Were the Peace Treaties of 1919-23 Fair?

Contents:
1. Problems after WW1
2. Aims of the Big Three
3. Terms + Reactions to the Treaty of Versailles
4. Satisfaction of Big Three
5. Impacts of the Treaty of Versailles
6. Core evaluation questions about the Treaty of Versailles
7. Other Peace Treaties
8. Turkey’s Treaties
9. Core evaluation questions about the Peace Treaties of 1919-23
Problems after World War One
IMPACTS ON INDIVIDUAL COUNTRIES
France Germany
 23,000 factories destroyed  Revolution after war
 5,600km of railway + 48,000 km of road wrecked  Blocked of German ports lead to hunger at Home
 2 million people rendered homeless  2,000,000 casualties
 8000 square miles destroyed
 1,400,000 casualties
Britain Russia
 No part of country occupied  Revolution in 1917
 High debt (£1 billion)  Treaty of Brest-Litovsk took all western provinces
 Spent £9 billion on war  6 billion German Gold Marks to be given
 Promises of “Home fit for heroes”  1/3 of Russians under German rule
 750,000 casualties  1,700,000 casualties
US Italy
 Joined late in 1917  Northeast Italy destroyed
 Owed $12 billion after war  Promise of Austrian land
 116,000 casualties  600,000 casualties
Belgium EUROPE
 Stripped machinery from the factories  Spanish Flu outbreak
 Took crop and rationed food  Conflict and pressure within countries
 Shot rebels
 Flanders and Ypres were ruined
 50,000 casualties

Structure of the Peace Conference

 ‘It lasted for twelve months from January 1919 to January 1920.’
 ‘Thirty-two nations were supposed to be represented.’
 ‘It was a Conference for the victors. The defeated nations were not invited.’
 ‘It was under the chairmanship of Georges Clemenceau.’
 ‘There was a Council of Ten with two members from the five leading countries. These were the USA, Britain, France,
Italy, and Japan.’
 ‘The important decisions were taken by the ‘Big Three’, the USA, Britain and France.’
 ‘There were many diplomats and advisers to support the heads of state.’
 ‘There were over fifty commissions set up to advise on such topics as prisoners of war, who was responsible for war and
undersea cables.’
 ‘The ‘Big Three’ met informally over one hundred and forty times to determine what would happen and then the rest
would ratify what had been agreed.’
 ‘It was agreed that five treaties would be drawn up at the Conference.’
Aims of the Big Three
FRANCE PM – Georges Clemenceau
Character  Uncompromising, determined, and tough
 Politics for 40 years
Aims  Permanent disarmament of Germany
 £200 billion for reparations
 Return of Alsace-Lorraine, Danzig, and Upper Silesia
 Rhineland to become an independent state
 Saar Basin to be given to France
Reasons for Aims  Punish Germany severely to prevent another invasion
 Seen France be invaded twice – 1870 and 1914
 Needs to support the economic problems within the country
Other people Poincare: Wants to completely destroy Germany into smaller states
French Public: Wants complete destruction of Germany for revenge

BRITISH PM – David Lloyd George

Character  Realistic and sympathetic
 Politician for 30 years
Aims  A share of Germany’s colonies
 Economic revival of Europe
 Reduce threat of the spread of communism from Russia
 Maintain strength and power of British navy
 £120 billion reparation
Reasons for Aims  “We want a peace which will be just, but not vindictive”
 Didn’t want Germany to take revenge
 Wanted to keep Germany as a trade partner
 Persuade Clemenceau to make key concessions
Other people Sir Eric Geddes: “squeeze out a lemon” -> Harsh Treaty
People wanted a harsh treaty which punishes Germany

US PRESIDENT – Woodrow Wilson

Character  Idealist and reformer
 Lack of experience – Only 8 years of experience
Aims  Free trade + access to sea
 £22 billion in reparations
 Disarmament from all countries
 France to regain Alsace-Lorraine
 Self-determination of Turkish Empire, Eastern Europe, and colonies
 League of Nations to be set up
 Poland to become an independent state with access to sea
Reasons for Aims  Wanted a “fair and lasting” peace and “peace without victory”
 Wanted for international co-operation
 Light punishment of Germany to make sure they don’t seek revenge
Other people  Public wanted isolationism as war horrified Americans
 Political enemies want to use this as opportunity to take his role

Relationship Disagreements
Clemenceau  Disagreed upon how to economically damage Germany
Lloyd George  Disagreed upon the severity of the peace → Rhineland + Saarland
Lloyd George  Disagreed upon how colonies should be run
Wilson  Disagreed upon the existence of the League of Nations
 Disagreed upon the rules about access to sea
Wilson  Disagreed upon how harsh to treat Germany due to the levels of suffering
Clemenceau  Disagreed upon the economic damage that Germany should face
Terms of the Treaty of Versailles
Effect Terms German Reaction
Guilt  Article 231: War Guilt – This term made is so  Germans were angry upon this as they were
that Germany had to accept the blame for the not the ones who started the war and felt that
war the blame should be shared upon
 £6.6 billion in reparation  It was then called a “diktat” or dictated piece
as they had no say in the terms
Military  100,000 men only + No conscription  Believed that it was humiliating
 No tanks, heavy guns, or air force  Felt it was unfair as no other country was
 Navy reduced to 6 battleships, 6 light cruisers, asked to disarm to same level
12 destroyers, and 12 torpedo boats
Territory  Lost all of its overseas colonies and Cameroon  Due to the territorial losses, Germany lost
and Togoland became mandates under France o 10% of its land in Europe
and Britain o All of its oversea colonies
 Rhineland was demilitarised o 12.5% of its population
 Saarland was run by League before plebiscite o 16% of its coalfields
15 years later o Half of its steel and iron industry
 Alsace Lorraine to France  This caused a massive blow to German pride
 North Schleswig went to Denmark after  This lead to economic disasters later on within
plebiscite Germany such as Hyperinflation and the
 Danzig was a free country under League invasion of the Ruhr
 West Prussia, Posen, and Upper Silesia to
Poland
 Memel (Important for Coal) went to Lithuania
 Estonia, Latvia, and Lithuania became
independent “successor” states
League of Nations  First 26 terms set up the League of Nations  Felt angry as they were not being represented
and Germany was not allowed to enter and were insulted by it
 Anschluss with Austria was forbidden

How justified was the German Reaction?

Justified due to diktat Not justified due to Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
 Germany had no say within the Paris Peace Conference  Russia lost 32% of agricultural land and 54% of industry
 Damages to pride due to territorial + military impositions which is less than Germany
 100,000 men army was insufficient to protect them  Fine of 300 million gold roubles which caused a larger
 Felt vulnerable surrounded by countries who disliked economic impact than Germany’s reparations which was
them only 2% of economic output
 Double standard as Germany probably would do same to
the Allies if they won
Justified due to economic damage Not justified due to their agreement to terms of Armistice
 Territorial losses such as Saarland and Memel caused  Should have been expected from the Armistice
losses upon the income of Germany  All countries were looking to revive economically so
 50% of coal and steel gone and would lead to problems harsh treaties were expected
with rebuilding the economy
 Reparations were considered too high as ended up being
in default leading to invasion in 1923
In conclusion, the German Reaction to the Treaty of Versailles is quite unjustified. Despite the economic impact the Treaty
had, it was quite insignificant as there were ways to work around it such as increasing taxes. Additionally, the Germans were
operating a double standard as they had imposed a much harsher treaty upon Russia with the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk leaving
a third of Russians under German rule. Also, it was clear that Germany was also intending for a harsher peace treaty if they
won. Overall, it is evident that the German reaction is quite unjustified when compared to their intentions and impacts upon
Russia through the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk.
Satisfaction of the Big Three
Country Happy with Unhappy with
France  The demilitarisation of the Rhineland  Abandon the idea of an independent Rhineland
 Germany’s economic power and military state
capacity being reduced  Avoid giving the scale of reparations in the treaty
 Regaining Alsace-Lorraine  Abandon the idea that Danzig be given to Poland
 Received a lot of the reparations  Abandon the French claim to Saar Basin
 Gained some of Germany’s colonies  Abandon the French President’s idea of splitting
(Togoland and Cameroon) Germany into smaller states
 He was concerned that the treaty was not harsh
enough
 France wanted an Anglo-American Treaty of
Guarantee to assist them if Germany attacks
again. However, USA went back into isolationism
and British would not act independently

Britain  He had persuaded Clemenceau to  He wanted full control of colonies

moderate his approach towards Germany  The decision to place German-speaking peoples
 He was able to extend empire under the rule of other countries
 Germany would be able to contribute to  He thought there could be a war in next 25 years
the future economic prosperity of Europe
which was reassuring for those who
feared the spread of communism.
 Germany had a smaller navy
USA  A league of Nations  Some of his points were not included such as
 Self-determination for people of Eastern Free access to the sea
Europe  US Senate did not allow them to join League or to
 Partial satisfaction with the requirement sign the Treaty
that the defeated nations should disarm  Britain, France, and Japan got colonies from
 The Rhineland was still part of Germany Germany (against self-determination)
 British power at sea was larger
 Self-determination did not affect all places
 Too harsh in Germany
Impacts of the Treaty of Versailles
Kapp Putsch 1919 + Munich Putsch 1923

Right-wing opponents of the Weimar Republic could not bear with the Treaty. This led to an attempt of a revolution in 1920. The
rising was defeated by a general strike by Berlin workers which stopped essential services such as power and transport. Despite
the fact that Kapp was defeated, there was still the threat of political violence. There were numerous attempts of assassination.
In the summer of 1922, German foreign minister, Walther Rathenau, was murdered. In Nov 1923, Adolf Hitler led a rebellion in
Munich. It was defeated and Hitler got off lightly.

Views on Government

People believed that they had been “stabbed in the back” by the Weimar Republic and they were known as the “November
Criminals”. This lead to several assassinations of politicians and a massive distrust within Germany. They also felt that they were
being punished for the crimes of Kaiser Wilhelm II.

Invasion of Ruhr in 1923

The Treaty agreed to pay £6.6 billion in reparations. The first instalment of £50 million was paid in 1921, however the following
year, nothing was paid. Ebert tried to negotiate but the French ran out of patience and invaded the Ruhr in 1923 with Belgium
and took what they owed in form of raw materials. The occupation of the Ruhr was disastrous for Germany. The German
government ordered the workers to go on strike so that they were not produced anything for the French to take. Germans also
started to kill French soldiers within the Ruhr

Hyperinflation

The government solved the problem of not having enough money by printing more money, but this caused a new problem of
hyperinflation. Money was virtually worthless, so prices shot up. Some Germans gained from this disaster. The government and
big industrialists were able to repay debts. However, others had a harder time. In November 1923, 4.2 trillion marks was worth 1
US dollar. Unemployment was also at an all time high due to the hyperinflation.
Core Questions on Treaty of Versailles
How fair was the Treaty of Versailles?
Fair due to German Actions Not fair due to impact on economy
 Created Schlieffen Plan in 1898 before the war  1918 – 50% milk and 60% meat production only
 Instigator of the war -> Declared war on France + Russia  Hunger and disease lead to ¾ million Germans dying
 Invaded Belgium which violated their neutrality  Reparations and loss of Saar Basin + Memel crippled economy
 June 1918: Decided to reject Fourteen Points
Fair due to a treaty being the rights of a winner Not fair due to the blame
 A “diktat” was winner’s right -> They needed to be weakened  Alliance system caused the war and blame should be shared
 Treaty of Brest-Litovsk was much harsher with larger losses  League of Nations did not allow entrance of Germany
 Very few Germans were under the rule of other countries  They had no choice but to sign or face invasion
compared to the 1/3 of Russians under German rule  Only invited 2 weeks before the signing
 Germany would have done a similar treaty if they had won  Government has also changed after the abdication of Kaiser
Wilhelm II -> Treaty blamed the wrong people
In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles was not very fair due to the impacts it had on the economy and the concept of blame. From the
Treaty, Germany was forced to take the blame for the war through Article 231, however, it is quite obvious that several countries had
played a part in the starting of the war. Additionally, the imposition of reparations upon an already crippled economy due to blockades
within the war and territorial losses caused Germany severe problems down the line with the invasion of the Ruhr in 1923. However, this
problem is partially self-inflicted as they could have increased taxes to help pay for these like other countries such as Britain did. Overall,
the treatment of Germany through the Treaty of Versailles was not fair due to the severity of the punishment.

