditya956-966 A.D.
4.

Uttama Chola 965-985 A.D.

5.

⮞ The later Cholas were well-

versed in maintaining and
auditing of accounts.
⮞ Free hospitals called
‘Aathular salai’ were setup
 at Thanjavur and many
more places.
Rajaraja I (985 – 1014 A.D.)
It was under Rajaraja I
and his son Rajendra I
that the Chola power
reached its highest point
of glory. His military
conquests were:
⮞ The defeat of the Chera
ruler Bhaskararavivarman in
the naval battle of
Kandalursalai and the
destruction of the Chera
navy.
⮞ The defeat of the Pandya
ruler, Amarabhujanga and
establishment of Chola
authority in the Pandya
country.
⮞ The conquest of Gangavadi,
Tadigaipadi and Nolambapadi
located in the Mysore region.
The invasion of Sri Lanka
which was entrusted to his
son Rajendra I. As the Sri
Lankan king Mahinda V fled
away from his country, the
Cholas annexed the northern
Sri Lanka. The capital was
shifted from Anuradhapura
to Polanaruva where a Shiva
temple was built.
⮞ The Chola victory over the
growing power of the
Western Chalukyas of
Kalyani. Satyasraya was
 defeated and Rajaraja I
captured the Raichur Doab,
Banavasi and other places.
Hence the Chola power
extended up to the river
Tungabadhra.
⮞ The restoration of Vengi
throne to its rulers
Saktivarman and Vimaladitya
by defeating the Telugu
Cholas. Rajaraja gave his
daughter Kundavai in
marriage to Vimaladitya.
⮞ Rajaraja’s last military
 achievement was a naval
expedition against the
Maldive Islands which were
conquered.
By these conquests, the extent of
the Chola empire under Rajaraja I
included the Pandya, Chera and
the Tondaimandalam regions of
Tamil Nadu and the Gangavadi,
Nolambapadi and the Telugu
Choda territories in the Deccan
and the northern part of Ceylon
and the Maldive Islands beyond
India. Rajaraja assumed a number
of titles like Mummidi Chola,
Jayankonda and Sivapadasekara.
He was a devout follower of
Saivism. He completed the
construction of the famous
Rajarajeswara temple or
Brihadeeswara temple at Tanjore
in 1010 A.D. He also helped in the
construction of a Buddhist
monastery at Nagapattinam.
Rajendra I (1012-1044 A.D.)
Rajendra had demonstrated his
military ability by participating
in his father’s campaigns. He
continued his father’s policy of
aggressive conquests and
expansion.
His important wars were:
⮞ Mahinda V, the king of Sri
Lanka attempted to recover
from the Cholas the northern
part of Ceylon. Rajendra
defeated him and seized the
southern Sri Lanka. Thus the
whole of Sri Lanka was made
part of the Chola Empire.
⮞ He reasserted the Chola
authority over the Chera and
Pandya countries.
⮞ He defeated Jayasimha II,
the Western Chalukya king
and the river Tungabadhra
was recognised as the
boundary between the
Cholas and Chalukyas. His
most famous military
enterprise was his
expedition to north India.
⮞ The Chola army crossed
the Ganges by defeating a
number of rulers on its way.
Rajendra defeated Mahipala I
of Bengal. To commemorate
 this successful north- Indian
campaign Rajendra founded
the city of
Gangaikondacholapuram
and constructed the
famous Rajesvaram temple
in that city. He also excavated
a large irrigation tank called
Cholagangam on the western
side of the city.
⮞ Another famous venture of
Rajendra was his naval
expedition to Kadaram or Sri
Vijaya. It is difficult to pin
point the real object of the
expedition. Whatever its
objects were, the naval
expedition was a complete
success. A number of places
were occupied by Chola
forces. But it was only
temporary and no
permanent annexation of
these places was
contemplated. He assumed
the title Kadaramkondan.
⮞ Rajendra I had put down all
rebellions and kept his
empire in tact. At the death
of Rajendra I the extent of
the Chola Empire was at its
peak. The river Tungabadhra
was the northern boundary.
The Pandya, Kerala and
Mysore regions and also Sri
Lanka formed part of the
empire. He gave his daughter
Ammangadevi to the Vengi
Chalukya prince and further
continued the matrimonial
alliance initiated by his
father. Rajendra I assumed a
 number of titles, the most
famous being
Mudikondan,Gangaikondan,K
adaram Kondan and Pandita
Cholan. Like his father he
was also a devout Saiva and
built a temple for that god at
the new capital
Gangaikondacholapuram.
He made liberal endowments to
this temple and to the Lord
Nataraja temple at Chidambaram.
He was also tolerant towards the
Vaishnava and Buddhist sects.
After Rajendra I, the greatness of
the Chola power was preserved
by rulers like Kulottunga I and
Kulottunga III. Kulottunga I was
the grandson of Rajendra I
through his daughter
Ammangadevi. He succeeded the
Chola throne and thus united the
Vengi kingdom with the Chola
Empire. During his reign Sri
Lanka became independent.
Subsequently, Vengi and the
Mysore region were captured by
the western Chalukyas.
Kulottunga I sent a large embassy
of 72 merchants to China and
maintained cordial relations with
the kingdom of Sri Vijaya. Under
Kulottunga III the central
authority became weak. The rise
of the feudatories like the
Kadavarayas and the emergence
of the Pandya power as a
challenge to Chola supremacy
contributed to the ultimate
downfall of the Chola Empire.
Rajendra III was the last Chola
king who was defeated by
Jatavarman Sundarapandya II.
The Chola country was absorbed
into the Pandya Empire.

Immediate successors of
Rajendra-I
Rajadhiraja I 1018-1054 A.D.
1.

Rajendra II 1056-1064 A.D.

2.

Rajamahendra 1060-1063 A.D.

3.

Virarajendra 1063-1070 A.D.

4.

Adirajendra 1067-1070 A.D.

5.

