UNIT 4 THEORIES OF PERSONALITY

Contents
4.0 Objectives
4.1 Introduction
4.2 Erik Erikson: A Psychosocial Theory of Personality
4.3 Carl Rogers: A Phenomenological Theory of Personality
4.4 Abraham Maslow: A Humanistic Theory of Personality
4.5 B.F. Skinner: A Behaviouristic-Learning Theoretical Approach to
Personality
4.6 Let Us Sum Up
4.7 Key Words
4.8 Suggested Readings
4.9 Answers to Check Your Progress.

4.0 OBJECTIVES
The purpose of this unit is to provide a quick overview of some of the important
personality theories developed by psychologists. Though the psychologists have
developed several theories of personality to study its structure and growth, the
present unit shall deal with a limited number of theories which may be helpful
in the practice of professional social work.
After reading this unit, you 'should be able to:
become aware of various concepts used in these theories for explaining
the behaviour of the individuals;
apply the knowledge in your field work settings; and
develop interest in acquiring more knowledge about the personality of
individuals.

4.1 INTRODUCTION
As mentioned earlier, the present unit will briefly describe only a few of the
theories of personality which are relevant to the practice of professional social
work. After having gone through the preceding units, you must have realized
by now that the term personality has many meanings. It is a reasonably distinct
sub field of psychology that comprises theory, research and assessment about
personality. However, even within psychology there is disagreement about the
meaning of the term. In fact, there are as many different meanings of the term
personality as there are psychologists who have tried to define it.
In this unit, we would try to gain understanding of the views offered by Carl
Rogers who looks at personality in terms of self - an organized, permanent,
subjectively perceived entity, which is at the very heart of all our experiences.
We would also study Erik Erikson who is of the view that life proceeds in
62 terms of a series of psycho social crises, which he termed as developmental
 milestones or stages. A person's personality is a function of the outcome of Theories
the way such crises are resolved.
Abraham Maslow's humanistic theory would also be touched upon, which
explains human behaviour in terms of individual's tendency to seek personal
goals. In this system, as one's desire is satisfied, another surfaces to take its
place. When a person satisfies this one, still another clainours for satisfaction.
B.F. Skinner is yet another prolific psychologist who has provided the
foundation for a science of behaviour based on the premise that nearly all our
behaviour is directly goveined by environmental contingencies of reinforcement.
That is, much of our behaviour is either learned or modified by the process of
learning.
But none the less, the most fundamental conception of human personality has
been that of Sigmund Freud. He is considered as the father of psychoanalytic
thought. He described the structure of personality as composed of three elements
thk id, ego and super ego. You would study his theory in detail in another
unit.

4.2 ERIK ERIKSON: A PSYCHOSOCIAL THEORY

OF PERSONALITY
In order to understand how Erik Erikson has worked to elaborate and extend
the structure of psycho-analysis and how he has reformulated its principles for
understanding the modern world, one has to first understand the concept of
psychoanalysis as given by Sigmund Freud. It is because Erikson himself,
persistently maintained that his contributions to the understanding of human
development are nothing more than a systematic extension of Freud's conception
of psychosexual development.
Erikson actually has attempted to bridge the gap between Freudian theory of
psycho sexual development and present day knowledge about the role of social
facto~xin personality development.
Though he is committed to the biological and sexual foundations of personality
! like Freud. yet he expanded or socialized Freud's schedule of development by
introducing eight stages of development. He emphasizes the importance of
interaction between biological and social factors in the development of
personality. The stages are shown in Fig.-].