How surprising was the Treaty of Versailles?

Surprising due to the severity of the Treaty Not surprising due to the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
 100,000 men army -> Vulnerable to attack from France  Russia lost 32% of agricultural land and 54% of industry which
 War Guilt Cause seemed unfair -> Others started the war is less than Germany
 £6.6 billion reparations -> Harsh upon a crippled economy  Fine of three hundred million gold roubles which caused a
larger economic impact than Germany’s reparations which was
only 2% of economic output
 Double standard as Germany would do same to the Allies if
they won
Surprising due to the Fourteen Points Not surprising due to the hatred towards Germany
 Wilson proposed the Fourteen Points to Germany during war  Germany had twice invaded France – 1870 and 1914
 Rejected but still expected a treaty based upon them  France wanted protection from a third -> Demilitarisation of
 Most of the points were not included such as “Free access to Rhineland
sea”  British were also angry at the losses from the war -> Harsh
 Advocated Self-Determination -> Didn’t apply to Germans in peace to repay for all the damages
Poland  “Make the pips squeak” – Sir Eric Geddes
In conclusion, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles are not surprising. Despite the Treaty not fulling holding to the Fourteen Points, the
severity of the Treaty should have been surprising due to the evident hatred within France and Britain due to the German actions within the
war. Additionally, the Treaty of Brest-Litovsk should have been an indication for the severity of the Treaty and thus should not have been
much of a surprise. Furthermore, it was evident that all countries had suffered from the war, thus it should have been expected for harsh
economic terms to be imposed. Overall, the terms of the Treaty of Versailles were to be expected given the post war situation.

How harsh was the Treaty of Versailles?

Too harsh on ordinary people Not harsh in comparison to Treaty of Brest-Litovsk
 Germany created new government to appease Allies  Russia lost 32% of agricultural land and 54% of industry which
 Punishments fell upon ordinary people not Kaiser is less than Germany
 People at home suffered from blockades + hunger  Fine of three hundred million gold roubles which caused a
 Lack of self-determination for Germans in Poland larger economic impact than Germany’s reparations which was
 Hunger and disease lead to ¾ million Germans dying only 2% of economic output
 Double standard as Germany would do same to the Allies if
they won
Too harsh as it was a diktat Not too harsh economically
 Only invited in the last week of discussions  £6.6 billion reparations -> Harsh upon a crippled economy
 Vulnerable due to military restrictions of 100,000 men army  1918 – 50% milk and 60% meat production only
 War Guilt Cause was quite extreme as there were other causes  Reparations and loss of Saar Basin + Memel crippled economy
of the war  However, problems self-inflected -> Could have helped
improve situation by raising taxes like Britain
In conclusion, the Treaty of Versailles was pretty harsh. Despite certain elements of their problems being self-inflected, the root cause of
the problem is the harsh terms economically through territorial losses such as Memel and Saar Basin but also the military restrictions of a
100,000 men army leaving them vulnerable but also reducing the German pride, leading to a larger chance of revolution. As a result, there
were several revolutions that occurred due to the detest of the terms, such as the Kapp Putsch and Munich Putsch. Overall, it can be
concluded that the Treaty of Versailles is quite a harsh Treaty.
 How far had Germany accepted the Treaty of Versailles by 1923?
Accepted by industrialist Not accepted by extremists
 Believed it was not too harsh  Hitler + Kapp wanted to reverse Treaty
 In comparison to Brest-Litovsk, it was very fair  Loss of land was found humiliating
 Economy was still working to some extent  Hitler wished for “Lebensraum” to take back their lost land
 Agriculture started to fall apart -> Industry became stronger  Kapp believed that the treaty was too harsh and wanted to
 By 1923, industrial production rapidly recovered and surpassed reverse the terms
Britain  Over 200 political assassinations during the time
Accepted by Weimar Republic Not accepted by Army Leaders
 Forced to sign and accept it to avoid invasion  Distaste towards the military restrictions of the Treaty
 Abided by the rules of the Treaty within these years  Refused to stop Kapp Putsch
 Part of the terms of the Armistice  Called them “November Criminals” for signing treaty
 Believed the signing was a “stab in the back”
In conclusion, Germany did not accept the Treaty of Versailles. Despite the slight acknowledgement of the true nature of the treaty, many
people within the public still believed that the Treaty was too harsh and was targeted at the wrong people. This lead to a lot of revolutions
and political assassinations from extremist groups such the Kapp Putsch and Munich Putsch. Also, it was common to refer to the Weimar
Republic as “November Criminals” due to signing to treaty, despite not having a choice on signing it in fear of invasion. Overall, it can be
concluded that the Treaty of Versailles was never fully accepted by society.

What was the main cause for German bitterness?

“diktat” Unable to have a say in their future Believed the treaty was too harsh
 German officials only invited in two last week  Reparation -> Attempt to cripple economy
 Most of their negotiations were declined  Military restrictions -> Attempt to make them
 Creation of government was for a nicer treaty vulnerable and weak
 Blame fell on wrong people  Territorial losses -> Humiliation
 Kaiser started the war not ordinary people
War Guilt Clause Believed it wasn’t entirely their fault Lead to their payment of reparations
 Kaiser had started the war in 1914  Guilt lead to having to pay reparations
 Created new government to get rid of him  Believed the punishment would damage and cripple
 Hoped for a nicer treaty economy
 The Alliance System had brought Germany into the  Unable to pay which lead to invasion of the Ruhr
war  Hyperinflation ended up being caused to help
Reparations Believed it was too harsh on economy Believed that it was an attempt to cripple Germany
 The economy was too weak at the time  Loss of territory + reparations made it difficult to
 Territorial losses caused industry to be reduced pay
 Facing an agricultural depression  After going in default, French invaded Ruhr
 50% of coal and iron industries lost  Took resources in form of raw materials
 This further weakens economy and leads to hyper
inflation
Military Restrictions Loss of pride Left vulnerable
 Germany was prideful of their army  Surrounded by hostile states
 Loss of tanks and aircrafts seemed damaged to  100,000 men was too weak to fight against anyone
their pride  Felt it was France being revengeful leaving them
 Army officials called the Weimar Republic crippled
“November Criminals” for signing  Army refused to stop Kapp Putsch
 Unfair as no one else disarmed to same level
Territorial Losses Major loss of pride Lack of self-determination
 Loss of colonies -> Humiliating since other nations  Territorial losses such as Memel and Upper Silesia
kept theirs or expanded had large number of Germans
 Territorial losses such as Saar and Alsace Lorraine  This did not fit with Wilson’s promise of self-
affected German economy determination
 Alsace Lorraine was taken after 1870 war against  Felt bitter towards this and Germans were starting
French as symbol of victory to be divided
 Extremists wanted to reverse this to bring back
their pride
Other Paris Peace Treaties
Treaty of Saint Germain – 1919 (Austria)
Terms Impacts
Military  Low figure but most soldiers were from different states
 30,000 men army  Not completely weak but left in a state which meant they were
 No navy unable to become as strong as beforehand
 Conscription abolished
Reparations + War Guilt  By 1921, Austria was bankrupt
 Forced to take blame for the war in Article 177  This meant that they never ended up paying reparations
 Reparations were agreed but never set - £100 million  Specific payments in animals were set up with due clarity
 Caused problems with agriculture
 Over 5000 cows lost
Territorial Changes  The economy had taken a massive hit due to the loss of industrial
 Tyrol and Triese to Italy areas to Czechoslovakia
 Bohemia and Moravia to Czechoslovakia  On the verge of bankruptcy in 1922
 Galicia to Poland  Received help from the League of Nations in 1922
 Dalmatia and Slovenia to Yugoslavia
 Bukovina to Romania
 Gained Burgenland from Hungary

Treaty of Neuilly – 1919 (Bulgaria)

Terms Impacts
Military  Weakened but was not a prominent power within the war
 20,000 men army
Reparations + War Guilt  75% of reparations were later remitted
 £100 million in reparations  However, already suffering economic limits
 Influx of refugees after territorial losses
Territorial Changes  300,000 people under another countries rule
 Western boundary’s ceded to Yugoslavia worth 2,563km2  However, this is quite a light treaty as they played very little role
 Western Thrace given to Greece within the war
 Called “Second National Catastrophe”
 Sided with Nazis in WW2 and reclaimed lost land

Treaty of Trianon – 1920 (Hungary)

Terms Impacts
Military  Resolution of the empire left them a weaken country
 35,000 men army
 Navy and Air forces were banned
Reparations + War Guilt  Most of the industrial areas of the empire was found outside the
 Ordered to pay reparations country
 Too weak and lost raw materials instead
Territorial Changes  3 million people were left outside of Hungary (over a third)
 Slovakia and Subcarpathia to Czechoslovakia  Became a landlocked state with 70% less land
 Banat and Transylvania to Romania  Major impact upon the economy as they were unable to trade as
 Croatia and Vojvodina to Yugoslavia easily -> Needed to pay tariffs to access ports
The Treaties with Turkey
Motives of the Treaty of Sevres
Leader Motives
Britain  Wanted to end Turkey’s power
 Strengthen or extend empire
 Interested in the oilfields of Iraq
 Promises made to Arab people but effectively unable or unwilling to honour them
 Concerned about control of the Straits
France  Wanted to end Turkey’s power
 Strengthen or extend empire
USA  Wanted to end Turkey’s power
 Wilson was keen for Armenia to become an independent state
Italy  Wanted Turkish territory as a reward for supporting Allies

Treaty of Sevres - 1920

Terms Impacts
Military  Weakened forces and lost all their power
 50,000 men army  Impact to Turkish pride
 Air force forbidden + 13 boat navy
 Straits under international control
 Turkey occupied by British, French, and Italian troops
Reparations + War Guilt  Anger as even Germany had their own economy
 Finances controlled by the Allies  Debt payments all controlled
Territorial Changes  Uprisings occurred within Turkey lead by nationalist Mustafa
 Cyprus to Britain Kemal
 Iraq, Palestine, and Transjordan to Britain as mandates  Drove the Greeks out of Smyrna
 Syria to France as mandates  Mass killing and genocide of Armenians
 Rhodes, the Dodecanese, and Adalia to Italy  Massive loss of land which caused them to lose a lot of resources
 Parts of European Turkey to Bulgaria
 Eastern Thrace to Greece + Occupation of Smyrna
 Hejaz and Arabia as independent

Why was it renegotiated?