Kulottunga-I (1071-1122
A.D.)
Kulottunga-I who was born to
Ammangadevi, the daughter of
Rajendra-I and Rajaraja of Vengi
started the Chalukya Chola line of
rulers. He united Vengi Kingdom
with the Chola Empire.
Kulottunga-I defeated the
western Chalukyas. He also
captured Kalinga. During his
reign Srilanka declared its
independence.
He had very close relationship with
Srivijaya and sent trade missions to
their land in 1077 A.D.
Kulottunga-I was a great
administrator. He measured the
lands and regulated land revenue.
As he removed excise duties he
was called as ‘Sungam Thavirtha
Cholan’. He patronized great
literary scholars like
Jeyamkondan, Ottakkuthar,
Pugazhendi and Kambar.
Disintegration of the Cholas
The Chola Empire began to
disintegrate due to the rise of
feudatories like the Kadavarayas
and the emergence of the Pandya
Empire. Rajendra-III (1246-1279
A.D.) was the last Cholas ruler. The
Chola Kingdom was annexed to
the Pandya Empire with the defeat
of Rajendra-III by Jatavarman
Sundarapandya-II.
Chola Administration
Central Government
The Cholas had an excellent
system of administration.
The emperor or king was
at the top of the
administration. The
extent and resources of
the Chola Empire
increased the
power and prestige of monarchy.
The big capital cities like Tanjore
and Gangaikondacholapuram, the
large royal courts and extensive
grants to the temples reveal the
authority of the king. They
undertook royal tours to increase
the efficiency of the
administration. There was
elaborate administrative
machinery comprising various
officials called perundanam and
sirudanam. Revenue
The landrevenue
department was well
 organized.It was called
as puravuvarithinaikkalam.
All lands were carefully
surveyed and classified for
assessment of revenue. The
residential portion of the village
was called ur nattam. These and
other lands such as the lands
belonging to temples were
exempted from tax. Besides land
revenue, there were tolls and
customs on goods taken from
one place to another, various
kinds of professional taxes, dues
levied on ceremonial occasions
like marriages and judicial fines.
During the hard times, there
were remission of taxes and
Kulottunga I became famous by
abolishing tolls and earned the
title – Sungam Tavirtta Cholan.
The main items of government
expenditure were the king and
his court, army and navy, roads,
irrigation tanks and canals.
Military Administration
The Cholas maintained a regular
standing army consisting of
elephants, cavalry, infantry and
navy. About seventy regiments
were mentioned in the
inscriptions. The royal troops
were called Kaikkolaperumpadai.
Within this there was a personal
troop to defend the king known
as Velaikkarar. Attention was
given to the training of the army
and military cantonments called
kadagams existed. The Cholas
paid special attention to their
navy. The naval achievements of
the Tamils reached its climax
under the Cholas. They
controlled the Malabar and
Coromandal coasts. In fact, the Bay
of Bengal became a Chola lake for
sometime.
Provincial Administration
The Chola Empire was divided
into mandalams and each
mandalam into valanadus and
nadus. In each nadu there were a
number bof autonomous villages.
The royal princes or officers
were in charge of mandalams.
The valanadu was under
periyanattar and nadu under
nattar. The town was known as
nagaram and it was under the
administration of a council called
nagarattar.
Village Assemblies
The system of village autonomy
with sabhas
andtheircommitteesdevelopedthro
ughtheages and reached its
culmination during the Chola
rule. Two inscriptions belonging
to the period of Parantaka I found
at Uttiramerur provide details of
the formation and functions of
village councils. That village was
divided into thirty wards and each
was to nominate its members to
the village council. The
qualifications to become a ward
member were:
⮞ Ownership of at least one
fourth veli of land.
⮞ Own residence.
⮞ Above thirty years and
below seventy years of age.
⮞ Knowledge of Vedas.
However, certain norms of
disqualification were also
mentioned in the inscriptions.
They were:
⮞ Those who had been
members of the committees
for the past three years.
⮞ Those who had failed to
submit accounts as committee
members.
⮞ Those who had committed
sins.
⮞ Those who had stolen the
property of others.
From the persons duly
nominated, one was to be chosen
for each ward by kudavolai
system for a year. The names of
eligible persons were written on
palm-leaves and put into a pot. A
young boy or girl would take out
thirty names each for one ward.
They were divided into six
variyams such as
samvatsaravariyam, erivariyam,
thotta variyam, pancha variyam,
pon variyam and puravuvari
variyam to take up six different
functions of the village
administration. The committee
members were called
variyapperumakkal. They usually
met in the temple or under a tree
and passed resolutions. The
number of committees and ward
members varied from village to
village. Socio-economic Life
Caste system was widely
prevalent during the Chola period.
Brahmins and Kshatriyas enjoyed
special privileges. The inscriptions
of the later period of the Chola rule
mention about two major
divisions among the castes –
Valangai and Idangai castes.
However, there was cooperation
among various castes and sub-
castes in social and religious life.
The position of women did not
improve. The practice of ‘sati’ was
prevalent among the royal families.
The devadasi system or dancing
girls attached to temples emerged
during this period.
Both Saivism and Vaishnavism
continued to flourish during the
Chola period. A number of
temples were built with the
patronage of Chola kings and
queens. The temples remained
centres of economic activity
during this period. The mathas
had great influence during this
period. Both agriculture and
industry flourished. Reclamation
of forest lands and the
construction and maintenance of
irrigation tanks led to
agricultural prosperity. The
weaving industry, particularly
the silk-weaving at Kanchi
flourished. The metal works
developed owing to great
demand of images for temples
and utensils. Commerce and
trade were brisk with trunk roads
or peruvazhis and merchant guilds.
Gold, silver and copper coins
were issued in plenty at various
denominations. Commercial
contacts between the Chola
Empire and China, Sumatra, Java
and Arabia were extensively
prevalent. Arabian horses were
imported in large numbers to
strengthen the cavalry.
Education and Literature
Education was also given
importance. Besides the temples
and mathas as educational centres,
several educational institutions
also flourished. The inscription at
Ennayiram, Thirumukkudal and
Thirubhuvanai provide details of
the colleges existed in these
places.
Apart from the Vedas and Epics,
subjects like mathematics and
medicine were taught in these
institutions. Endowment of lands
was made to run these
institutions. The development of
Tamil literature reached its peak
during the Chola period.
Sivakasintamani written by
Thiruthakkadevar and
Kundalakesi belonged to 10th
century. The Ramayana
composed by Kamban and the
Periyapuranam or
Tiruttondarpuranam by Sekkilar
are the two master-pieces of this
age. Jayankondar’s
Kalingattupparani describes the
Kalinga war fought by Kulotunga
I. The Moovarula written by
Ottakuthar depicts the life of
three Chola kings. The Nalavenba
was written by Pugalendi. The
works on Tamil grammar like
Kalladam by Kalladanar,
Yapperungalam by
Amirthasagarar, a Jain, Nannul by
Pavanandhi and Virasoliyam by
Buddhamitra were the products
of the Chola age.
Art and Architecture
The Dravidian style of art and
architecture reached its perfection
under the Cholas. They built
enormous temples. The chief
feature of the Chola temple is the
vimana. The early Chola temples
were found at Narthamalai and
Kodumbalur in Pudukottai
district and at Srinivasanallur in
Tiruchirappalli district. The Big
Temple at Tanjore built by
Rajaraja I is a master-piece of
South Indian art and architecture.
It consists of the vimana,
ardhamandapa, mahamandapa
and a large pavilion in the front
known as the Nandimandapa.
Another notable contribution
made by the Cholas to temple
architecture is the Siva temple at
Gangaikondacholapuram built by
Rajendra I. The Airavathesvara
temple at Darasuram in Tanjore
District and the Kampaharesvara
temple at Tribhuvanam are
examples of later Chola temples.
The Cholas also made rich
contributions to the art of
sculpture. The walls of the Chola
temples such as the Tanjore and
Gangaikondacholapuram temples
contain numerous icons of large
size with fine execution. The
bronzes of the Chola period are
world-famous. The bronze
statues of Nataraja or dancing
Siva are master pieces. The Chola
paintings were found on the
walls of Narthamalai and Tanjore
temples.
Sculpturers
Portraits, icons and decorative
sculptures are the main features
of Chola sculptures. The portraits
are full of grace and beauty. The
icons of Rajaraja-I are
remarkable. The
sculptures of Shiva,
Vishnu, Brahma, eight
armed Durga in the Shiva
and Vishnu temples are a
few examples of Chola
sculptures.
The Cholas are also well known
for their bronze images. The
Nataraja idol in the Nageswara
Temple at Kumbakonam is the
largest and the finest. The bronze
idol of Arthanareeswarar is
another important specimen of the
Chola period.
Paintings
 The Cholas are known for their
paintings all well as fine murals
(paintings done directly on walls).
The paintings of the Chola period
are found at Tanjore,
Thirumayam, Kanchi
Kailasanatha Temple and
Narttamalai Vishnu Temple.
Music and Dance
Music developed into a fine art
under the provided
Cholas.the basis
This
development
for the later day Carnatic Music.
Bharatanatyam as a fine art also
developed during cholas
this period.
Impact of imperial
The Imperial cholas who ruled
from 850
A.D. to 1279 A.D. played a
significant role in the Tamil country
for about 430 years. They have
made an impressive impact on
Polity, Tamil literature, Temple
architecture, music and dance.
They were the only imperial power
who founded an overseas empire
and spread the glories of the Tamil
culture far and wide.
World Heritage Day : The World
Heritage Day is celebrated every year on
18th April. This day is intended to make
people aware of their social and cultural
Heritage. It also instills the value to care
and preserve all the heritage sites.