I Let us now learn about Erikson's theoretical formulations by considering the

1 various stages in huinan life.
L
1) Infancy: Basic Trust Versus Mistrust-Hope
The first psychosocial stage in the Eriksonian scheme corresponds to Freud's
. Oral stage and it extends through approximately the first year of life. The
earliest basic trust is established during this stage and it is demonstrated by the
infant in the capacity to sleep peacefully, to take nourishment comfortably and
to excrete relaxfully. Each day as his wakeful hoiin increase, the infant
becomes inore familiar with sensual experiences. Situations of comfort and
. people responsible for these comforts become familiar and identifiable to him.
Humar~Growth and Through the continuity, consistency and sameness of these experiences with
Devclopi~lent others, the infant learns to rely on them and to trust them. Simultaneously, if
the parents display a divergent pattern of these experiences. iliay be in the
ways of caring for the infant or in their role as the parents or demonstrate a
conflicting value system, it creates an atmosphere of ambiguity for the infant,
resulting i n feelings of mistrust.
Hope is the first psychosocial strength or virtue, which Is gained by the infant
from s~lccessfulresolution of the Trust-vei.ses-Mistiust conflict, duiing this stage.
2) Early Chilclhood: Autonon~yVersus Shame and Doubt
This period coincides with Freud's Anal stage and roughly spans the second
and third years of life. During this stage, the child learns what is expected of
her, what the child's obligations and privileges ai-e and what lilnitations are
placed upon her. 'The child's striving for new and activity-oriented experiences
places a demand for sell-control as well as a demand for the acceptance of
control from others. A sense of self-control provides the child with a lasting
feeling of autonomy, good will and pride ; however. a sense of loss of self
control can cause a lasting feeling of shame and doubt in him.
The virtue of will emerges during this stage. Will is the ever-increasing
psychosocial strength to lnake free-choices, to decide and to exercise self-
restraint. The child learns from itself and from others what is expected and
what is not. Will is responsible for the child's gradual acceptance of lawfulness
and necessity.
3) Play Age: Initiative Versus Guilt
This period correspoiids to F r e ~ ~ dPhallic
's stage extending roughly from age
f o ~ to
~ rentry into formal school. This is when the child's social world challenges

........................................
vcrsus I)esl~air.

I
Adullhood
I
.............................
I
I
Intimacy
vcrs~~s
isolation I
I .ovc

l'lily age-
locoll~otor I ------------- 1 I~~iliali\c
wrsus Guilt

\.crsus I3asic
Mistrust

Figure I : Erikson's chart o f the eight stages o f psychosocial development.

fi.0111(.'llilrllioocl tr/itl Socic!,: I!\? Erik H. E/.ik.so/i, 1963 (1.11.273)
(A(/(I]I/PL/
her to be active, to master new skills, and to win approval by being productive. Tlieories of Persorlality