Reason 1: Believed it was too severe on Ottoman empire Reason 2: Seemed too unfair
 Lost control of huge areas of land (Two thirds)  Only economy controlled by allies
 Economy was controlled by Allies which was unpopular  Too much land loss and impact upon economy
 Sparked uprising by nationalists Mustafa Kemal  Land loss enraged too many people
 Lead to fights with the Greek in Smyrna and Armenian  Did not want Turkey to side with dictators or cause another
genocide war
 Gave reason for Hitler and Mussolini to break international
laws

Treaty of Lausanne – 1923 (Turkey)

Terms
Military
 No foreign military troops in the country
 Straits to be demilitarised
 No restrictions on army
Reparations + War Guilt
 No reparations or war guilt anymore
Territorial Changes
 Surrendered claims to territories of the Ottoman Empire with non-Turks in it
 Retained Constantinople and Eastern Thrace
 Took Smyrna from Greece but gave Aegean Islands
 Recognised annexations of Cyprus and Dodecanese
Core Questions for the Paris Peace Treaties
How successful were the peacemakers in dealing with the problems they faced?
Successful in appeasing Allied Countries Not successful as it lead to revenge
 Allies wanted harsh treaty to repay damages within countries  Germany and Turkey were frustrated by the treaties and had
 French wanted revenge as Germany had invaded them twice revolutions
 Britain had promised “home fit for heroes”  Rise of many dictators such as Hitler who tried to reverse the
 People were not willing to compromise for the damage caused changes of the Treaty of Versailles
 Britain was in debt as borrowed over £6 billion  Blame was misplaced as people such as Britain and France
followed aggressive imperialism
Successful as they did not bring any surprises Not successful as left countries devastated
 Fourteen points advocated for self-determination  Germany was in economic disaster which lead to invasion of
 Creation of Czechoslovakia, Poland, and Yugoslavia Ruhr and hyperinflation
 Armistice had Germany agree to reduction of armies  Austria was left bankrupt and had to give up animals to pay for
 Should not be a surprised reparations
 Bulgaria had 75% of its reparations remitted to remove the
strain
In conclusion, the peacemakers were largely unsuccessful in dealing with the problems they faced. The Treaties were only able to satisfy the
problems of those within the Allied nations. However, they left devastating impacts upon the losing nations, such as the economic control
of Turkey and the high numbers of refugees from these countries. Additionally, the Treaty saw several uprising take place such as the
Munich Putsch within Germany in 1923 and the rise of nationalist Mustafa Kemal within Turkey leading to the Armenian genocide. Overall,
it is evident that problems remained unresolved within several countries

Were the Treaties of 1919-23 fair?

Fair because Winner’s right to a harsh peace Not Fair due to economic severity
 Traditional war ended with a winner imposing harsh penalties  Countries suffered severe economic impacts
to losing nations  Germany ended up suffering from hyperinflation due to
 Germany did the same to Russia when they lost with Treaty of inability to pay reparations
Brest-Litovsk  Turkey had the economy initially controlled by Allies until that
 No country suffered as much as Russia -> 1/3 of Russians under was removed with the Treaty of Lausanne
German rule + Communist revolution  Austria become bankrupt as most of economic cities were
 Germany would have imposed a similar treaty if they won given to different nations
Fair because all losing nations got similar punishments Not Fair due to the cause of WW1
 All nations were forced to accept War Guilt (Article 231 in  War started due to the Alliance System which brought
Germany and Article 177 in St Germain) Germany and its other allies into the war
 All nations were expected to pay some form of reparation (£6.6  Allies entered war for the reasons of traditional imperialism
billion from Germany + 5000 animals and more livestock from  War Guilt Clauses seemed too unfair and harsh
Austria)  Reparations were held to be too high as economic
 Borders were adjusted in aims for self determination of Czechs, consequences were self-caused
Polish and others  Britain took out loans to be able to pay for war
 Losing nations all faced impositions on their military (35,000
men army for Hungary)
In conclusion, the treaties from the Paris Peace Conference were not fair. The treaties caused for massive suffering to be found within the
losing nations and several revolutions took place. Germany had endured three revolutions, Spartacist Uprising in 1919, Kapp Putsch in 1920
and Munich Putsch in 1923 as a result of their loss in war and distaste for the Treaty of Versailles. Similarly, in Turkey, the rise of the
nationalist Mustafa Kemal lead to major conflicts with the Greeks in Smyrna and the genocide of Armenians.

Were the Treaties Justifiable?

Point For: Mood of post war urgency (Needed to establish punishments for peace)
Point For: Certain problems were self-inflicted and were not too harsh in comparison to Brest-Litovsk
Point Against: Rise of several nationalists (Mustafa Kemal and Hitler)
Point Against: Impacts of the Treaties were severe and long lasting

Conclusion: Not justifiable due to the extremities of the impacts

To what extent was the League of Nations a success?
Contents
1. Aims and Methods of the League of Nations
2. Membership in the League of Nations
3. Organisation of the League of Nations
4. Fundamental Problems with the League of Nations
5. League of Nations in 1920s
6. International Agreements
7. Effects of the Great Depression
8. Manchuria Crisis (1931-33)
9. Disarmament Conference (1932-34)
10. Abyssinia (1934-36)
11. Reasons for the Failure of the League of Nations
Aims and Methods of the League of Nations
Creation of the League of Nations

 Proposed by Woodrow Wilson in his Fourteen Points in aims to avoid another mass slaughter like WWI
 The Covenant of the League was written up in all of the Treaties
 Indecisive of how to run the League of Nations -> Wilson’s idea was accepted
o Wilson wanted it to be a world parliaments with representatives of all nations to discuss matters
that they were affected by
o British wanted it to be only used for emergencies when they came up
o French wanted the League to be strong with its own army

Aims of the League of Nations

 To discourage aggression
 To encourage co-operations for trade and business
 To encourage nations to disarm
 To improve living and working conditions for all the world
 To uphold the treaties of 1919-23

Methods of the League of Nations

 Process of the League

o League sends commission to find out the aggressor
o League Council would pass a motion telling the aggressor to stop fighting
o If fighting continued, League members were told to sever all trade and financial relations with the
offending state
o The League then decided what military action was appropriate to end the war.
 Main idea was collective security:
o Article 16: “Should any Member of the League resort to war in disregard of its covenants … it shall
ipso facto be deemed to have committed an act of war against all other members of the League”
o Moral Condemnation: Criticises the actions of the aggressor in hopes to make them rethink them
(Highly ineffective)
o Economic sanctions: This stops trade with the country to lead them into a state where it is difficult
for them to keep up with the war.
o Military forces: Countries within the League of Nations would be able to rile together an army which
can be used to fight the aggressor
 Removing the causes of war
o Disarmament: In Article 8 of the Covenant, it is stated that nations are to be called on to reduce the
level of their armaments down to that amount is only sufficient for self-defence
o No Secret Treaties: League wanted all relations between countries to be public and open. This is so
no country was forced into war without the knowledge of others and even their own population at
times.
o Arbitration: If two countries were to start a dispute, they were to submit the issue to arbitration by
the League Council or Court of International Justice. Their finding were to be final. If the dispute was
not resolved, then a nation had to give three months’ notice of going to war. This was to provide a
cooling off period and allow further attempts to arrive at a peaceful solution.
Membership of the League of Nations
Members of the League

 42 nations joined the League at the beginning and grown to around 60 by 1930s
 Main members were Britain, France, Italy, and Japan to make up the Council
 Germany joined in 1926 and left in 1933 upon Hitler’s decision
 1934, the USSR joined and left at the beginning of WW2
1919
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
1925
1926
1927
1928
1929
1930
1931
1932
1933
1934
1935
1936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
1943
1944
1945
FRANCE
BRITAIN
ITALY
JAPAN
GERMANY
USSR

Reasons For US not entering

 Treaty of Versailles: In America, there are a lot of people from different parts of the world. Some of the
people who lived there had German ancestors. Many of these people hated the Treaty of Versailles. If they
were to join the League, it would be like obeying something many people were against.
 Economic Impacts: One of the League’s proposed methods of sanction was stopping trade with the
aggressive country. America had a large trade industry so imposing sanctions like this could have massive
consequences on their economy.
 Potential War: Many Americans were fearful of losing more soldiers in war. This meant they felt it was
better to stay out of the League and stay to their isolationist views.
 League Dominated by Britain + France: They felt that the League would be used as a way for Britain and
France to protect their empires. As America was anti-empires, they felt it was better to stay out of the
League.
 Republican Support: The Democratic Party took proposal in 1919 and 1920 where they lost the vote 49 to 35
in Congress. Republicans supported the rejection of the League of Nations which was supported by most of
the public.
Organisation of the League of Nations

Part Purpose
Secretariat The Secretariat had the role of keeping records of the League’s meeting and prepared reports for
different agencies within the League. They were the central organisation of the whole League.
They had specialist sections covering matters such as health, disarmament, and economic
matters.
Assembly The Assembly was the League’s Parliament. Every country sent a representative to the Assembly.
They would recommend actions to the Council and could vote on:
 admission of new members
 appointment of temporary members of the Council
 budget of the League
 other ideas from the Council
The council only met once a year and all the decisions taken had to be unanimous. This helped to
keep major nations from dominating the Assembly and allowed smaller countries to have their
say in things.
Permanent The Permanent Court of International Justice was supposed to play a key role in the League’s
Court of work of settling disputes. It was based at the Hague in Netherlands and was made up of judges
International from the countries. If asked, the Court will give a decision on the dispute. It also gave legal
Justice advice. However, they had no way to enforce these decisions.
Council The Council was a smaller group than the Assembly. It met up more often that the Assembly. It
consisted of permanent member (Britain, France, Italy, and Japan) and also some temporary
members, which were elected by the Assemble for 3 year periods. The permanent members had
a veto which can stop the Council from acting regardless of the vote. The Council were to solve
all major disputes.
International The ILO brought together employers and workers’ representatives once a year. Its aims where to
Labour improve the working condition of people around the world. They could not force these changes
Organisation but could only persuade nations to follow the advice.
Commissions Examples are: Mandates / Refugees / Slavery / Health
Fundamental Problems with the League of Nations
Reason 1: Organisation of the League

 Each of the sections of the League had many flaws with the foundation of their structure. This meant that
they were unable to make as much changes as they would have hoped for. Also, this structure contributed
to a lot of problems which the League faced in the 1930s.
 The Assembly was a democratic place where all members had only one vote which stopped larger countries
to dominate as much as they could have. However, they only met once a year and their decisions had to be
unanimous. This made them awfully slow to react.
 The Council met put more than the Assembly which meant that they were able to make more actions than
the Assembly. However, the veto made the 4 permanent members dominate the decisions made.
 The Secretariat allowed for many experts to be brought together. However, it was really expensive to run as
the League expanded over time.
 The Permanent Court of International Justice was made up of legal experts who were held at a higher
regard. However, as the Court did not have the power to actually make decisions and enforce them, this
made them really powerless.

Reason 2: Membership

 As USA was the most powerful and wealthy country in the world at the time, them not joining had a huge
blow on the League’s ability to deal with aggressive nations.
 Also, the Treaty of Versailles forbode Germany to enter the League till 1926. This had a major effect and
made Germany even more angry.
 The Soviet Union was denied membership due to being communist which was against the ideology of the
main members of the League.
 Britain and France were the most powerful countries in the League. As they were both weakened by the war,
they each had their own vested interests such as keeping their empire steady and supressing Germany.
 Britain wished to protect its empire while France wanted to remove the possibility of another attack from
Germany

Reason 3: How the League kept Peace

 The 'moral power' of the League lay in the League's Covenant, especially Articles 10-17, in which members
promised to keep the peace. Many writers have pointed out that this is hardly an effective deterrent against
a powerful country which was determined to disobey the League.
 If these moral influences failed, the League had three powers it could use to make countries do as it wanted.
Theoretically, the League was able to use military force, but the League did not have an army of its own – so
if a country ignored it, in the end, there was nothing the League could do.
 The problem with disarmament was that there was no rule about how much was required for self defence
and the commission had no real power to make countries disarm. Furthermore, secret treaties should not be
stopped.
League in the 1920s
Event Problem LoN actions
Aaland Islands (1920) Finland and Sweden dispute over the possession of The case was ruled in favour of Finland. It argued that a
SUCCESS Aaland Islands in the Gulf of Finland. Population minority could only break away if subject to prolong
was heavily Swedish. mistreatment. Accepted by Sweden.
Upper Silesia (1921) Germans and Poles in dispute over who should It was recommended to split it between the 2 powers and
SUCCESS control industrial area of Upper Silesia. the ruling was accepted by both sides.
Monsul (1923-4) Monsul was originally under Turkish territory but Commission of Inquiry investigated the issue and decided
SUCCESS was given to Iraq. Turkey claimed territory and all that the Kurdish people had slight preference for
sides agreed to allow the League to settle. remaining in Iraq. Turkey was given a 10% royalty.
Vilna (1920) Poland seized Vilna which was the capital of League protested against the move and entered
FAILURE Lithuania but was a largely Polish population. negotiations to persuade Poles to leave. Poland refused
and Vilna was formally recognised as part of Poland.
League was completely ignored.
Corfu (1923) Greek bandits killed Italians. Mussolini ordered Ambassador’s Conference declared in favour of Greeks,
FAILURE Italian ships to bombard Corfu and insisted Greeks but Mussolini refused to acknowledge the authority of the
pay compensation. League.
Reasons for Failure:
 Mussolini and his dictatorship
 French and British had divided response (French were
distracted and British wanted to give a naval
demonstration but rejected and later faced with
problems in Empire)
Greece/Bulgaria (1925) Greece invaded Bulgaria in October 1925, and League ordered both sides to stop hostilities and called
PARTIAL SUCCESS appealed to the League for help. Greeks to withdraw – which they did. Greece was found to
be the aggressor and were ordered to pay compensation
but felt they were treated unfairly.
Ruhr (1923) French and Belgian troops entered the Ruhr after League was rendered powerless as France was a major
FAILURE Germany went in default for reparation payments. member in it.