Varipotthagam
The Varipotthagam wa a
book containing all revenue
record. During Rajaraja’s
regin a revenue survey was
undertaken in 1001 A.D. by
Senathipati Kuravan, a
revenue officer.

World Heritage Sites: The

Brahadeeswara temple at
Tanjore, Siva temple at
Gagaikonda Cholapuram and
Airavatesvara temple at
Darasuram have been declared
as World Heritage Sites by the
UNESCO.
The Pandyas
The Pandya Empire
The Pandyasoccupied the region
comprising of the modern
districts of Madurai and
Tirunelveli, part of Trichy and
sometimes even parts of
Travancore. We come to know of
the “Pandyas from the writings of
Magasthenese, Pliny, the ancient
Tamil literary works and the
accounts of Hiuen-T-sang and
Marco-polo. The history of the
Pandyas can be divided as the
Early Pandyas, First Pandya
Empire and Second Pandya
Empire.
The early Pandyas
The Early Pandyas belonged to
the Sangam Age. A remarkable
feature of this period was the
maintenance of a flourishing Tamil
Literary Academy or Sangam at
Madurai. The capital of the
Pandyas was Madurai and their
emblem was fish. With the rise of
the kalabhras, the Sangam Age
declined.
First Pandya Empire
The Pandya king Kadungon
restored position of the Pandyas
in the last quarter of the 6th
Century. A.D. by overthrowing
the Kalabhars. The dynasty
founded by him is generally
referred to as the First Pandya
Kingdom (550-950 A.D.)
The most important rulers of
this period were Arikesari
Maravarman,
Ranadhiran,Maravarman,
Rajasimha-I, Varaguna-I and
Srimara Srivallabha.
The Pandya empire extended to
Tanjore, Tiruchirapalli,
Coimbatore and Salem.
The Second Pandya Empire
From the 13th century onwards
the Pandyas progressively
detached themselves from the
Chola rule and reasserted the
independence. In the civil war
which broke out between
Vikrama Pandya and Virapandya,
Vikrama Pandya captured power
with the support of Kulothunga-
III the Chola Emperor.
Jatavarman Kulasekara-I
Jatavarman Kulasekara-I
(1190-1216 A.D.) succeeded his
father Vikrama Pandya. He ruled
over Madurai, Ramanathapuram,
Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari. He
appointed his brother,
Maravarman Sundara Pandya as
his successor.
Maravarman
I Sundara Pandya-
Maravarman Sundara Pandya-I
(1216-1238 A.D.) defeated
Kulottunga Chola-III in 1219
A.D. As the Hoysalas came to the
support of the Cholas, he
restored the throne to the Chola
rduler Rajaraja-III and assumed
the title ‘Sonadu Valangiaruliya
Sundara Pandya’.
Maravarman Sundara Pandya-II
(1238- 1253 A.D.) recovered
from the Chola ruler
Rajendra-III some of the territories
which he had lost earlier.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I
(1253- 1268 A.D.) succeeded
Maravarman Sundara Pandya-II.
He extended the empire from
Nellore and Cuddappah districts
in the North to cape Comorin in
the South. He took up the titles
Emmandalamum Kondaruliya
Maharajathiraja, Sri
Paramesvaran and Ponveintha
Perumal.
Jatavarman Sundara Pandya-I’s
son Maravarman Kulasekaran-I
(1268-1308 A.D.) enlarged his
kingdom. He invaded Ceylon and
captured Kollam in the Chera
land. He assumed the title Kollam
Konda Pandya. The power of the
Pandyas started declining after
him.
Decline of the Pandyas
 A war of succession broke out
between Sundara Pandya and
Vira Pandya, the sons of
Maravarman Kulasekaran-I. With
the help of Alaud-din Khilji’s
commander Malik Kafur, Sundara
Pandya ascended the throne.
The Tughluqs who succeeded
the Khiljis, extended their hold
over South India and declared the
Pandya empire as a part of the
Tughluq Empire.
The decline of Tughluq power
led to the establishment of the
Sultans of Madurao which
ultimately resulted in the
complete decline of the Pandya
Empire.
Administration
The Pandya Empire was called
as Pandya Mandalam. The
Mandalam was divided into
Valanadu and further into Urs.
The King was assisted by the
Ariyans (Ministers) and the Army
Chief. Special officers were
appointed to collect taxes and
maintain accounts. Local self
Government
 Village administration was
looked after by five Variyams,
namely Aranilaya Variyam,
Neernilai Variyam, Nanaya
Variyam, varithandal Variyam
and Needhi Variyam.
Occupation
Agriculture and Trade were the
main occupations of the people.
the agriculturists were called as
Boomiputirar. Many slaves were
employed to carry on different
tasks. The Pandyas were famous
for pearl diving. The pearls of the
Pandya empire were famous all
over the world. The famous ports
of the Pandyas were Korkai and
Thondi.
Literature
Manickavasagar’s composed
Thiruvasagam, Andal’s
composed Thiruppavai,
Nammalvar’s composed
Thiruppallandu, Villiputhurar
wrote Mahabharatha,
Adhiveerarama Pandya wrote
Naidadham, Srikaviraya wrote
books namely Seyur Murugan ula
and Rathingiri ula. Thus the
Pandyas contributed greatly to
the progress of literature.
Art and Architecture
The Pandya contribution to art
and architecture is noteworthy.
The special features of the Pandya
temple architecture are the
Gopuras, Prakaras, Vimanas,
Garbagrahas and Gateways.
The Pandya period marked area
wakening
in the field of rock-cut temples.
More than
50 rock cut temples were
excavated in the Pandya
Kingdom at several places like
Kunnakudi, Annaimalai,
Sithannavasal,
Thiruparankundram,
Kalugumalai,
Malaiyadikuruchi,
Thiruchirappalli, etc.,
 Structural temples were
constructed by the Pandyas
rulers at Kovilpatty, Tiruppathur,
Madurai, Srivilliputhur and
other places. Kulasekara Pandya
built arthamandapa,
manimandapa and sannati in
every temple ofhis empire. Public
meetings, social gatherings,
religious keerthanas, recitals and
Katha-Nataka were held in the
sabha mandapas of temples.
Sculptures
The Pandya sculptures are
beautiful and ornamental. The
sculptures of Somaskandar,
Durga, Ganapathy, Narasimha and
Nataraja are good specimens of
this period.
Many sculptures are also found
at Kalugumalai,
Thiruparankundram,
Thirumalaipurm, Narattamalai
and Kunnakudi.
Paintings
Among the fine arts, painting
was greatly developed by the
Pandyas. The mural paintings of
Srimaran Srivallabha Pandya of
the first Pandya period are seen
in the Sithannavasal cave
temples. The paintings of lotus,
bathing elephants and playing
fish are noteworthy.
The Pandya rules have thus left
a unique and everlasting impact
on the Tamil society and South
Indian history.
Uttaramerur inscriptions: It laid down
the qualifications for those who wished
to become a member of the Sabha. He
must be honest, a land owner from
which land revenue is collected, In the
age group 35 and 70 years, having a
knowledge of the Vedas and well versed
in administrative matters. Members of
the village if found guilty were punished
severely. They could not take part in the
elections.
 The lost wax technique: The
lost wax technique was used by
the Chola craftsmen to make
bronze statues. First the image
was made in wax. Then it was
covered in clay and allowed to
dry. A tiny hole was made in the
clay cov- er. Next, it was heated
and the moiten wax was drained
out through the hole. Bronze (an
alloy of copper and metal) was
melted and poured into the clay
through the hole. Once the metal
was coated and solidified the clay
cover was carefully removed and
the image was cleaned and
polished.
 Vijayanagara Rule