'This i\ the age when child's facility for language and motor skills make possible
;~ssociationswith tlie peers and older children and thus allow participation in a
variety of social games. D ~ ~ r i nthis
g stage a child begins to feel that he or she
is counted as a person and that life has a purpose for him. It is an age of
initiative, an age of expanding mastery and responsibility. Autonomy combines
with initiative to give the child a quality of pursuing, planning and determination
of achieving tasks and goals. However. a feeling of g ~ ~ inlat y haunt him if his
goal\ ant1 tasks are not accomplished.
Pl~rposeis the virtue 01-the main psychosocial strength that emerges during
this stage. The child's major activity during this stage is playing. The villue of
pulposc results i'~.oniplay, explorations, attempts, failures, and experimentation
with toys. The child lcirns what the pulpose of things and begins to understand,
tlie connection between the inner and outer world. Thus an imaginative and
uninhibited play is vital for the child's development.
4) School Age: Industry Versus Inferiority
This period corresponds to the Latency Period in Freudian theory and extends
from about 6 to I I years of age. Here for the first time the child is expected to
learn the rudi~iientaryskills of culture like reading, writing, cooperating with
ot1ie1.s ctc. via fo~maleducation. This period is associated with the child's
increasccl power of reasoning and self discipline, as well us the ability to relate
to ~ ~ c caccording
rs to prescribed rules. During this period, the chi!d develops a
sense of industry when it begins to understand the technology of his culture
through attending school. That is to say that his work includes many and
varied Sol-111sS L I C as
~ attending school, doing chol-es at home, assuming
I-esponsibility,studying music, learning manual skills as well as participating
in skillful games ant1 sports. The hazard of this stage is that .the child may
clevelop a sense of inferiority or incompetence if she is ~ ~ n a b tol e master the
tasks that a-c undel.taken or that are set for it by her teachers and parents.
The virtue of coriipetericc emerges during this stage as one applies oneself to
work and to completing tasks.
5 ) Adolescence: Ide~itityVersus Role Confusion
This periocl is regarded as highly significant in the individual's psychosocial
devclopnicnl. Now he is not a child ~uidno1 yet an adult. This period extends
roughly froni 12 or 13 years to about 20 years of age. During this age, the
adolcscent is confi-ontcd with various social demands and.role changes that
are cssentid for ~iieetingtlic challenges of adulthood. It is the time for making
vocational plans. He bcco~iiesaware of his inherent characteristics S L I C as
~ his
likes and dislikes. anticipated goals of future and the strength and purpose to
control one's own destiny. It is during this period that one defines what one is
at present and what one wants to be in future. Beca~lseof the transition from
childhood to adulthood, the adolescent during this stage of identity forli~ation
is likely to suffe~:more deeply than ever before or ever again from a confusion
of roles or identity confi~sion.This stale can cause one to feel isolated, empty,
~rnxiousor indecisive. The adolescents niny feel that society is pushing them
to make decisions, thus they may becollie even more resistant. Tlie adolescent's
beliaviour is inconsisten1 :uicl ~~nprcdictableduring this chaotic state. During
Human Growhh and this' period one may also develop a nega~iveidentity, a sense of possessing a
Devcloplnent set of potentially bad or unworthy characteristics.
During this stage the virtue of jidelit)? develops. Although now sexually mature
and in many ways I-esponsible, he or she is not yet adequately prepared to
becolne a parent. On one hand, one is expected to assimilate oneself into an
adult pattern of life while on the other hand, one is denied the sexi~alfreedom
of an adult. The behavioiu. shuttles back and forth. During this difficult period,
the youth seeks inner knowledge and understanding of hi~llselfor herself and
attempts to formulate a set of values. The partici~larset of values that emerges
is what Erikson called fidelity. Fidelity is the foundation upon which a
continuous sense of identity is formed.
6 ) Young Adulthood : Intimacy Versus Isolation
This stage marks the formal beginning of adult life. This is generally the period
when a person becomes involved in courtship, marriage and early family life.
It extends from late adolescence until adulthood i.e. from 20 years to roughly
24 years. Now the person is ready for social as well as sexual intimacy with
another person. Now he orients himself or herself toward, "settling down" in
life. This is the time when one requires someone to love and to have sexual
relations and with whom one can share a trusting relationship.
The hazard of this stage is isolation, which is the avoidance of relationships
because one is unwilling to commit to intimacy. The virtue of love comes into
being during this stage. In addition to the romantic and erotic qui~lities,Erikson
regards love as the ability to conl~nitoneself to others, showing an attitude of
care, respect and responsibility.
7) Middle Adulthood: Generativity Versus Stagnation
This period corresponds to the middle years of life i.e. from 25 years to 65
years of age. Generativity occurs when a person begins to show concern not
only for the welfare of the upcoming generation but also for the nature of the
society in which that generation will live and work. Main concerns are the
generating of progeny, products, ideas and so forth. When generativity is weak
or not given expression, the personality takes on a sense of stagnation. The
virtue of core develops during this stage which is expressed in one's concern
for others.
8) Maturity: Integrity Versus Despair
This stage can best be described as a state which is reached by one after
having taken care of things and people, products and ideas. and having adapted
to the experiences of siiccesses and fi~iliiresof life. There is a definite shift in
a person's attention from future to past life. This is a time often beset with
numerous demands such as adjustment to deteriorating physical strength and
health, to retirement ahd reduced income, to the death of spouse and close
friends, and the need to establish new affiliations with one's age group. This
stage is marked by the summation, integration and evali~ationof all the preceding
stages of human development. The essential counterpart of integrity is despair
over a series of unfulfilled opportunities and missed directions of individual's
life cycle. He or she may realize that it is far too late to start all over again. He
or she has a hidden fear of death, a feeling of irrevocable failure and an
ihcessant preoccupation with what might have been.
I
Wisdoni is the virtue that develops out of the encounter of integrity and despair. Tlleories of F'ersooality
Erikson believes that only during old a& does true maturity and a practical
sense of "the wisdom of the ages" comes illto being.
Check Your Progress I
Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

;I 1) Why is so much significance attached to adolescence stage in Eriksonian

scheme?