Commission Success Failure

ILO  Banned poisonous white lead from paint and  Only few countries adopted these policies as
limited hours of child labour. most thought it would increase industrial costs
 Campaigned for 8 hour day and 48 hour week  Hampered by the lack of funds to implement the
 Established Minimum Age for work changes
Refugees Committee  Helped prisoners of war and refugees return to  Hindered by the lack of funds it had and always
their homeland: Nansen introduced Nansen looking for donations to help them out
passport which make travel across borders easier
 400,000 prisoners were returned to their
homeland
 Stopped the spread of cholera, dysentery, and
smallpox in refugee camps
Health Committee  Spread good medical practices and introduced  Took 10 years to stop drug trade
vaccines for diseases such as malaria  Only met 3 times a year
 Helped USSR with the plague in Siberia
 Reduced incidence of leprosy
Slavery Commission  200000 slaves in Sierra Leone were freed  It did not succeed in ending “white slave” traffics
 Organised raids against slave owners in Burma
 50% to 4% death rate with workers
Economic and Financial  Dealt with Austria’s economic problems  Their work was cut short by the Depression of the
Organisation  Devised a plan to stabilise its economy 1930s

Why did the League succeed in dealing with border disputes?

Reason 1; Conflicts between smaller countries

Reason 2: More benefits staying in the League (Economic trade, less threat of war, collective security)

How successful was the League in 1920s?

Point For: Success in the social issues

Point For: Solved many border disputes
Point Against: Unable to stop France + Italy
Point Against: Could not enforce all laws for social improvements

Conclusion: Quite successful with only a couple problems due to the poor organisation of the League
International Agreements
Treaty Terms Impact
Washington Conference USA, Britain, France, and Japan agreed to limit This is the most disarmament that was achieved upon
1921 the size of their navies. countries. Britain refused to sign a disarmament treaty,
and the Disarmament conference was a failure.
In 1935, the French Navy laid down the battleship
Richelieu combined with the two battleships also under
construction, this placed the total tonnage over the
70,000 ton limit on new French battleships.
Rapallo Treaty USSR and Germany re-established diplomatic This saw the first attempt at Germany’s reintegration
1922 relationships into the international sphere after WWI.
However, this angered the western allies.
Dawes Plan USA lent money to Germany to help its This tried to avert an economic crisis within Germany.
1924 reparation. This allowed for an increase within trade and
employment which caused increased profits.
Locarno Treaties Germany accepted its western borders and France saw this is a victory as it gave some sense of
1925 France, and Germany were to settle disputes in border security. It seemed to resolve some of the issues
the League. that were left after WWI.
Germany was to be admitted into the League However, this did not do anything about Eastern Europe
in 1926 and also showed the unreliability of collective security.
Kellogg-Briand Pact 65 nations agreed not to use force to settle This marked the high point of international relations in
1928 disputes. 1920s. However, it did not state what the consequences
of breaking these terms were.
Young Plan Reduced Germany’s reparations payment and This reduced the damage the economy would end up
1929 only had to pay £2 billion per year. facing. Industrial production rose and exports increased
by 40%
Impacts of the Great Depression – 1929
Country Impact
USA  Became unwilling to support economic sanctions due to its own trade
being a mess
 GNI fell by 50% and farmers were badly hit
 600% increase in unemployment with 30% of population
Britain  High unemployment
 Unwilling to get involved with international disputed with crippled
economy
Germany  Nazis started to gain power due to exploiting the problems of
unemployment and poverty
 Increase within militarism due to extreme nationalism
 6 million unemployed in 1932
Italy  Economic problems caused Mussolini to create an overseas empire to
distract attention
 Increase within militarism due to extreme nationalism
Japan  Depression threatened a complete collapse of the country’s industry
leading to the take-over of Manchuria
 Decided to take over weaker countries to get food and raw materials to
build an empire
 US placed tariffs upon Japanese goods making trade difficult
 Silk export collapse + 50% industries shut down
France  Began to build a series of frontier defences on its border with Germany
 Unemployment tripled over the recent years
League of Nations  No one willing to impose economic sanctions
 Extremists started to ignore the authority of the League
 League members started to lack the means to deal with aggressors
Manchuria – 1931-33
Reasons for invasion of Manchuria
Reason Detail
Social  Rapid growth in population and needed space to resettle them
 Currently quite ambition due to several successes within the First Sino-Japanese War (1894-95) and Russo-Japanese
war in 1904-05
Economic  Depression caused a massive collapse in economy and needed raw resources within Manchuria
 US placed tariffs upon Japanese goods making trade more difficult
 High investment within Manchuria through the development of the region’s railway system
 Had control over the bank system
 Provided market for Japanese exports
Political  China was in a state of disarray due to lack of centralised rule within China
 Chinese troops allegedly attacked the railway -> Excuse for invasion
 Already had occupied Korea

Events and League’s Actions of Manchurian invasion

Date Events in Manchuria League’s actions
September 1931 Japanese army invaded after the Mukden incident
February 1932 Japanese army conquered the whole of Manchuria
and named it Manchukuo
March 1932 China appeals to the League
April 1932 Lord Lytton sent by the League to investigate
August 1932 Japanese aeroplanes and gunships bombed
Shanghai and civilian government was completely
ignored
September 1932 Lytton report condemned the actions of Japan and
requested them to withdraw
February 1933 Japan ignored the report and invaded more of The League officials voted 42-1 in the assembly, but Japan
China with the excuse that it was necessary for resigned on 27th March 1933
self-defence.
April 1933 Japan when to invade Jehol Started to discuss economic sanctions but can’t do anything
without US and Britain did not want to lose relations.
Banning arms sales was also discussed but not agreed

Reasons for the League’s Failure

Reason 1: Depression Reason 2: Self-interest
Britain and France were unable to impose severe economic Britain had a powerful navy and territories in Asia. It did not want to
sanctions due to the impacts of the Great Depression. Also, Japan risk sending powerful assets to fight a war against a well-equipped
was a major trading partner for Britain, so they wished to maintain enemy. The cost seemed too high in both men and in money. No
this relationship. other country wished to wage war against Japan either due to their
military strength. They also believed that they could be a potential
future ally against the USSR.

Impacts of Manchuria
The League members looked weak and powerless: none of the League’s leading members wanted to lose trade in the Far East, especially
Britain, and did not want to risk their forces with military sanctions. Furthermore, these sanctions would not be very effective due to fact that
the USA was not part of the League. This allowed for other countries to gain inspiration and confidence in leading military focused aggression.

Britain and France looked self-interested: both countries had colonies in the Far East and did not want to be drawn into a war with Japan. This
meant that they did not try very much in solving the issue at hand. This made it seem as if they were letting Japan do as they wished. As a
result, more nationalist leaders started to plan on following the path of Japan.
Disarmament Conference – 1932-34
Events of the Disarmament Conference
Date Event
February 1932 Disarmament Conference began
July 1932 Produced resolutions to prohibit bombing of civilian populations, limit the size of artillery, limit the tonnage of tanks,
and prohibit chemical warfare.
July 1932 Germany tabled proposals for all countries to disarm down to its level. Conference failed to agree to the principle of
“equality”, Germany left the conference
September 1932 British sent a note to the Germany that went some way to agreeing equality
December 1932 An agreement was finally reached to treat Germany equally
January 1933 Germany announced it was coming back to the Conference
February 1933 Hitler becomes Chancellor of Germany and rearms in secret
May 1933 Hitler promised not to rearm Germany if “in five years all other nations destroyed their arms”
June 1933 Britain produced an ambitious disarmament plan, but it did not get any support.
October 1933 Hitler withdrew from the Disarmament Conference

Reasons for Failure

Reason 1: Germany’s exit Reason 2: French reaction
The disarmament conference began as a way to get Germany and France had already become apprehensive of Germany after their
other defeated nations to a weakened state that would not disagreement with the conditions. They also did not want military
threaten international peace. However, their exit signified and parity with Germany as they were in fear of another invasion. This
highlight how they were unwilling to hear the attempts of caused them to continue to disagree with the policies that were
disarmament due to the inequality it highlights. given.
Reason 3: Italy and Japan Reason 4: Indecisiveness
Italy and Japan were very militaristic countries. Thus, the The conference had already been stalled for 6 years and the
disarmament conference was not well received by them. countries involved had differing opinions on the levels of
Additionally, following the crisis in Manchuria, Japan was no longer disarmament required. As a result, the disarmament conference
within the League or the conference thus there was no way to also was never reached to a full consensus.
get Japan to disarm.
Abyssinia – 1934-36
Reasons for invasion

Reason Detail
Social  1896, the Italian army was defeated by a poorly equipped Abyssinian army and wanted revenge for this
 It bordered two other Italian colonies which could give them a stronger foothold in East Africa
 Believed this was a great way to generate considerable support and unite the country
Economic  It had rich mineral deposits and fertile land that could be added to Italy’s empire
Political  Wanted to get revenge for the Wal Wal incident
 To oppose the Stresa Front (1935) which was an anti-German alliance between Britain and France
 Abyssinia would strengthen the Italian hold on the shores of the Red Sea and Indian Ocean

Events + League Response to the crisis

Date Events in Abyssinia League’s actions

December 1934 Wal-Wal incident: Dispute between Italian and
Ethiopian soldiers. Mussolini demanded an apology.
Jan 1935 – Oct 1935 Mussolini was preparing for a full scale attack against Negotiations were taking place. Britain and France did not
Abyssinia take it seriously and played for time as they wanted to keep
good relationships to fight against Hitler.
4th September 1935 A committee reported to the League suggesting that no side
could be held responsible for the incident. A plan was put
together to give Mussolini some of Abyssinia put was
rejected.
October 1935 Mussolini launched a full scale attack upon Abyssinia.
There was use of tanks, aeroplanes, and poison gas,
which was explained with the excuse of leprosy.
19th October 1935 League of nations had draw upon economic sanctions to
Italy. They immediately banned arm sales, loans, imports.
Also there was a ban on the export to Italy of rubber, tin,
and metals.
18th November Decision was delayed by 2 months due to indecisiveness of
1935 countries upon whether to ban oil exports as it was feared
that Americans would not support, and Britain was
informed that 30,000 coal miners would lose their jobs.
Britain and France did not close the Suez Canal as they did
not want to risk war.
December 1935 France and Britain had drawn up the Hoare-Laval pact which
was an attempt at a compromise. They feared that if
Mussolini was destroyed, he would react strongly. The
British Secretary and French PM drew up the idea to give
Italy 2/3 of Abyssinia. The plan was leaked and caused
Hoare to resign, and Mussolini began a full take-over.
May 1936 Abyssinian capital, Addis Ababa, was captured.