VIJAYANAGAR EMPIRE
Sources
⮞ The history of Vijayanagar
Empire constitutes an
important chapter in the
history of India. Four
dynasties – Sangama, Saluva,
Tuluva and Aravidu – ruled
Vijayanagar from
A.D. 1336 to 1672. The
sources for the study of
Vijayanagar are varied such
as literary, archaeological
and numismatics.
Krishnadevaraya’s
Amukthamalyada,
Gangadevi’s
Maduravijayam and Allasani
Peddanna’s Manucharitam
 are some of the indigenous
literature of this period.
⮞ Many foreign travelers
visited the Vijayanagar
Empire and their accounts are
also valuable. The Moroccan
traveler, Ibn Battuta, Venetian
traveler Nicolo de Conti,
Persian traveler Abdur Razzak
and the Portuguese traveler
Domingo Paes were among
them who left valuable
accounts on the socio-
economic conditions of the
 Vijayanagar Empire.
⮞ The copper plate
inscriptions such as the
Srirangam copper plates of
Devaraya II provide the
genealogy and achievements
of Vijayanagar rulers. The
Hampi ruins and other
monuments of Vijayanagar
provide information on the
cultural contributions of the
Vijayanagar rulers. The
numerous coins issued by the
Vijayanagar rulers contain
 figures and legends explaining
their titles and achievements.
Political History
Vijayanagar was founded in
1336 by Harihara and Bukka of
the Sangama dynasty. They were
originally served under the
Kakatiya rulers of Warangal.
Then they went to Kampili where
they were imprisoned and
converted to Islam. Later, they
returned to the Hindu fold at the
initiative of the saint Vidyaranya.
They also proclaimed their
independence and founded a new
city on the south bank of the
Tungabhadra river. It was called
Vijayanagar meaning city of
victory.
The decline of the Hoysala
kingdom enabled Harihara and
Bukka to expand their newly
founded kingdom. By 1346, they
brought the
whole of the Hoysala kingdom
under their control. The struggle
between Vijayanagar and
Sultanate of Madurai lasted for
about four decades.
Kumarakampana’s expedition to
Madurai was described in the
Maduravijayam. He destroyed the
Madurai Sultans and as a result,
the Vijayanagar Empire
comprised the whole of South
India up to Rameswaram.
The conflict between
Vijayanagar Empire and the
Bahmani kingdom lasted for
many years. The dispute over
Raichur Doab, the region between
the rivers Krishna and
Tungabhadra and also over the
fertile areas of Krishna- Godavari
delta led to this long- drawn
conflict. The greatest ruler of the
Sangama dynasty was Deva Raya
II. But he could not win any clear
victory over the Bahmani Sultans.
After his death, Sangama dynasty
became weak. The next dynasty,
Saluva dynasty founded by
Saluva Narasimha reigned only
for a brief period (1486-1509).
Krishnadeva
1529 Raya (1509-
A.D.)
Krishnadeva Raya of the
Tuluva dynasty was the
most famous king of the
Vijayanagar Empire.
According to
Domingo Paes, a
Portuguese traveller,
“Krishnadeva Raya was
the most feared and
perfect king there could
possibly be”.
Conquests
Krishnadeva Raya was a great
warrior. He conquered
Sivasamudram in 1510 A.D.,
Raichur in 1512 A.D., Orissa and
Warangal in
1523 A.D. and a large part of the
Deccan. His empire extended
from the river Krishna in the
north to the river Cauvery in the
south and the Arabian Sea in the
west to the Bay of Bengal in the
east.
Contributions
Krishnadevaraya was an able
administrator. He constructed
large tanks and canals for
irrigation purposes. He improved
the naval power as he
understood the importance of
overseas trade. He maintained
friendly relationship with the
Portuguese and Arab traders and
increased the revenue of his
government.
Krishnadeva Raya was a great
scholar. A group of eight scholars
called Ashtadiggajas adorned his
court. He was a patron of art and
architecture. He built beautiful
temples and palaces. The Vijaya
nagar Empire reached its zenith
of glory during Krishnadeva
Raya’s period.
 The Ashtadiggajas: Allasani
Peddanna, Nandi Thimmana,
Tenali Rama, Bhattu Murthy,
Puna Vira Bhadra, Dhurjathy,
Mallana and Panaji Surana.
Administration
The administration under the
Vijayanagar Empire was well
organized. The king enjoyed
absolute authority in executive,
judicial and legislative matters.
He was the highest court of
appeal. The succession to the
throne was on the principle of
hereditary. Sometimes
usurpation to the throne took
place as Saluva Narasimha came
to power by ending the Sangama
dynasty. The king was assisted
by a council of ministers in his
day to day administration.
The Empire was divided into
different administrative units
called Mandalams, Nadus, sthalas
and finally into gramas. The
governor of Mandalam was called
Mandaleswara or Nayak.
Vijayanagar rulers gave full
powers to the local authorities in
the administration.
Besides land revenue, tributes and
gifts from vassals and feudal
chiefs, customs collected at the
ports, taxes on various
professions were other sources of
income to the government. Land
revenue was fixed generally one
sixth of the produce. The
expenditure of the government
includes personal expenses of king
and the charities given by him
and military expenditure. In the
matter of justice, harsh
punishments such as mutilation
and throwing to elephants were
followed.
The Vijayanagar army was well-
organized and efficient. It
consisted of the cavalry, infantry,
artillery and elephants. High-
breed horses were procured from
foreign traders. The top-grade
officers of the army were known
as Nayaks or Poligars. They were
granted land in lieu of their
services. These lands were called
amaram. Soldiers were usually
paid in cash.
The Glories of the
Vijayanagar
Empire
Administration
⮞ The Vijayanagar rulers had a
well organized administrative
system. The king was the
fountain head of all powers in
the state. There was a
Council of Ministers to assist
the King in the work of
administration.
⮞ The Empire was divided into
six Provinces. Each Province
was under a Governor called
Naik. The Provinces were
divided into districts which
were further divided into
smaller units namely Villages.
The Village Assembly carried
on the administration of the
villages through its hereditary
officers like accountants, the
weightsmen, watchmen and
officers incharge of forced
labour. The Central
administration maintained
contact with the villages
 through an officer called
Mahanayakacharya.
The Army
The army consisted of the
infantry, calvary and elephantry.
The commander-in-chief was in
charge of the army.
Revenue Administration
Land revenue was the main
source of income. The land was
carefully surveyed and taxes were
collected based on the fertility of
the soil. Great attention was paid
to agriculture and the construction
of dams and canals.
Judicial Administration
 The king was the supreme
judge. The civil cases were
decided on the basis of Hindu
Law. Severe punishments were
inflicted on the guilty. Fines were
collected from those who
violated the law.
Position of Women
Women occupied a high
position and took an active part in
political, social and literary life of