4.3 CARL ROGERS: A PHENOMENOLOGICAL

THEORY OF PERSONALITY
Carl Rogers' self-theory of personality is primarily based on his approach
known as clierit-ceritred tlier-(ipy.He stresses the importance of individual who
determines his own fate. There are two basic concepts that are regarded as the
basis upon which his whole theory rests. These are (a) the organism and (b)
the self.
The organisni is the centre of all experiences that keeps taking place within
the individual at a particular 1iio1iient. These experie~icesinclude everything
potentially available to one's awareness that is going on within the organisni
at that moment. The totality of these experie~icesco~istitutesthe plierior~lericrl
field. The phenomenal field is not identical with the field of co~isciousness.At
a give11momenl, it is made LIPo i ' c o ~ i ~ c ior
o isy~iibolized
~~ and ~~nconscious
or
unsymbolized experiences. The phenomenal field is individual's frame of
t reference that can o~ilybe known to the person only. According to Rogers
behaviour of a person depends upon the phenomenal field (which is the
t
subjective reality) and not upon the external conditions. An individual's
perceptions and experiences constitute not only his or her own reality but also
I form the basis of his or her actions. One responds to events in accordance
with how one perceives and interprets them.
For example, a thirsty person lost in the desert will run as eagerly to a pool of
water that is a mirage as to a real pool. Similarly two persons observing an
identical set of events may later recall two very different outcomes, which is
often the case with eye witness accounts of the unidentified flying ol~jectsand
traffic accidents etc. Thus a person tends to check his or her symbolized
experiences against that of the world outside in his ow11way. This testing of
reality provicles one with dependable knowledge of the world so that one is
able to behave realistically. However, some experie~icesmay remain untested
Human Growth and or are inadequately tested, which may cause one to behave unrealistically.
Dcvelop~nc~it Apparently the person, therefore. must have some conception of an external
reality, othelwise he or she could not perform the act of testing an inner picture
of reality against an outer one.
Let us explain this a little fiirther with the help of another example. Suppose a
person wishes to put salt in his food and in front of him are two identical jars,
one that contains salt and the other containing pepper. The person believes
that the jar with larger holes in its lid contains salt but not being quite sure of
it, he keeps the contents in the jar on his hand. If the particles are white rather
than black, he becomes sure that it is salt. A cautious person may, even after
that, put a little on his tongue, believing that it may not be white peppel;
instead of salt. Thus, the point to be noted here is that one is testing his or her
ideas against a variety of sensoiy data. The test consists of checking less certain
information against more direct knowledge. In this case the final test is taste
that defines i t to be salt. Out of the process of perceiving experiences, attaching
meanings to them and testing them with the outside reality, there emerges a
portion of the phenomenal field which gradually becomes differentiated and is
called self. The self can best be thought of as the concept of I, me and mysclf.
In addition to this concept of self (also called real self) there is an i&nl .self
which represents what one thinks one ought to be and would like to be. The
ideal self represents the self-concept that the individual would like to possess.
It is quite close to the notion of superego in Freudian theory.

The significance of these concepts of organisni and self becomes more clear
i n Rogers' discussion of congruence and incongruence between the self as
perceived and the actual experiences of the organism. When the symbolized
or conscious experiences that constitute the self faithfully mirror the experiences
of the organism, the person is said to be adjusted, mature, and fully functioning.
While on the other hand. if there is no congruence with the experiences of self
and 01-ganism, the individual feels threatened and anxious. Such a person
behaves defensively and is rigid.

Thus we see that Roger's theory puts emphasis on the continuity of growth.
The person continuously strives to develop a self. He incorporates only those
experiences into his frame of reference which he thinks are appropriate for
him and rejects those which are not appropriate. Therefore personality
development, in Rogcrian scheme there is a reciprocal relationship between
the ways a perhon views his experiences and his acti~alsocial and inter-personal
experiences.