Reasons for Failure

Reason 1: Hitler Reason 2: Trade

Britain and France hope that they can make Italy a valuable ally America (and to a lesser extent Britain) both had lots of money to
against Germany. If they go to war with Italy, they will lose any lose if they stopped supplying oil to the Italians. Economists
chance of an alliance, and push him into an alliance with Hitler. They calculated the damage could be severe at a time when both
are prepared to put their own needs ahead of the needs, and laws, countries were still in the grip of the depression. Again, personal
of the League of Nations. needs came first.
Reason 3: Logistics Reason 4: Timing
The Italians had a navy, and Britain again didn't want to risk sending The depression and Hitler’s rise to power meant that Britain and
their trump card, their navy, to fight. It would be very expensive and France didn’t want to act, and probably lacked the means to do so.
with Hitler re-arming Germany, a dangerous move. Germany was now beginning to look like a powerful opponent
again, and it was decided it was better to try and keep Italy as a
potential counterbalance than risk war, and Germany and Italy
uniting.

Impact of the crisis

This highlighted the League as ineffective. Abyssinia destroyed the League as it exposed the self-interests of Britain and France. Many countries
left the League after saying they would be no longer bound to Article 16 (collective security).
Hitler drew the obvious lesson that aggression would not be resisted. This lead to his aggressive foreign policy.
This produced a change within alliance as Germany and Italy formed the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936.
Reasons for the League’s Failure
Reason Detail
British + French Self Interest Britain and France decided to place their interests in front of everything else. This is seen in the
Manchurian crisis where they were unwilling to place any assets at risk while within Abyssinia, they
refused to place oil sanctions in fear of the effect it would have on their own economy and also a potential
loss of an alliance.
Absent Powers USA’s absence caused major problem when trying to place economic sanctions as they were one of the
largest traders within the world. This left the idea of economic sanctions very ineffective. Additionally, the
late admission of Germany and USSR caused hostility to rise between all the European countries. USSR
would have been easily able to defeat Japan within their conquest in Manchuria.
Ineffective Sanctions As the USA was not part of the League, economic sanctions became ineffective as they were never able to
be properly applied. Additionally, due to the self-interests of countries, very few were willing to help out
with the notion of collective security.
Structure of the League The Assembly was a democratic place where all members had only one vote which stopped larger
countries to dominate as much as they could have. However, they only met once a year and their decisions
had to be unanimous. This made them awfully slow to react. The Council met put more than the Assembly
which meant that they were able to make more actions than the Assembly. However, the veto made the 4
permanent members dominate the decisions made. The Secretariat allowed for many experts to be
brought together. However, it was really expensive to run as the League expanded over time. League’s
structured
Economic Depression The economic depressions caused for more countries to be less willing to impose sanctions in fear of the
potential economic disaster it could have upon them as well due to reduced trade and economy as a result
of the Wall Street Crash. This can be seen in Abyssinia as Britain was apprehensive of imposing oil bans in
fear of unemployment.
Lack of army The League had no army of its own; it therefore had no teeth. In 1923 members voted to be able to opt
out of providing troops and an attempt to make it compulsory to help – the Geneva Protocol of 1924 – was
proposed by one British Prime Minister (MacDonald), only to be rejected by the next (Baldwin). In effect
military action would have to be undertaken by Britain and France and they were reluctant to act ; they
had been very much weakened by the First World War.
Paris Peace Treaties The League was too closely associated with the hated peace treaties: they preferred to operate outside the
League. Indeed some of the victors felt that some of the terms of the treaties were harsh and unfair as
well. Accordingly much diplomacy did occur outside the League – even in the 1920s with the Locarno
Treaties and the Kellogg-Brand Pact – but increasingly in the 1930s with the Stresa Front, the Anglo-
German Naval Agreement and of course the Munich Conference in 1938.
Manchurian Crisis The Manchurian crisis had caused for the weakness of the League to have been exemplified initially. This
highlighted the ineffectiveness of the League’s structure as it took over one year to come to a decision.
Additionally, a unanimous vote was never reached, which made it difficult to reach a conclusion to the
event. Furthermore, this emphasised the vested interests of these countries within the League as Britain
and France were unwilling to take any action against them.
Abyssinian Crisis The Abyssinian crisis destroyed the League as it highlighted the complete lack of will within France and
Britain to act upon aggressive behaviour. This undermined the League’s principle of collective security as
Britain and France were never willing to send troops over. Additionally, this also highlighted the
ineffectiveness of economic sanctions without the assistance of the US.
Why had international peace collapsed by 1939?
1. Hitler’s Foreign Policy
2. Italy and Japan’s Foreign Policy
3. Hitler’s Actions from 1933 – 1936
4. Spanish Civil War – 1936
5. Anschluss – 1938
6. Czechoslovakia – 1938
7. Nazi-Soviet Pact – Aug 1939
8. Policy of Appeasement
9. Reasons for collapse of Peace
Axis Foreign Policy
Germany’s Foreign Policy
 Wanted to create a greater Germany
 Wanted to destroy communism
 Wanted to acquire Lebensraum (living space)
 Wanted to destroy the Treaty of Versailles
 Wanted to reunite all Germans

Methods of Support
Method Details
Scapegoating  The criminals of November 1919 = people who signed the Treaty
 The Jews were seen as the enemy and not as Germans as they were too rich and successful
 Right from the start, the Nazis didn’t want democracy as they wanted there to be a strong leader.
Middle Class  The social democrats had walked out of Government, and they wanted a strong leader
 While seeing communism as a threat as they often owned the factories and businesses
 They were still worried about the depression because their savings were threatened as banks closed and prices
rose
Working Class  Communism was attractive because they wanted to take over businesses and factories, like in Russia
 The Nazis handed out leaflets. The brown shirts were assigned to get rid of communism
 The Nazis wanted chaos in the streets to show the failure of democracy
 The Nazis promised work, food, freedom, pride/strength of the German nation, a strong leader, and a sense of
community
Mein Kampf  Book written by Hitler within prison
 Highlighted an Expansionist view
 Lebensraum and Rearmament
 Reverse the Treaty of Versailles

Italy’s Foreign Policy in 1930s

Aims  Was keen to be regarded as a great power + wanted to enter into European diplomacy
 Protection against a rebirth of German military power
Events March 1935: Italy negotiated the Stresa Front with Britain and France
June 1935: Furious when Britain signed the Anglo-German Naval Treaty
October 1935: When invading Abyssinia, Italy started to side with Germany
1936: Rome-Berlin Axis was formed
1937: Italy joined the Anti-Comintern Pact
April 1939: Italy invaded Albania
May 1939: Italy signed the Pact of Steel with Germany
Reasons for Threat Reason 1: Increasing Militarism Reason 2: Relationships with Germany
 Abyssinia highlighted when Italy did not want to  Rome-Berlin Axis
associate with the Allies  Anti-Comintern Pact
 Mussolini was a Fascist leader who was obsessed  Pact of Steel with Germany leading to their
with military strength assistance within the war
 Supported Franco in the Spanish Civil War and sent
over troops to assist

Japan’s Foreign Policy in 1930s

Aims  Wanted to restore Japanese economy
 Major belief within aggressive expansion
Events September 1931: Manchurian Crisis
1934: Amau Declaration giving them special rights to East Asia
1936: Signed the Anti-Comintern pact
July 1937: Launched a full invasion of China and took key centres of power and trade in the East of China
1941: Attack on Pearl Harbour
Reasons for Threat Reason 1: Aggression Reason 2: Relationships
 Manchurian Crisis  Anti-Comintern Pact
 Amau Declaration  Full Scale attack upon China
 Pearl Harbour
Hitler’s Actions from 1933 – 1935
Rearmament – 1933

Reasons  To reduce unemployment

 Boost Nazi Support
 Break Treaty of Versailles
Events 1932 30 warships, 36 aircrafts and 100,000 men army
1933 Germany walks out of the Disarmament Conference
14th Oct 1933 Germany leaves the League and Disarmament Conference permanently and begins to rearm secretly
26th Jan 1934 Germany and Poland signed a 10 year non-aggression pact
Mar 1935 Hitler announced conscription and the air force
He wanted to build up his army to 36 divisions, 550,000 men and an air force
June 1935 Britain and Germany sign the Anglo-German naval treaty limiting German navy to 35% of British
1939 95 warships, 8250 aircrafts, and 950,000 men army
Spent over 23% on armaments
Impacts Britain believed that Germany would be a good buffer zone for Communism and allowed them to expand a bit.
However, it also lead to the Stresa Front in 1935 between Britain, France, and Italy. France and USSR also made a mutual
assistance pact.
However, no actual action against this was dealt.

Saar Plebiscite – 1935

Reasons  Wanted to see the return of the Saar region

 Gain more economic power
 Morale Boost
Events 13th Jan 1935 Saarland Plebiscite was held
Hitler had sent troops into the Rhineland for the use of propaganda
Result 90% wanted to become part of Germany
0.4% wanted to become part of France
Impacts This event provided Hitler with an excellent propaganda victory which justified his actions in uniting all German-speaking
people. The obtainment of the Saar also gave him key resources that help him prepare for war.
France and Britain did nothing as this was technically league under the Treaty of Versailles.