the empire. They were educated
and trained in werestling. In the
use of various weapons of offence
and defence, in music and fine arts.
Some of them received education
of high order. Nuniz writes that
the kings had women
astrologers, clerks, accountants,
guards and wrestlers.
Social Life
Allasani Peddanna in his
Manucharitam refers the
existence of four castes –
Brahmins, Kshatriyas, Vaisyas
and Sudras - in the Vijayanagar
society. Foreign travelers left vivid
accounts on the splendour of
buildings and luxurious social life
in the city of Vijayanagar. Silk
and cotton clothes were mainly
used for dress. Perfumes, flowers
and ornaments were used by the
people. Paes mentions of the
beautiful houses of the rich and
the large number of their
household servants. Nicolo Conti
refers to the prevalence of
slavery. Dancing, music,
wrestling, gambling and cock-
fighting were some of the
amusements.
The Sangama rulers were chiefly
Saivaites and Virupaksha was their
family deity. But other dynasties
were Vaishnavites.
Srivaishnavism of Ramanuja was
very popular. But all kings were
tolerant towards other religions.
Borbosa referred to the religious
freedom enjoyed by everyone.
Muslims were employed in the
administration and they were
freely allowed to build mosques
and worship. A large number of
temples were built during this
period and numerous festivals
were celebrated. The Epics and
the Puranas were popular among
the masses.
The position of women had not
improved. However, some of
them were learned. Gangadevi,
wife of Kumarakampana
authored the famous work
Maduravijayam. Hannamma and
Thirumalamma were famous
poets of this period. According to
Nuniz, a large number of women
were employed in royal palaces
as dancers, domestic servants
and palanquin bearers. The
attachment of dancing girls to
temples was in practice. Paes
refers to the flourishing devadasi
system. Polygamy was prevalent
among the royal families. Sati was
honoured and Nuniz gives a
description of it. Economic
Condition
According to the accounts of the
foreign travelers, the Vijayanagar
Empire was one of the wealthiest
parts of the world at that time.
Agriculture continued to be the
chief occupation of the people.
The Vijayanagar rulers provided
a stimulus to its further growth
by providing irrigation facilities.
New tanks were built and dams
were constructed across the
rivers like Tunghabadra. Nuniz
refers to the excavation of canals.
There were numerous
industries and they were
organized into guilds. Metal
workers and other craftsmen
flourished during this period.
Diamond mines were located in
Kurnool and Anantapur district.
Vijayanagar was also a great
centre of trade. The chief gold
coin was the varaha but weights
and measures varied from place
to place. Inland, coastal and
overseas trade led to the general
prosperity. There were a number
of seaports on the Malabar coast,
the chief being Cannanore.
Commercial contacts with Arabia,
Persia, South Africa and Portugal
on the west and with Burma,
Malay peninsula and China on
the east flourished. The chief
items of exports were cotton and
silk clothes, spices, rice, iron,
saltpeter and sugar. The imports
consisted of horses, pearls,
copper, coral, mercury, China silk
and velvet clothes. The art of
shipbuilding had developed.
The empire of Vijayanagar was
very rich and prosperous. The
agricultural production was
increased by their irrigational
policies. Numerous industries
such as Textiles, mining,
metallurgy and perfumery
existed. They had commercial
relations with the islands in the
Indian Ocean, the Malay
Archipelago, Burma, China,
Arabia, Persia, South Africa,
Abyssinia and Portugal.
The Chief articles exported were
spices, cereals, cotton, silk,
opium, Indigo, sea pearls, saffron,
ginger, sugar, coconuts, etc. The
articles imported were horses,
elephants, copper, mercury, China
silk and velvets. Goa, Diu, Cochin
and Quilon were the important
ports through which active trade
was carried on the Western sea
coast of India.
Cultural Contributions
The temple building activity
further gained momentum during
the Vijayanagar rule. The chief
characteristics of the
Vijayanagara architecture were
the construction of tall Raya
Gopurams or gateways and the
Kalyanamandapam with carved
pillars in the temple premises.
The sculptures on the pillars
were carved with distinctive
features. The horse was the most
common animal found in these
pillars. Large mandapams contain
one hundred pillars as well as
one thousand pillars in some big
temples. These mandapams were
used for seating the deity on
festival occasions. Also, many
Amman shrines were added to
the already existing temples
during this period. The most
important temples of the
Vijayanagar style were found in
the Hampi ruins or the city of
Vijayanagar. Vittalaswamy and
Hazara Ramaswamy temples
were the best examples of this
style. The Varadharaja and
Ekamparanatha temples at
Kanchipuram stand as examples
for the magnificence of the
Vijayanagara style of temple
architecture. The Raya Gopurams
at Thiruvannamalai and
Chidambaram speak the glorious
epoch
of Vijayanagar. They were
continued by the Nayak rulers in
the later period. The metal
images of Krishna Deva Raya and
his queens at Tirupati are
examples for casting of metal
images. Music and dancing were
also patronized by the rulers of
Vijayanagar. Different languages
such as Sanskrit, Telugu,
Kannada and Tamil flourished in
the regions. There was a great
development in Sanskrit and
Telugu literature. The peak of
literary achievement was
reached during the reign of
Krishna Deva Raya. He himself
was a scholar in Sanskrit and
Telugu. His famous court poet
Allasani Peddanna was
distinguished in Telugu literature.
Thus the cultural contributions of
the Vijayanagar rulers were
many-sided and remarkable.
Battle of Talikota (1565 A.D.)
 The successors of
Krishnadeva Raya
were weak. During the
rule of Ramaraya,
the combined forces
of Ahmednagar,
Bijapur, Golconda and Bidar
declared war on Vijayanagar. In
the battle of Talikota in 1565 A.D.
Ramaraya was defeated. He and
his people were mercilessly
killed. Vijayanagar was
plundered and left in ruins.
Contribution
and to Architecture
Literature
 The rulers of
Vijayanagar were
great patrons of art and
learning. The
Hazara Ramasami
temple and Vittalaswamy temple
are fine examples of this period.
The bronze image of Krishnadeva
Raya is a masterpiece. Many
scholars were patronized by the
Vijayanagar rulers. Sanskrit,
Tamil, Telugu and Kannada
literature were developed.
Sayana wrote commentaries on
vedas. Krishnadevaraya wrote
Amuktamalyada in telugu. His
Sanskrit works were Usha
Parinayam and Jambavathi
Kalyanam.
Decline of the Empire
The rulers of the Aravidu
dynasty were weak
andincometent.Takingadvantageoft
heirweakness the provincial
governors became independent.
The rulers of Bijapur and
Golconda annexed some areas of
Vijayanagar. The Nayaks became
free in the south. Thus by 1614
A.D.Vijayanagar dynasty was
declined.
 The Nayak Rule in Tamil
Country