Check Your Progress I1

Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

1) What do you understiuid by thc term "Phenomenal Field" as is given by

Carl Rogers?
 Theorics of

4.4 ABRAHAM MASLOW: A HUMANISTIC

THEORY OF'PERSONALITY
Maslow was a humanist who believed that man can work out a better world
for mankind as well as for himself. His approach to illiderstand human
personality is different from behuviourism as given by B.F. Skinner (discussed
later) and psychoanalysis. He depicted human being as a "wanting animal"
who rarely reaches a state of complete satisfaction. It is characteristic of human
life that people almost always desire something. If one desire is satisfied, another
L
surfaces and so on. Maslow consiste~~tly argued that lower order needs must
at least be satisfied before an individual can become aware of the higher order
needs. He proposed that in general, human desireslneeds are innate and they
are arranged in a hierarchy. He developed his ow11 system of needs and
categorized them into two categories.
a) Deficit Needs and
b) Growth Needs
The deficit needs include sex, sleep, protection froni extreme temperatire and
sensory stimulation. These needs are most basic, powerful and obvious of all
human beings for their physical survival. In the second category come the
needs for safety, needs of belongingness and love, the esteeni needs and the
need for self-acti~alization.
Now let's examine each of Maslow's need categories in a little detail, in
accordance of their order i.e. from lower to higher.
C
I) PItysiological Needs: As pointed out earlier these are directly concerned
with the biological maintenance of the organism and must be gratified at
some ~ninimallevel. An individual who fails to satisfy this set of basic
needs won't be able to move upwards to satisfy the higher level needs.
'
For instxlce, a chronically hungry person will never strive to compose
music or join politics or construct theories to build a new world order.
Witho~~t a doubt, the physiological needs are crucial to the understanding
of human behaviour. Many autobiographies and experiments chronicled
in the history show the devastating effects on behaviour produced by
lack of food or water. For example, in the Nazi conceritration canlps of
World War 11, it was comn~onfor prisoners subjected to prolonged
deprivation iuid torture, to relinquish their morn1 standards ~uidsteal food
from each other.

2) Safety Needs: When the physiological needs are successlc~llyf~~lfilled

then safety ~iocclshecome the dominant force in the personality of the
individual. Safety needs are many andi,ure mainly conc&-ned with
maintaining order and security. The primary motivating force here is to
enslure a reasonable degree of certainty, order, stl-ucture and predictability
Human Growth and in one's environment. Maslow suggested that these needs are most readily
Development obse~vedin infants and young children because of their relative helplessness
apd dependence on adults. For example, children, respond fearfully if
they are suddenly dropped or startled by loud noise or flashing lights.
Eventually education and experience neutrialize such dangers.
Nonetheless, the safety needs also exert active influence beyond the stage
of childhood. The preference for a job with security and financial
protection, having a bank account, purchasing a buildinglhouse and
investment in insurance or medical facilities or unemploy~nentor old age
may be regarded as niotivated by making the future safe.

3) Belorzgirzg~zessarzd Love Needs: These needs institute the third ladder in

the Maslow's scheme of human needs and emerge only when the first
ladder and second ladder needs are satisfied. These needs emphasize the
basic psychological nature of human beings to identify wlth group life.
These are the needs of making intimate relationships with other members
of society, being an accepted member of an organization and to have a
family. In the absence of group membesship, a person will have a feeling
of loneliness, social ostracism, friendlessness and I-ejection. Maslow .
rejected the Freudian notion that love and affection iu-e derived from sexual
instincts. He was of the view that love is not synonymous to sex but a '
mature love involves healthy loving relationship between two persons.
Being loved and accepted is instrumental to healthy feelings of worth.
Not being loved generates futility, emptiness and hostility.