Remilitarisation of the Rhineland – March 1936

Reasons for  Triggered by the USSR-France mutual support treaty

Hitler’s actions  Claimed that there was an “encirclement threat”
 Risk for Hitler: Assumed that Allies won’t act + If failed, there will be a lot of loss of support
Events Jun 1930 Allied Troops and left the Rhineland
7th Mar 1936 Hitler took 20,000 troops into the Rhineland with no resistance
League condemned their actions but could not stop them by force
Reasons for Reason 1: Sympathy Reason 2: Distractions
Allies’ actions  British started to feel Treaty was too harsh  Abyssinia Crisis was ongoing
 Cliveden Set were in favour of friendly German  France also already confused around elections
relations  France also put sympathy within the Maginot Line
 British started to fear another war  Communist threat was seen as more severe
 Government Support via Sir Oswald Mosley
 It was their “backyard”
Impacts This made Germany look formidable and Allies missed out on the last good chance to stop Hitler as he was growing
armament very quickly.
Hitler also started to build the West Wall on the French border to allow him to march east.
This again highlighted the weakness of Britain, France, and the League
Britain started to rearm after the event, so it was not all pointless
Spanish Civil War – 1936
Reasons for  Needed to practice the use of the Luftwaffe
Hitler’s actions  Fight against Communism
 Economic gains as the region had tonnes of ore such as iron
 Wanted to get closer to Franco as a third Fascist leader + Strengthen ties with Italy
Events Feb 1936 The Popular Front narrowly win the Spanish National Electron and street riots began
July 1936 All countries sign a Non-intervention pact started by France.
July 1936 Nationalist uprising began in mainland Spain
Mussolini was to help the Nationalists with Mussolini sending troops who eventually saw major failures
Stalin was to help the Republicans by supplying tanks, planes, and weapons
Hitler was to also help the Nationalists and creates the Condor legion full of 600 Luftwaffe and sent
over 19,000 troops, 4 tank companies and helped with supplies
Aug 1936 First International Brigade volunteers arrive in Spain. Their impact was limited as they only had 35,000
volunteers
Nov 1936 Germany and Italy recognise France as the head of the Spanish government
26th Apr 1937 Guernica s destroyed by the Condor Legion at 4:30pm on Monday
Feb 1939 Britain and France recognise Franco as the leader of Spain
Apr 1939 Republicans surrender and Spain becomes a neutral country
Impacts German aircrafts dropped nearly 17 million kilos of bombs. Out of the 19,000 German troops who served in the war,
only 298 were lost. Also, only 72 Condors were lost
Spain lost ¾ million lives which weakened them severely leading to them to become a neutral country in WW2
The Luftwaffe was able to practice and perfect dive-bombing techniques and Blitzkrieg in Guernica
Nazi Germany obtained 75% of Spain’s mining shares under the 1938 Montana Project
Important as it:
 Highlighted the strength of Germany
 Strengthened German and Fascist relationships
Anschluss – 1938
Reasons for  Within Mein Kampf, Hitler outlined that Austria and Germany belong together as he was also Austrian
Hitler’s actions  Hitler wanted to form a Greater Germany
 Austrians supported the idea of the union + Hitler wanted to break Treaty of Versailles to show military power
 Hossbach Memorandum (1937) outlined annexations of Poland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia
Events July 1934 10 Nazis staged a coup in Vienna and killed Dollfuss to create instability within the country. The new
leader was Anton Rintelen who was pro-Nazi.
Mussolini started to become concerned about Hitler’s actions
1936 To have Anschluss, he needed to overcome the opposition of Mussolini, so he signed the Rome-Berlin
Axis in 1936.
1936 The new Chancellor Schuschnigg signed the German-Austrian Agreement saying that Austria was
independent but that they must have the same foreign policy as Germany. Germany was also allowed
to have some posts within Austria.
Feb 1938 Schuschnigg visited Hitler at the Berghof in Bavaria. Hitler demanded the admission of Nazis into the
government. Schuschnigg was bullied and was forced to agree. Hitler’s other demands were:
 End to all restrictions on Nazi activities and amnesty for all arrested Nazis
 Integration of the economy
Mar 8th 1938 When Schuschnigg returned to Vienna, he decided defiance and decided to instead have a plebiscite
within Austria. This excluded the heavily Nazi youth.
Mar 11th 1938 Mussolini and Hitler invade Austria with no resistance.
Mar 13th 1938 Hitler drew up the Law for the Reunion of Germany. He had closed school and there was a mass arrest
of 10,000 socialists and Jews. He delivered speeches to 250,000 on Vienna’s Heldenplate.
Apr 1938 The referendum took place and 99.7% voted to enter Germany. The voting was biased as opposition
were sent away and the Ballot paper has a large circle for Yes.
Reasons for Reason 1: Lot of sympathy Reason 2: Lack of interest
Allies’ actions  There were a lot of Germans within Austria  Lord Halifax resigned within the UK
 Cliveden Set  Chamberlain felt they were too weak to fight
 People started to dislike the ToV and believed it was  British Government were not interested in war
too harsh  2 days prior to invasion, France gov resigned
 Appeasement policy
Why did Hitler Reason 1: Hitler’s methods Reason 2: British and French actions
succeed?  Bullied Schuschnigg + Admission of Seyss-Inquart  Lord Halifax resigned within the UK
 Invasion of Austria  Chamberlain felt they were too weak to fight
 Vienna Coup  British Government were not interested in war
 2 days prior to invasion, France gov resigned
 Appeasement policy
Impacts  Germany added 7 million people and an army of 100,000
 Gained useful resources such as steel, iron, and Austria’s foreign exchange services
 Germany has more influence over the Balkans and Czechoslovakia which was no surrounded on 3 fronts
Czechoslovakia – 1938
Reasons for  3 million German speaking people in Sudetenland and Czechoslovakia
Hitler’s actions  Sudeten Germans under their leader Heinlein were complaining of discrimination by the Czech-dominated
government
 It had a strong army which would be beneficial for their army
Events 7th Sep 1938 The German Sudeten Party demanded for union with Germany. There were riots and German
“newsreels” showing evidence of Czech atrocities. Hitler had threatened to use force
15th Sep 1938 Chamberlain met with Hitler at Berchtesgaden.
 Hitler had promised that this was the “last problem to be solved”
 Chamberlain decided that Hitler was a “man who can be relied upon”
 Chamberlain agreed that those areas containing more than 50% Germans will be given to
Germany (This was done without consultations with Czech)
22nd Sep 1938 Chamberlain met with Hitler at Bad Godesberg
 Hitler wanted new demands such as German troops to occupy the Sudetenland Land
 Demanded that land containing Poles and Magyars should also be returned to Poland
 Chamberlain refused but then decided that Czechoslovakia was not a “great issue” to justify war
29th Sep 1938 Germany, France, Britain, and Italy made a Pact with Hitler at Munich
 Agreed that the Sudetenland should be given to Germany immediately
 There was no consulting of Czechs and Allies threatened not to support them if they disagreed
30th Sep 1938 Chamberlain returned to England with his famous piece of paper “I believe it is peace for our time”
1st Oct 1938 Czech frontier guards left their posts and German trooped marched in opposed
5th Oct 1938 President Edvard Benes resigned as President of Czechoslovakia. Within an opinion poll, 93% of British
people did not believe that Hitler had no more territorial ambitions in Europe.
15th Mar 1939 Hitler scheduled a German invasion of Bohemia and Moravia and was negotiating with Slovak People’s
Party and Hungary to prepare the dismemberment of the republic.
Hitler summoned President Hacha to Berlin and threatened a Luftwaffe attack. He ended up suffering a
heart attack during the meeting.
Reasons for Reason 1: “Not a great issue” Reason 2: Policy of Appeasement
Allies’ actions  Czechoslovakia is far from Britain  Cliveden Set
 Chamberlain did not want to risk losing army  Fear of the bomber will always get through
 Feared that Germany was too powerful for them  People believed that the ToV was too harsh
especially after the Rome-Berlin Axis
Success of the FOR AGAINST
Munich Pact?  Gave Britain time to rearm  The gap in arms increased
 Satisfied the British opinion  Czechoslovakia was now lost
 The white Commonwealth followed in their steps  Soviet Union was lost as they were furious for not
being involved
 Czechoslovakia acted as a Green light for Poland
Impacts  Czechoslovakia was abandoned and left alone
 Britain and France lost 36 divisions of a Czech army and defences
 Britain declared that they will declare war if Hitler invades Poland
This was important as:
 Caused major problems in terms of international relationships
 Hitler became extremely powerful

Nazi-Soviet Pact – August 1939

Reasons for Hitler Stalin
Signing  Wanted to avoid a war on two fronts  Alarmed by Hitler’s desire to destroy communism
 Weakens Anglo-French position  Unsure if France would support them
 Believe it will make invading Poland easier  Munich Agreement of 1938
 Stopped Alliance of Britain and France  Expansion of control into Baltic
 Gave trading opportunities such as raw materials  Time to prepare armies
 1mil tons of cereals, 0.5mil tons of wheat, 0.9mil tons  Received Military support from Hitler like plans to
of oil, and 0.5mil tons of fertilizers. Bismarck and 30 German warplanes
Terms  Neither country will attack each other
 Other country to remain neutral if attacked by another state
 Germany and Russia agreed to divide Poland between them
Impacts  Within Russia, the Great Purges had taken place which lead to Germany believing that the USSR army was too weak
 Germany invaded Poland and Britain gave an ultimatum (1st Sep 1939) and war declared on 3rd Sep 1939
o Reason 1: Germany became too strong
o Reason 2: Reassurance for Poland
This was important because:
 Complete deterioration for relationships
 Lead to the invasion of Poland
Policy of Appeasement
Reasons for Appeasement
Reason Detail
Depression The Depression hits both Britain and France extremely hard. Mass unemployment and stuttering economies mean both
have to prioritise domestic issues. Even if they want to fight, can they afford it.
Revisionism Many also think the TOV is too hard- with regards to Anschluss, self-determination (Sudetenland) and re-armament. The
Anglo-German naval agreement (1935) shows this; Britain doesn’t mind Germany having a navy, as long as it can’t
threaten the Royal Navy.
Logistics Like the Ruhr, if the French occupy it using force, they must stay there long term. Czechoslovakia is far from the West,
and could be conquered before help arrives.
Hitler Chamberlain seems to think he can trust Hitler’s word- that he is a gentleman, and will not break his word. Stalin also
appears to believe this (Nazi-Soviet Pact). Both are shocked when he breaks his word, and shows that treaties and
promises do not mean anything to him.
Buy Time Especially after 1938, both Britain and France start re-arming. France has been building the Maginot line since 1929,
suggesting they are already planning for another war. Many of the planes built by the British between 1938-9 prove
crucial in the Battle of Britain in 1940.
Public Opinion Remember both are democratic countries, and public support is needed for war. Until March 1939, public support is
against war. Chamberlain is greeted as a hero when he returns from Munich in 1938. This is a generation that have
witnessed the horror of WWI, and Guernica (1937) has shown how terrible the next war would be.
Communism As late as 1939, both countries still feel a strong Germany can be used as a buffer against the U.S.S.R. They fear a
Communist revolution or invasion of Europe. Britain and the U.S.S.R are begrudging allies in WWII.

Was Appeasement justified?

Yes  Hitler stood up for Communism which was perceived as a larger threat
 People wanted to avoid another world war as Britain was not ready for it + It was not certain if the British Empire or
Commonwealth states would help out
 People also believed that the Treaty was too harsh and believed another war would be much worse after seeing the
war at Guernica
 USA won’t support Britain and France in a war
 There were many problems within Britain and France economically after the Depression
No  This encouraged Hitler to become more aggressive
 This allowed for Hitler to grow within power by gaining 50 divisions in the time Britain hit 45.
 As a result of Britain’s actions, Italy and USSR became allies with Hitler causing him to become too strong in terms
of relations
 Germany was able to break the Treaty of Versailles
Reasons for the Outbreak of War
Reason Detail
Treaty of Versailles  Caused major anger within Germany: There were several revolution attempts such as the Kapp Putsch
and Munich Putsch due to the hatred against the Treaty of Versailles. Additionally, many people regarded
it as a “stab in the back” by the Weimar Government causing for instability to rise.
 Allowed for Hitler to rise to power: Hitler was able to exploit this hatred within his campaigns attracting
lots of the older nationalist population. However, his rise in power did not happen until the Great
Depression.
League of Nations  Highlighted the vested interest of Britain and France: Within the events of Manchuria and Abyssinia, the
Allies showed their vested interests through their unwillingness to place economic sanctions such as the
ban on trade and coal but also the lack of military action due to the fear that they will lose their assets.
 Lead to the inevitability of Appeasement: Since it was clear that Britain and France were unwilling to act,
the policy of Appeasement started to grow. This lead to major problems later on as Hitler started to
execute his foreign policy.
Appeasement  Allowed Hitler to become stronger: Since the Allies did not take any action against Hitler when they
could, such as within the Rhineland, Hitler was able to buy time for his army to grow and pose a larger
threat towards the Allies.
 Left Britain and France unprepared: Since they saw Hitler as a reliable man and a buffer for Communism,
Britain delayed their rearmaments causing their to be a massive gap within levels of armament. This
caused WW2 to become extended causing larger threats to each country.
Hitler’s Foreign Policy  Lebensraum: Hitler’s aim of Lebensraum caused for there to be a lot of conflict and tensions between the
Allies and Germany. This also lead to the declaration of war due to his wish to invade Poland.
 Seemed reasonable: Due to the rise of revisionism within Allied countries, people were willing to allow
Hitler to invade these countries to avoid a war and correct the mistakes from the Treaty of Versailles. As a
result, the policy of Appeasement became very popular.
Depression  Lead to the rise of Hitler: The Depression highlighted the inefficiencies of the Weimar Republic and
allowed for Hitler and the Nazi power to rise in power. This is mainly due to their adaptable policies and
large scale use of propaganda.
 Britain and France were unable to fight back: The Depression caused the Allies economy to fall causing
their assets to increase in value. This meant that they became less willing to act against Hitler’s violations
of the Treaty of Versailles.
Munich Agreement  Major deterioration within international relationships: Stalin was not invited to the Munich Conference
which made him unsure whether the Allies would actually support him if Hitler were to invade. This made
him more inclined to support Hitler.
 Hitler gained a lot of power: With the invasion of Czechoslovakia, Hitler gained a lot more defences and
military equipment he could then use within war. This is in comparison to the weaker armies of the Allies
who didn’t rearm due to the policy of appeasement.
Nazi-Soviet Pact  Hitler to gain a lot of power: With the reassurance of USSR, Hitler was confidently able to invade Poland
allowing him to fully complete his wish of reversing the Treaty of Versailles. Additionally, this prevented
the idea of a two front war from happening.
 Allies had lost connections with USSR: The Allies had now lost out on a powerful Ally due to the pact.
This meant that the war would be more difficult to fight without the support of a powerful nations such as
USSR, which is also emphasised by the fact that USA was practicing the policy of isolationism.
British-French Guarantee  Decisive factor leading to the war
to Poland
Who was to blame for the Cold War?
1. Long Term Relationships between USA and USSR
2. Yalta Conference – Feb 1945
3. Potsdam Conference – July 1945
4. Soviet Expansion – 1945-1948
5. USA reaction to Soviet Expansion
6. Berlin Blockade + Airlift – 1948
7. Evaluation of the Build-up to Cold War
Long Term Relationships between USA and USSR
Ideological Difference