The expansion of Vijayanagar

Empire finally brought the Nayak
rule in Tamil country. The word
Nayak means Leader, chief or
General. The Nayaks were the
agents of the Vijayanagar rulers,
who ruled over the territories
granted to them. They considered
themselves the imperial
successors. They ruled from
Madurai, Tanjore and Senji
(Gingee).
The Nayaks of Madurai
Madurai formed the part of the
southern mandalam of
Vijayanagar Empire. Viswanatha
Nayak was appointed as the
viceroy of Madurai by Krishnadeva
Raya in 1529. This date was
taken as the date of Nayakship of
Madurai.
Vishwanatha Nayak
Vishwanatha Nayak was the
close friend of Krishnadeva Raya.
He was sent to Madurai to
suppress the rebellion. He came
out successful and became the
master of Madurai.
Viswanatha Nayak is known for
his peaceful effective
administration. He introduced
new administrative arrangements
with the assistance of his
minister Ariyanatha, known as
“palayakar system”. He appointed
poligars to maintain peace and
security in his empire. They were
incharge of military, police and
revenue administration. Kaval
was the most important work
and the people paid a tax called
kaval pitchai as remuneration.
Viswanatha Nayak was
succeeded by several rulers.
Among them Thirumalai Nayak
was the most important ruler.
Thirumala Nayak
Immediately after the
accession of Thirumalai
Nayak, the forces of
Mysore marched across
Madurai. But they were
defeated at Dindigul by
Thirumalai Nayak. Unni
Keralavarman of
Travancore refused to pay
the tribute. Thirumalai
Nayak sent an army, defeated
and made him to pay the tribute
regularly. Thirumalai Nayak was
mainly responsible for the Muslim
attack in Tamil country. When Sri
Ranga III, the ruler of
Vijayanagar marched against
Madurai, Thirumalai Nayak made
an alliance with Nayaks of Senji
and Tanjore. But he was betrayed
by the Nayaks of Tanjore.
Thirumalai Nayak sought the
help of ruler of Golconda and
induced him to invade Vellore
and threatened Madurai. So
Thirumalai Nayak sought the
help of ruler of Mysore. The ruler
victory at Sathyamangalam
and reached
Dindigul. The Mysore army cut
off the noses and the upper lips of
their enemies. This barbarous
practice alarmed the Madurai
people. Thirumalai Nayak
attacked Mysore army and
practised the same method of
cutting the noses of the enemies.
This strange event was termed as
“war of noses”.
Other
Nayak works of Thirumal
Thirumalai Nayak established an
efficient system of
administration. He maintained
peace
 andsecurity.Hegaveafreehandtoth
e Portuguese and the Dutch. He
shifted his capital from Trichy to
Madurai. He repaired many
temples. The temple
administration came under his
direct control. He gifted a
number of villages for the
maintenance of the temples. The
Pudhu Mandapam, Mariamman
Theppakkulam and Thirumalai
Nayak Mahal were constructed
during his period. He patronized
the renowned Sanskrit scholar
Neelakanda Dikshidar.
The
MangammalRegency of Queen
Mangammal was the wife of
Chokkanadhar and grandmother
of Vijayaranga Chokkanadhar.
She became a regent of 3 years
old child Vijayaranga
Chokkanadhar. The regency of
Queen Mangammal was
remarkable in the history of
Nayaks of Madurai. Diplomatically
she saved the kingdom. She
encouraged Christian
missionaries. She provided more
facilities to pilgrim centres. Roads
were made safe. She planted shady
trees, built choultries and made
journey easy and comfortable.
She made rich endowments to
temples. She paid more interest on
irrigational projects.
‘Uyyakkondan Canal’ speaks
about her contribution to
irrigation.
Meenakshi
Vijayaranga died without a male
issue. His wife Meenakshi
became the successor. She
adopted Vijaya Kumara and
started her rule as a regent.
Bangaru, father of Vijayakumara
conspired against Meenakshi to
occupy the throne.So,Meenakshi
sought the help of Chanda Sahib,
the Nawab of carnatic and
promised to offer a crore of
rupees. Chanda Sahib defeated
Bangaru and saved Meenakshi.
Later Chanda Sahib showed his
true colour and threw off the
promises and imprisoned
Meenakshi in her own palace at
Trichy. The heart-broken Queen
took poison and died. Chanda
Sahib became the master of the
Nayak State to Madurai and thus
the Nayak State of Madurai and
thus the Nayak rule came to an
end in A.D.1736.
The Nayaks of Tanjore
Tanjore formed a part of the
Vijayanagar Empire. Thimmappa
Nayak was in charge of Tanjore.
He was succeeded by his son
Sevappa Nayak.
Sevappa Nayak
Sevappa Nayak was the
founder of the
Independent Nayak
kingdom at Tanjore. He
paid attention to the
maintenance of Hindu
temples. He gave permission
to the Portuguese to settle
at Nagapattinam and gave
10
veli of land to the Mulavur Temple.
He repaired Shivaganga Lake.
Later it was called “Sevappaneri”.
He gave grants to
Thiruvannamalai and
Virudhachalam temples.
Achutappa Nayak
Sevappa was succeeded by his
son Achutappa Nayak. He
maintained cordial relations with
Vijayanagar and helped the
Vijayanagara king in the battle of
Talikotta. He gave a diamond
throne to Lord Ranganatha and
made endowments to the
Rameswaram temple. He
completed the tower of
Arunachaleswar temple at
Thiruvannamalai. He repaired the
banks of river Kaveri and
improved agriculture.
Ragunatha Nayak
Achutappa was succeeded by his
younger son Ragunatha Nayak. He
was the most popular among the
Nayaks of Senji and Madurai and
the Portuguese of Jaffna. He was
also a great poet, and wrote the