4) Self-Esteerrz Needs: When one's needs for being loved and loving others
have been reasonably satisfied, the need for self-esteem emerges..~hese
needs are divided into two groups : (a) Self-respect, self-regard and self-
evaluation

Figure 2: Maslow's Need-Hierarchy

(b) Esteem and respect from others. The first group includes such things
as desire for competence, confidence, personal strength, adequacy,.
achieve~nent,indepc~ide~ice and freedom. An individual needs to know
 that he or she'is worth while - capable of mastering tasks and challenges
b in life. The second group includes prestige, recognition, acceptan$e,
attention, status, fame, reputation and appreciation. In this case, people
I need to bc appreciated for what they can do, i.e. they must experience
I
feelings of worth because their competence is recognized and valued by
significant others.
Self-ActualizationNeeds: Finally, if all the foregoing needs are sufficiently
satisfied, the need for self-actualization comes to the fore. Maslow
characterized self-actualization as the desire to become everything that
one is capable of becoming. One wants to attain perfection. It is to reach
the peak of one's potential. Self actualization is o ~ ~possible
ly if the basic
needs at lower levels are met to the degree that they neither distract nor
consumc all the available energy. The person should not be worried about
his or her survival needs. He or she should feel satisfied with hislher
social relations in family, society and job.
Thus we need to keep in mind that Maslow's needs occur in an order.
One seeks seli'-esteem only after one's love and belongingness needs are
satisfied. And one seeks love only when he or she feels secure and safe.
On the opposite side of it, one quickly goes back to a lower level from
the upper level, if the needs of lower level are si~ddenlyjeopardized. For
example, let us consider a lady who, thinking her love needs are in good
order, busies herself with becoming a business tycoon. Suddenly and
unexpectedly, her husband leaves her. In such a situation, what she does
is that she casts aside all aspects of self-esteem (in this case business) and
becomes consu~nedin an effort to regain her husband i.e. to satisfy her
love needs. Once this elationsh ship is restored or a suitable alternative
developed, she is free to concern herself with the business world.
1 Check Your Progress I11

Note : a) Use the space provided for your answer.

b) Check your answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

1) What is the systenl of needs in Maslow's scheme?