Communism (USSR) Capitalism (USA)

Industry owned and ran by the state Business and property were privately owned
One party dictatorship – Elections were held but all candidates were Democratic – Government was chosen in democratic elections
Communist
Economic superpower – Industry had grown rapidly in 1920s and Wealthiest countries – There were several extremes though with
1930s. However, there was a lower living standard but also lower many great wealthy but also extreme poverty.
rates of extreme poverty and unemployment
Rights of individual were seen as less important than the good of Free control of the government was more important than equality
society as a whole, so people were tightly controlled
Soviet leaders believed that other countries should be run in the Americans believed that other countries should be run in the
Communist way American way
Communism thought that the role of a Communist state was to Americans were alarmed by this Communist theory, which talked
encourage Communist revolutions worldwide. However, in reality, about spreading revolution.
they made more practical decisions.
USSR saw USA’s actions as selfishly building its economic empire Americans generally saw their policies as “doing the right thing”
and political influence. rather than serving the interests of the USA.

Reasons for Good + Bad Relations

Fault Good Relations Bad Relations

Neither  Churchill wrote a letter to Violet Asquith in 1919 saying
“Kill the Bolsheviks, kill the Hun”
 Russia lost 28 million civilians compared to USA 400,000
USA  USA propaganda during WW2 included “Work for  USSR excluded from post-WWI peace conferences
your Russian comrades”  USSR angered that USR delayed their entry into the War
 Lead Lease of 1941 (US lent/sold/leased military (joined after Japan but not to help Europe) + delayed D-Day
equipment to countries fighting the Axis powers +  Russia was paranoid about being left out such as when the
$11 billion of aid given to USSR) enigma codes were broken but not shared with Russia
 British merchant navy used to give supplies to USSR  The development of the atomic bomb caused Stalin to
and helped with transport across the hazardous Artic become more cautious
Sea
 D-Day relieved pressure on the Eastern Front and
leaders agreed that USA + Britain would lead forces to
liberate France
USSR  Russian exit from WWI increased pressure on West Front
 Nazi-Soviet Pact caused distrust
 Historic resentment against the revolutions within Russia
and the Communist power
 Winter War in 1940: USA become alarmed after the USSR
invaded Finland
 Warsaw Uprising in Aug 1944 – Russia delated its entrance
into Warsaw as they didn’t support the London Poles
 USSR’s demands become increasing major due to their
losses such as 330k murdered in Kiev 1941 and the loss of 6
million homes in 1945
 Stalin refused to join the UN
Both  Stalin and Roosevelt had a good relationship along  USA and Britain were wary that USSR would try to grab
with Churchill eastern Europe for themselves. There was a race to Berlin
to prevent this from happening.
 With the loss of a common enemy, they started to become
enemies after the war
 There were personal differences between Truman and
Stalin. Truman believed Stalin was like Hitler and Stalin
viewed Truman as untactful and small minded.
Yalta Conference – February 1945
Tensions at the Yalta
Tensions between Reasons
Churchill vs Stalin  Churchill feared the “Soviet onward sweep” - As a result of this, he had kept German arms intact and
believed the Soviets were “a danger to the free world”
 Stalin thinks that Churchill is a farsighted and dangerous statesmen – He believed that Churchill would
trick his allies. Stalin kept reminding them of the failures and also was angry at the delay of D-Day
Churchill vs Roosevelt  Churchill believed that Roosevelt was too pro-Russian thus he requested a French zone in Germany to
have another anti-Russian voice
Roosevelt vs Stalin  Stalin believed that Roosevelt would only backstab if it was worthwhile
 Roosevelt was also too weak to fully argue contrasted Stalin’s arrogance as they were close to victory
Roosevelt + Churchill vs Stalin  Stalin wanted to induce fear over the Red Army
 Churchill began to fear the power Russia had

Discussions at the Yalta

Issue Reasons for Discussions Results
Germany Churchill wished for a French zone as he wanted to  Germany and Berlin would be temporarily split into 4
restore the power of France who were defeated quickly occupation zones (French, British, American, and Soviet)
in WW2 but also to have another anti-Communist voice.  Only conditional surrender would be acceptable with no
There were also tensions over Berlin as it was the capital separate peace
of Germany which possessed a lot of economic power  Eastern borders would be moved westwards
 Reparations would be $20 billion, with half for USSR
 War criminals were to be punished and hunted down by
the Allies
UN The countries and leaders wished to maintain peace  The Big Three agreed to join the new United Nations
after the war, so they created the UN to act as an  It was to consist of all the states at war in Germany
organisation to maintain it  Security Council would consist of 5 permament members
with veto power
Japan US and Britain were currently at war against Japan after  Stalin agreed to intervene in the war against Japan after
the Pearl Harbour incident German defeat
 In return, the USSR would be given territory lost in the
Russo-Japanese War and also outer Mongolia and
Manchuria.
E. Europe The USSR had lost 20 million people in the war and Stalin  The Big Three accepted the idea of a “Soviet Sphere of
was concerned of the future security of the country. Influence”
Liberated This was to help rebuild the countries that Germany had  It was a promise that the people of Europe “to create
Europe previously democratic institutions of their choice”. This meant that
each liberated country would be given an emergency
government with representatives from any important non-
fascist group and free elections would be held
Poland There were two groups within Poland: London Poles  A provision government would form compromising of pro-
which were anti-Communist Catholic landowners and Soviet Lublin Poles and London Poles
Lublin Poles who were set up by the USSR.  Poland’s borders was to be moved westward into German
Katyn massacre which killed 15k officers by NKVP (USSR territory
secret police)  Free elections were to be held
The Warsaw Uprising saw 300k London Poles die due to
USSR lack of support against German force. They then
announced that the Lublin poles were in charge.
Poland borders were also a major concern as Stalin
wished for the borders to move Westwards which
Churchill did not approve of. Eventually, Roosevelt and
Churchill accepted the policy as long as USSR does not
intervene in Greece

Success of the Yalta

Success Failure
 Beneficial for US: The London Poles were to join the  Stalin did not want France to get a zone
government giving a better representation. Additionally, the  There were different answer to the idea of democracy
zone for France gave better Allies for Britain  Yalta raised USA’s expectations which lead to disappointment
 Beneficial for USSR: The Lublin Poles were able to expand, and when a western government was not formed
USSR got parts of Japan giving it a larger sphere of influence.  March 1945: 16 leaders of the Polish Resistance went to
Warsaw and were arrested
Potsdam – July 1945
Changes between Yalta and Potsdam

 Roosevelt died in 1945 and was replaced by Truman who was far more suspicious of Stalin. He had a
background in domestic US affairs.
 Churchill lost the election of July 1945 and was replaced by Labour leader Clement Attlee who was more
interested in domestic affairs.
 On 7th May 1945, Germany surrendered which removed the unifying factor of the joint war with Germany
 In Poland, elections hadn’t taken place and non-communists were being isolated and persecuted. The new
government was dominated by socialists and refused to acknowledge the authority of the London Poles. The
Polish/German border was set to be settled at the Oder-Neisse Line.
 America had completed tests for an atomic bomb and Truman boasted about this. Soviet agents on the
Manhattan Project (the US research project to develop an atomic bomb) and in British Intelligence had
already provided the Soviet leader with information about the bomb.

Discussions at Potsdam
Discussion Conflict Final decision
German reparations 20 million Russians had died in the war and the USSR  Each country was allowed to take reparation from
had been devastated so Stalin wanted compensation its own zone
from Germany, but Truman was once again  USSR could also take some equipment from
determined not to repeat the mistakes of WW1 and industrialised western zone
resisted this demand
German Stalin wanted to cripple Germany completely to  Germany was temporarily split up into 4 parts
reconstructions protect the USSR and wanted to stop Germany from  The West felt that Germany needed to recover
developing its own industry, instead wanting access quickly in order to safeguard European economy
to Germany’s industry in the Ruhr. This was rejected  Germany would also be demilitarised and disarmed
as Truman didn’t want to repeat the WW1 mistakes  Germany would be governed by an Allied control
Council in Berlin
Poland At Yalta, Stalin had won agreement from the Allies  Poland/German border was settled at the Oder-
that he could set up pro-Soviet governments in Neisse Line and all non-Poles to be sent back to
eastern Europe. He said, “if the Slav [majority of Germany
eastern Europe] people are united, nobody will dare
to move a finger against them”. Truman became
very unhappy about Russian intentions and adopted
a “get tough” attitude towards Stalin
Japan Stalin wanted to get a share in Japan, a demand that  Japan would be attacked as planned
Truman rejected
Soviet Expansion – 1945-1948
Motives of Soviet Expansion
 USSR had suffered more than any other country from the devastation and death of WW2. Cities, farmland, factories, and mines were
destroyed, Stalin was determined that this is never to happen again. Germans had also attacked the USSR from the West, but it wasn’t the
first time. For this historical reason, Stalin wished to prevent this from happening again. Stalin wished to use Eastern Europe as a buffer
between Russia and western powers.
 Soviets feared the expansionist tendencies of American capitalism. The US emerged from the war as the world’s leading economy and
businessmen would be wanting after the war to seek for profitable opportunities in Europe. This was a major threat to the Soviet Union.
 For Stalin, the outcome of WW2 vindicated his belief in the superiority of the planned Communist economic system. Russia had borne the
brunt of the German offensive: 80% of all German military losses were sustained on the eastern Front.