Rukmani Parinayam, Parijata,
Pushpakaranam and Ramayanam
in Telugu.
Vijayaragava Nayak
Ragunatha was succeeded by his
son Vijayaragava Nayak. He was a
weak and incompetent ruler and
was unable to defend the country.
He was the last Nayak ruler of
Tanjore. Chokkanatha Nayak of
Madurai invaded and killed
Vijayaragava Nayak and captured
Tanjore. Thus, the Nayak rule of
Tanjore came to an end in
A.D.1673.
The Nayaks of Senji (Gingee)
 The region between Palar and
Coleroon formed the Nayak
kingdom of Senji. The Nayaks of
Senji were related to the royal
house of Vijayanagar. Their
original home
wasManinagapuram in North
India and they migrated to the
south and settled there.
Krishnadevaraya appointed
Vyappa Nayak in charge of Senji.
He was succeeded by Krishnappa
Nayak II. He was the real founder
of the Nayak rule in Senji.
Krishnappa Nayak II
 Krishnappa Nayak-II was the
most important ruler of Senji. He
divided his kingdom into various
divisions. Each division was ruled
by his officers. He built towns for
the settlement of the people. He
promoted cultivation. He
maintained a powerful army. He
erected a town called
”Krishnapattinam” on the banks
of the river Vellar. He was
tolerant towards all religions. He
gave grants to Jesuits for building
churches. He permitted jains to
erect a shrine at Sithamur and
saivites to build a temple at
Tindivanam. He rebuilt the
Govindaraja shrine at
Chidambaram. His general
Venkata, dug out a large tank
called Chennasagaram for
promoting irrigation.
The successors of Krishnappa
Nayak-II were weak and
inefficient. Bijapur Sultan (Ali
Adil Shah) sent Mir Jumla to
capture Senji in 1648. He
captured Senji and appointed
Nasir khan as its governor. In
1648, Shivaji captured Senji.
After Shivaji, it came under the
Rajput general Swaroop Singh,
who acted as a mughal vassal
and paid annual tribute. He was
succeeded by his son Raja
Desingh. Sadat ullah khan, the
ruler of Arcot invaded, defeated
and killed Raja Desingh and
annexed Senji. Raja
Desingh’s wife committed sati. As a
mark of her remembrance, (Rani)
the town of Ranipet was created.
Thus the nayak’s rule of Senji came
to an end.
Tamil
Nayak rule country under the
Administration
The Nayaks ruled over Madurai,
Tanjore and Senji. The Nayaks
established an efficient
administration. The king was the
head of the State. He was assisted
by a council of ministers. The
empire was divided into
provinces, mandalams, simai or
makana and villages. Paligar
system was followed. Land tax
was the main source of income to
the state.
Social and Economic
conditions
The Nayaks upheld Varnasrama
system in society. Caste system
remained rigid. Brahmins occupied
the high position, valankai and
idankai struffle continued.
Villagers lived in ignorance and
poverty. The Nayaks occupied
mostly the dry areas except
Kaveri, Vaigai and Thamiraparani
areas. Agrarian economy
continued. Agriculturists
depended in rains. Tanks, wells,
canals and rivers were the main
source for irrigation.
ArtThe
andNayaks
Architecture
werearchitecture.
the great
patrons of art and
The Krishnapuram temple and
Nellaiappar temples at
Thirunelveli, Kasi Viswanatha
Temple at Tenkasi,
Ramanathapuram temple at
Rameswaram and the Big Gopura
of Srivilliputhur received the
paronage of the Nayaks of Madurai.
Krishnappa Nayak Velliambalam,
rebuilt and
renovated
Northern Gopuram, Mandapam,
Thousand
Pillared
Murthiamman Mandapam,
Suriya Mandapam and Virappa
Mandapam at Madurai. He also
provided golden roof of the
Mandapa of the Meenakshi
Temple. Thirumalai Nayak built
the Pudhumandapam and Nayak’s
Mahal. Nayak Mahal was built
with the help of Italian architect. It
is a classical fusion of Dravidan,
Islamic and European style. It is
considered as one of the wonders
in south India. Queen Mangammal
built the Mangammal Palace at
Madurai.
Sevappa Nayak of Tanjore
renovated many temples and built
the Sivaganga fort at Tanjore. The
Big Mandapam at
Thiruvannamalai, Virudachalam
etc, were built by him.
Achutappa gave grants to Sri
Ranganatha at Srirangam and Siva
Temple at Rameswaram. He
completed the tower of
Arunachaleswarar at
Thiruvannamalai.
Achyuta Ramabhadra Nayak of
Senji built the enclosing walls as
well as the majestic gopuram for
Thiruvannamalai Temple. He also
built a Vishnu Temple at
Tindivanam. He permitted the
Jains toconstruct a Jain Temple
(palis) at Sittamur.
Literature
Nayaks made great contribution
for the growth of literature.
Thirumalai Nayak’s
Chidambarapuranam,
Paranjothiar’s
Chidambarapattial, Haridasa’s
Irusamaya Vilakkam,
Umarupulavar’s Seerapuranam,
Kumaraguruparar’s Kandar Kali
Venba and Meyngnana Vilakkam
by Thiruvenkatam were the most
important literary works during
the Nayak’s period. Thus the
Nayak rule occupied an
important place in the history of
Tamil country.
 The Rule of he Marathas
of Thanjavur
(A.D.1676-A.D.1856)
Chokkanatha Nayak of Madurai
invaded and captured Thanjavur
and appointd his half-brother
Alagiri as Governorwith of Thanjavur.
Bur he quarrelled
Chokkanatha andto sought the help
of Bijapur Sultan appoint
Sengamaladass as sultan
the Nayak of
Thanjavur. So the sent
Venkaji (Ekoji) to captureand
Thanjavur. he
captured succeeded
Thanjavur and
established Maratha rule. They
ruled over Thankavur from 1676
to 1856 A.D. Ekoji alias Venkoji
Ekoji was the son of Shaji Bhonsle
and Tuka Bai. In order to plunder
the wealth and to spread Hindu faith
in the South, Shivaji led an