4.5 B.F. SKINNER: A BEHAVIOURISTIC-

LEARNING THEORITICAL APPROACH TO
PERSONALITY
Before turning to Skinner's theory, it may lie useful to contrast its general
qualities with those of the theories considered earlier. Each o f ~ h theo~y
e covered
Human GrowtL and earlic~has placed considered emphasis on struct,ural concepts. Sigmund Freud
Dcvclopmcnt (You ~vot~lcl stildy in another unit) used structural concepts such as id, ego,
and SLIPCI.cgo ; Erikson used concepts like the developn?ental milestones; Roger
used concepts such as self and ideal self and Maslow's emphasis is on the
basic needs of human beings for explaining their behaviour.
Skinner's approach famously called behavioural approach to personality places
considerable emphasis on the concepts of process and situational specificity.
I11 summary, because the theory is based on assumptions that are different
from other theories, the formal propelties of this theory are different from those
already studied.
The basis of Skinner's operant conditioning process is that behaviour is
controlled through the manipulations of rewards and punishments in the
environment. The key structural unit for the behavioural approach is the
wsporzse. The nature of a response may range from a simple reflex like
salivation to food to a complex piece of behaviour like solution to an arithmetic
sum. In Skinnerian scheme, the response represents an external, observable
piece of behaviour that can be related to environmental events. There is a
distinction between responses elicited by known stimuli and the response that
can not be associated with any stimuli. The responses in the later category are
emitted by the organism and they are in the biological nature. For example.
the dog walks, runs; the bird [lies; the monkey somersaults and swings from
tree to tree; the human baby smiles, cries and babbles. Such responses are
called opet-rrrrts. Skinner was of the view that stimuli in the environment do
not force the organism to behave or incite into action but the initial cause of
behaviourisni lies in the organism itself. The operants are emitted by the
organism himself and there are no eiivironnlental stini~llifor the operant
behaviour; it siniply occurs.
The essence of operant conditioning relies on the fact that, all other things
being equal, reinforced behaviour tends to be repeated. 'The concept of
reinforcement occilpies a key role in Skinner's theory. According to Skinner a
is an event (stimulus) that follows a response and increases the
~*eir!for-cer-
probability of its occurrence. If a dog is picking up a ball, which is a piece of
operant behaviour, niid the response is followed by a reinforcer such as a pat
or any other reward, the probability of dog's picking the ball is increased.
Thus, a rcinfoi-cer strengthens the behaviour it follows. According to Skinner,
while some stimuli apperu to be reinforcing the behaviour of all animals certain
stimuli serve as reinforcers for some animals only. It is important to note here
that a reinforcer is defined by its effect on behaviour i.e. an increase in the
probability of a response ruid is not defined just theoretically. Quite often, it is
difficult to know veciscly what will serve as a reinforcer for behaviour, as it
iliay vary from individual to individual or from organisni to organism.
So the focus of this approach is on the qualities of responses and their
relationship to the rates and the tinie-intervals at which they are reinforced.
The time and rate relationships of reinforcers is also referred to as .scliedtrle.sof'
To stildy these time-rate relationships, Skinner developed a
roir1fi)rcc~rrier~t.
simple appalxtus, commonly known as Skinncr's box. In this box, few stimuli
and behaviours/responses (like a rat's pressing a bar or a pigeon pecking a
disc) are observed i n an ol~jectivcway. It is here that one can best observe the
elementary laws of behaviour. Accordi~igto Skinner, behaviour can be best
~lnderstoodwhen it is controlled. ~ e h a v i o u rcan be controlled through the Theories of ~ e r s d n a ~ i t ~
choice of responses that are reinforced and the rate at which they are reinforced.
'The schedules of reinforcement can be used on a partici~lartirrle irttervtrl or a
particular ~ ~ . Y / : irlter\lt~l.
I I ~ I I s In
~ a time interval schedule, the reinforcement
appears after a certain period, say one minute, regardless of the number of
responses made by tlie organism. That is to say that after every one minute,
the rat or the pigcon in the Box gets food. In response interval schedule, also
referred to as response ratio schedul'e, reinforcement appears after a certain
tiumber of responses having been made. That is, wlien the rat after bessing
the bar ten tinies in the box gets food.
TIILISreinli~rcci~ients
need not be given after every response, but call instead
t)e given only on certain occasions. The reinforce~nentscan be given on a
~egularor a fixed basis - always at a certain number of responses, or they can
be givcn on ii variable basis - sometimes after a minute and sometimes after
two minutes. or sometimes after a few responses and sometinies after many
lesponses.
Like this, thc complex behaviour is shaped through a process of successive
npproxiniations. That is, complex behaviours are developed by reinforcing
pieces of behaviour that resemble the final form of behaviour one wants to
practice. Let LISexplain i t with the help of an example.
Suppose we wish to shape behaviour of an untrained pigeon in the Skinner Box
13 make him leiun to pcck at a piu-ticular disc. We muy do the shaping of the
t~ehaviourof' thc bird rhrough u process of successive approxiniations. That is,
i istcad of waiting until the pigeon makes n full and correct pecking response,
v~lcwould first reinfolrc solne bit of the pigeon's behaviour that resembles the
final form of pecking at the disc. Therefore. we would give the pigeon
I-~=inforcenient
wlien hc mercly turns slightly in the direction of the disc. Once a
delinite tendcncy to turn toward the disc establishes, we would hold further
n:inforccment ~111tilthc pigeon makes a detinite movement toward the disc. It is
done by reinforcing those responses that make the pigeon come closer and closer
to the disc and tlien those responses that bring his beak near the disc. Like this,
we would filially be able to induce the pigeon to peck the disc.
Iu a similar way, coniplex behaviours in hunians may be developed through
tlie pfocess of s~~ccessive approximation. While most of the emphasis in such
type of learni~igis on tlie use of positive reinforcement such as food, money
or praise. Skinner also emphasizes the importa~iceof negative inforcers. A
/)b,siti~iereinforcer serves to strengthen or muincain tlie response whereas
rlegtrti~?~
reir~fi,rrer-sLire those unpleasant stimuli which tlie learner will readily
terminate if givcn tlie opportunity to do so. For example, criticism, disapproval
and rondcnination by the peer group are viewed as negative reinforcers. A
negative reinforcer sometimes is confused with a pl~rlisherbut the two are
different. While a negative reinforcer precedes rhe response and forces its
occurrence to tcrmi~~atc the unpleasant condition, the punishment follows the
response ~111ddecreases the likelihood of the recurrence of the response,. For
.e:ramplc, if disapproval or condemnation follows immediately after the
b~=liaviour,punishment has taken place whereas if disapproval or scolding is
directed at an individual in iui effort to force behaviour to occul; and the resultant
behaviour terminates this condition of scolding and disapproval, tlien negative
r~:inforcemenris said to have been used.
Human Gro\\.th and Thus we see that, as the Skinner's rheory is niost conce~-nedwith behavioural
I>evelopn~e~~
t change, learning and modification, i t is most relevant to application in the area
of personality development .
Check Your Progress IV .