Standard Russian Model of Soviet Takeover

Salami Tactics: Salami tactics are defeating an opponent ‘slice by slice.’ Opponents of Communism would be isolated, intimidated, and if
necessary, removed. Pro-Communists would be supported with money and weapons

1. Red Army would occupy an area as it drove the retreating Germans westwards. The Army dominated the areas it occupied and
spread Soviet influence
2. Soviets would see to it that a sympathetic government was set up
3. Coalitions were usually fairly weak so with the support of the Red Army, the pro-Soviet parties were able to strengthen their position
4. Communists would begin to harass and persecute rival parties by slowly banning each party, which was known as Salami tactics
5. Elections would be held but were rigged in favour of the Communists by controlling media and banning opposition
6. Communists would now dominate the government and push for Communist policies

Invasions
Country Events
Albania 1945  Communists gained power immediately after the war
Easier  They were not enemies of the USSR during WW2 so there was little opposition
Yugoslavia 1945  Tito had lead war-time resistance to the Nazis and was elected President in 1945
Difficult  However, he was determined to apply communism in his own way and was expelled from Cominform in 1948
and proceeded to accept aid from the West. They also never joined the Warsaw Pact
 Russia could not do anything as Yugoslavia was not liberated by the USSR and Tito was seen as a national hero
who had a well trained army which excelled at guerrilla warfare
Poland 1947  Red Army remained after liberation
Follows model  New government formed in June 1945 dominated by Lublin Poles as a result of the Warsaw Uprising leading
to 15,000 London Poles being killed
 Opposition leaders arrested and murdered by the control of police + leader of opposition Mikolajczyk was
forced to flee
 Rigged elections in 1947 gave Communists 80% of vote
Rumania 1947  Red Army remained after liberation
Difficult  Soviets accepted a coalition government in 1945, accepting key positions for communists
 Gradually took over the police and security forces and rigged elections in 1946 gave the communists and their
allies 90% of the vote
 Show trial of main opposition leader in Oct 1947 + King Michael forced to abdicate in December
Bulgaria 1947  Red Army remained after liberation
Follows model  Soviets accepted a coalition government in 1945, accepting key positions for communists + Gradually took
over the police and security forces
 Monarchy abolished in 1946 + New constitution in 1947 effectively destroyed parliamentary democracy
 Church leaders were also attacked while opposition was imprisoned
 Rigged elections in 1946 gave the communists and their allies 90% of the vote
Hungary 1948  Red Army remained after liberation
Difficult  Communists won 17% of the vote in the November 1945 free elections but were given control of the Ministry
of the Interior. Non-communist smallholder’s party was the most successful
 Used secret police to discredit and persecute rival politics and parties
 Rigged elections in August 1947 gave communists control of a coalition government and Social Democratic
Party and Communist Party merged in 1948
Czechoslovakia 1948  Soviet troops left after the war
Difficult  Post-war elections gave communists leadership of a balanced, coalition government
 Gradually assumed control of key government ministries allowing them to arrest political opponents
 In 1946, 38% of the population voted for communism. Foreign Minister Jans Masaryk, a popular and non-
communist politician, murdered in May 1947
 All non-communist members of the government resigned in Feb 1948, with communists filling vacant
positions
USA reaction to Soviet Expansion
Event Details Impacts
Long Telegram George Kennan was an Embassy official in Moscow since 1933 who hated Communism and the Soviet system.
Feb 5th, 1946 (US) Within Kennan’s 8000 word reply, he talked about how Russia was determined to destroy the America way of life
and that they were the greatest threat to the US but could be beaten. He believed that the public must be educated
against the threats of Communism by making people happy, wealth and free.
Impacts: This caused the US to be put in a bad light, so Britain turns against the USSR and begins to support USA.
However, it was a private message which meant that no-one other than officials knew about it
Iron Curtain Speech The speech was made in Fulton, Missouri. Truman was present, but he had already seen the speech. Churchill calls
Mar 5th, 1946 (UK) for an American-British alliance and called the border of Communist states an “iron curtain”. He believed that there
was an increasing control from Moscow in these countries and that they were looking for totalitarian control.
Churchill directly alludes to his concerns about Russia, but doesn’t name Stalin. This was also an open declaration
which seemed to set the tone of the war.
Impacts: The idea of the iron curtain was true as there was 2000km barbed wire around the countries to shows its
lack of openness. Stalin believed that the speech was “war-mongering”
Truman Doctrine US began to fear the Soviets were attempting to spread communism around the world. Truman persuaded the US
Mar 12th, 1947 (US) Congress to provide aid to Greece and Turkey. The government now was prepared to “support free people” by
trying to send money and arms over. This was the start of the US policy of containment; however, he never
mentions the USSR in the speech but only implied. The Truman Doctrine lead to a stockpiling of weapons such as
bombers and also the 1947 National Security Act which started to centralise everything.
Impacts: This made capitalism more popular (USSR were the “oppressors”). It was based on containment: the USA
would use its wealth and power to stop the spread of communism.
Cominform Cominform was the Communist information bureau. The purpose was to maintain the unity of the assembled nation
Sep 1947 (USSR) under Moscow’s control. This ensured all communist parties of Eastern and Western Europe followed the Soviet
model of Communism and tried to use it as a moment to tighten control over Czechoslovakia.
Impacts: This represented the strong relations between Communist countries and therefore also help strengthen
the control of Communism within these countries which would alarm the US.
Marshall Plan The Marshall Plan set up a fund of $15 billion dollars to help Europe rebuild. This plan was first rejected, but after
Dec 1947 (US) February 1948 when the Czechoslovakian government was purged of non-Soviets, Congress approved of the plan.
The aid was offered to all countries in Europe and was discussed in the July 1947 Paris Conference. The countries of
Eastern Europe had owed America $11.5 billion, and many were still rationally bread.
The Plan aimed to stop the rise of Communism by preventing high levels of poverty which allowed Communism to
prevail. Furthermore, the plan would potentially create a new trading partner for the US if the economies became
stable enough.
Impacts: 16 counties asked the USA for assistance under the plan. There was a coal shortage within the UK which
lead to electricity being turned off for a set time period each day. Britain had taken $3.2b in aid to help rebuild its
economy. As a result, USA was able to dominate as many states as possible to push capitalism on the eastern bloc.
Comecon Comecon was the council for mutual economic aid. Having failed to destroy the Marshall plan, the USSR created its
Jan 1949 (USSR) own economic bloc of countries (trading organisation). It wasn’t as successful and didn’t involve any injection of
money into east European countries. Eventually, USSR used it to make each country specialise in different products.
Impacts: It was an attempt to create the USSR’s own communist financial aid to protect communism. It was less
successful than Marshall plan (this angered the USSR).
Greece 1945: Churchill sent British troops to Greece
1944-50 (US+USSR) 1946: USSR protested to the UN that British troops were a threat to peace in Greece
1947: Truman steps in and Britain withdraws their troops. Civil War begins
1950: Royalists were in control of Greece
Through the Truman Doctrine, Congress provided $400 million to Greece and Turkey which allowed the Greek
royalist Forces to defeat the Communists and made Turkey a strong ally.
Impacts: This showed the divide between USSR and USA and the alliance between UK and USA. Truman seemed to
pump in a lot of money to protect Europe from communist control
NATO NATO was the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation. It was an agreement between Western Powers to work together
Apr 1949 (US) to prevent any more invasions.
Warsaw Pact The Warsaw Pact was a pact between Communist countries which was made in response to the formation of NATO.
1955 (USSR) The Soviets were worried about Europe uniting against them. After 1968, being in the Warsaw Pact was compulsory
for Eastern Bloc countries.
Berlin Blockade + Airlift – 1948
Reasons for Blockade
Long Term Short Term
 Within the Soviet zone, Soviet troops were able to control all  In January 1947, Britain and the United States combined their
access zones to form “Bizonia” and France joined a year later forming
 USSR believed that the western Allies had no right to be in a “Trizonia” which made Stalin feel threatened
Berlin and saw them as a threat as they had a base inside the  Western Germany began to recover with the help of Marshall
Soviet zone Aid. This caused over 2.6 million residents to have crossed over
 Western Allies needed to be their to prevent the Soviet Union by 1961 which lead to labour shortages
fully controlling Berlin  In 1948, the western Allies introduced a new currency called
 The West could spy on Soviet activity behind the “iron curtain” the Deutsche Mark. Stalin refused to introduce it in the Soviet
zone.

Events of the Blockade

Date Event
June 24th 1948 Soviet forces stopped all road, rail, and water traffic into West Berlin. Soviet spokesmen said that the West had no
right to be in Berlin and that air routes were under Soviet control.
The blockade was rationalised by saying that they were doing extensive roadwork and then went on to claim it was
their own.
June 1948 Allies decided to air-lift supplies. For 11 months, 275,000 flights were made carrying 1.5 million tonnes of supplies
with a plane landing every 3 minutes. Some pilots even dropped chocolates and sweets. The USA also stationed B-
29 bombers (which could carry an atomic bomb) in Britain.
There was no attack from the Soviets as they were aware that it would be seen as an act of war.
May 1949 Soviets allowed the reopening of land routes into Berlin.
Aug 1949 West Germany held its first election and the political party Christian Democrats won with the leader Konrad
Adenauer who hated communism

Consequences

 Stalin had expected it to be effective because 2 million people lived in Berlin and Stalin controlled area
around Berlin.
 By 1949, there was a worldwide awareness of a cold war with Europe now being divided in a state of
permanent hostility
 Tension rose because this was the first active attempt to weaken the other country, and all western
countries were now collaborating. USA also used army planes to drop resources showing Truman’s
commitment to containment
 The western allies (USA, UK, Canada, France, Italy) formed the North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO),
dominated by the US as every commander was US. This was USA’s first peacetime military alliance and was a
promise of American help and, in 1953, 5 divisions of US troops were permanently based in Germany. In
1955, West Germany joined NATO. In response, the USSR set up the treaty / military alliance Warsaw Pact in
May 1955 with the countries in the eastern bloc. Both were made to resist an attack of the other alliance.
 Many Germans now saw the Americans as their protectors
Evaluation of the Build-up to Cold War
Reasons for Cold War
Reason Explanation
US  Potsdam: Truman’s actions at Potsdam could be seen as a major cause for the decline of international
relationships due to his threat of the atomic bomb which lead to the Arm’s Race where each country began to
spend more and more to create bigger bombs. The US and USSR ended up testing an H bomb in 1953.
 Truman Doctrine: The US intervened a lot within Europe which made them seem like a major threat to the
Soviet sphere of influence. This was mainly through the Truman Doctrine which was seen as a major threat to
Communism as it prevented the communist threat through the policy of Containment. The Truman Doctrine
also caused the Marshall Plan to be formed which helped prevent the communist threat.
 NATO: The formation of NATO also caused Stalin to become suspicious and apprehensive. This was a major
pattern throughout the build up to the Cold War. NATO specifically put fear within Stalin due to the possibility
of a military alliance.
USSR  Violation of Yalta: After the Yalta Conference, USSR began to invade Poland and caused for a dramatic shift
within tensions after the previous success within the conference. As a result, there was a major sense of
distrust at the conference which lead to a lot of disagreements.
 Soviet Expansion: Soviet Expansion caused the US to become apprehensive of their actions leading to the
policy of Containment to begin. Despite the pretext of it being for security, it was clear that the Soviets were
just trying to expand their territory which caused US and UK to fear about the potential impacts on their
economies
 Berlin Blockade: Berlin Blockade could also be seen as a major cause for the Cold War as it alarmed the US
about the actions of USSR. Additionally, it was clear from this event that Stalin wished to undermine the US
economic system. This lead to the permanent division of Germany which could be seen as the spark for the
Cold War to begin as it saw the destruction of the idea of unity.
 COMECON: COMECON was used to ensure that each Eastern European country followed the Soviet model in
terms of economy. This was a method to undermine the capitalist economy system but also could be seen as a
method to tighten their control over Eastern Europe which caused a rise in tensions.
 COMINFORM: This was a clear sign that Stalin wanted to undermine the whole of the US society which saw
they saw as an attempt to get rid of capitalism.
Others  Iron Curtain Speech: This was the first open declaration against a certain country which meant it could be seen
as the cause of the rise in tensions. Additionally, the Iron Curtain Speech was the first place where Communism
was portrayed in a negative way to the majority of the public.

Who had successful policies?

Policies Success Failure
US  Marshall Plan: US was able to prevent the Communism  Poland: Despite attempts to maintain control over
from spreading thanks to the introduction of aid to Poland, the US failed to prevent them from entering
Europe allowing for the rebuilding of their economy. the Eastern Bloc.
 Containment: After the introduction of the policy of
Containment in the Truman Doctrine, very few countries
were also invaded by the USSR.
USSR  Soviet Expansion: The USSR was able to create a major  Yugoslavia: Stalin was unable to prevent Tito from
sphere of influence around them. This allowed them to separating from the Soviet model which caused them
manipulate the economies of these countries to help not to join the Eastern Bloc
them flourish.  Berlin Blockade: This saw the division of Germany
strengthen rather than the defeat of West Germany as
Stalin had desired.