expedition againstthe
Carnaticregion. Hecaptured
Golkonda and Senji. He marched
towards Thanjavur and demanded
his share from Venkoji which
ended in failure. So Shivaji as his
Viceroy and returned. After his
return, Venkoji recaptured all the
territories and ruled Thanjavur.
Shaji-II
Shaji-II was son of Venkoji. He was
a brilliant and able ruler. He
annexed Madurai. He was great
patron of scholars. He opened
hospitals and invited physicians
from Hyderabad and Arabia. He
was harsh towards the Christians.
He was succeeded by his brother
Serfoji-I.
 Serfoji I
Serfoji I was a younger son of
Venkoji and he ruled from 1712 to
1728. His rule was marked by
regular warfare and disputes with
the Madurai Nayak.
Tukkoji
Tukkoji, a younger brother of
Serfoji I, ruled Thanjavur from
1728 to 1736. His reign witnessed
theinvasionof Chanda
Sahibandheiscreditedwith having
repulsed a Muslim invasion of
Madurai.
Pratapsingh
A period of anarchy followed the
death of Tukkoji and came to an
end when Pratapsingh came to the
throne in 1739. He ruled until
1763. He allied with Muhammad
Ali, the Nawab of the Carnatic,
andaidedthe British East India
Company against the French East
India Company in the Carnatic
Wars and the Seven Years’ War. He
was the last king to be addressed to
be the Directors of the British East
India Company as “His Majesty”. In
1762, a tripartite treaty was
signed between Thanjavur,
Carnatic and the British by which
he became a vassal of the Nawab
of the Carnatic.
Tuljaji
Tuljaji ascended the throne of
Thanjavur in 1763. During his
rule, boundary disputes started
between Ramnad and
Thanjavur.
Ramnad sought thethe
help of the
Nawab of Arcot. so Nawab
invaded Thanjavur andthein control
1773 of
Thanjavur came under
the Nawab of Carnatic. When it was
brought to the notice of English
East India directed
company,the thegovernor
Company
Directors, of
Madras to restore Tuljaji as the
king of Thanjavur. Tuljaji was
crowned as the ruler ofofThanjavur
and became a nominee
company and keptpeace
an English
army to maintain at
Thanjavur.
Serfoji-II Amar singh and
Tulijaji’s adopted son Serfoji-II
became the ruler in 1787 A.D.
Amar Singh became the regent. He
claimed the throne as Serfoji-II
was an adopted son which was
unlawful. English were in favour of
Amar Singh. As a result, Amar Singh
became the ruler. He ruled in an
arbitary manner. So the Governor
General Cornwallis removed Amar
Singh and Serfoji-II was made as
the king. But during the time of
Wellesley, Serforji-II was reduced
as a pensioner. The British
controlled the affairs of Thanjavur
and Serfoji-II and Amar Singh
received pension from the British.
Shivaji-II
Shivaji II was the son of
Serfoji-II. His rule lasted till
1855. He had no son.
According to the Doctrine of
Lapse of Dalhousie, the
tributary state without a male
successor would
lapse to the British. So in 1856
Thanjavur was annexed with the
British Empire. Thus the Martha
rule in Thanjavur came to an end.
Literature
The Thanjavur Maratha Rajas
favoured Sanskrit and Telugu to
such an extent that classical Tamil
began to decline. Most of the plays
were in Sanskrit. Venkoji, the first
ruler of the Bhonsle dynasty
composed a ‘Dvipada’ Ramayana
in Telugu. His son Shahuji was a
great patron of learning and of
literature. Most of the Thanjavur
Maratha literature is from his
period. Most of them were
versions of the Ramayana or plays
and short stories of a historical
nature. Sanskrit and Telugu were
the languages used in most of
these plays while there were some
Tamil ‘koothu’ as well.
AdvaitaKirtana is one of the
prominent works from this period.
Later Thanjavur rulers like Serfoji
II and Shivaji immersed
themselves in learning and literary
pursuits when they were
dispossessed of their empire.
Serfoji built the
SaraswathiMahalLibrarywithin the
precincts of the palace to house
his enormous book and
manuscript collection. Apart from
Indian languages, Serfoji II was
proficient in English, French,
Dutch, Greek and Latin as well.
Administration
 The king was assisted in the
administration of his country by a
council of ministers. The supreme
head of this council of ministers
was a Mantri or Dalavoy. The
Dalavoy was also the Commander-
in-chief of the Army. Next in
importance at the court was a
Pradhani or Dewan also called
DabirPandit. The country was
divided into subahs, seemais and
maganams in the decreasing order
of size and importance. The five
subahs of the country were
Pattukkottai, Mayavaram,
Kumbakonam, Mannargudi and
Tiruvadi.
Economy
 The ruler collected his taxes from
the people through his mirasdars or
puttackdars. They were collected
right from the village level onwards
and were based on the agricultural
produce of the village. Rice was
one of the primary crops in the
region and the land used for
cultivation was owned by big
landlords. It was Anatharama
Sashtry who proposed collecting
taxes to improve conditions for
the poor. No foreign trade was
carried out. The only foreign trade
in the country was carried out by
European traders who paid a
particular amount of money as
rent to
the Raja. The currency system
used was that of a chakram or pon
(1 chakram = one and three-fourths
of a British East India Company
rupee). Other systems of coinage
used were that of pagoda (1 pagoda
= three and a half Company
rupees), a big panam (one-sixth of a
Company rupee) and a small
‘panam (one-thirteenth of a
Company rupee).