Note : a) Use the space provided to!- your answer.

b) Check yoilr answers with those provided at the end of this unit.

1) What do you understand by an operant as u'sed by B.F. Skinner?

...................................................................................................................
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4.6 LET US SUM UP

In this unit, you have been fami1i;irized with the overview of l'oi~rpersonality
theories given by Erikson, Rogers, Maslow and Skinner.
Erikson has outlined a sequence of eight stages in the human life cycle. Each
stage is accompanied by a crisis, that is, a turning point in the individual's life
that arises from physiological maturation and social demands made upon the
person at that stage. Each psychosocial crisis includes both a positive and a
negative component. The si~ccessfillresolution of each crisis is associated with
a psychosocial strength or virtue.
Thc scl f is the most important construct in Roger's theory of personality. The
self is a differentiated portion of individual's phenomenal or perceptual field-
the totality of experiences. The self consists of the conscious perceptions and
values ol'the "I" and "IIIC".Tlie ideal self represents the self-mncept that the
individual would most like to possess. A person is said to be adjusted, mature
and fully functioning when tlie conscious experiences that constiti~testhe self,
niirrors the experiences of the organism. That is to say that to be adjusted,
there should be a niatch beiween the subjective reality (the phenomenal field)
and the external reality (tlie world as it is). While the opposite of ir (incongri~ence
between self aiid organism) ~iiakesan individual feel threatened and anxious.
Abraham Maslow's theory 0 1 personalily is based on a hierarchy of nee+.
The needs at lowesr ladders of hierarchy which are most compelling are the
physiological neecls li>llowed by needs for safety. The third set of needs are
rlic belongings and lovc necds. Thc cstecm needs representing our needs for
sclf-esrcem and for csrccm from otlicrs arc at tlie fourth level of this hielxrchy.
The highest levcl nceds in Maslow's sclieme are the needs for self-acti~alizatibn.
B. F. Skinner's view of the growth and developnient of human personality lay
cmphasis on the scliedulcs of reinforcement. Reinforcenients call be negative
a h wcll as positive. Tllroiigh ~lic
judicious use of reinforcers. final form of
behaviour can be produced, as is done by the animal trainers. The theory is Theories of Personality
based on thq assumption that human b~haviourcan be manipulated through
the environmental conditions. .

KEY WORDS
Autonomy : The inner sense that one is a self governing
person, able to exert some influence over those
events that affect one's life.
Basic trust : The inner feeling that one's social world is a
safe and stable place and that caring for others
is nurturant and reliable.
Behaviourism : A school of psychology which believes that
only scientifically valid subject matter for
psychology is observable and measurable
behaviour.
Care : T h e psychosocial virtue accruing from
generativity that enables a person to feel that
someone or something matters.
Congruence : A state of harmony that occurs when there is
no discrepancy between a person's experiences
and his or her self-concept.
Conscious : Those thoughts and feelings a person is aware
of at any given moment.
Fidelity : The psycliosocial virtue that enables a young
person to perceive and,act in terms of an
ideology despite its contradictions and
limitations.
Generativity : It reflects a concern for the welfare of the next
generation and the type of society in which that
-generation will live and work.
Hierarchy of needs : Arrangement of needs from lower to higher in
terms of their potency.
Humanistic psychology : Type of psychology primarily focused on the
study of healthy and creative individuals.
Ideal Self : It is what a person thinks what he or she could
and should become. It includes aspirations,
moral ideals and values.
Incongruence : State of disharmony that occur\ 1% hen there is
a discrepancy between a person's experience
and his .self cuncept.

I
: An approach which cmj111;~sizesthe i~nportance
of u i l c l c r ~ ~ a i ~ c l i~l~lrvidual's
i~lg subjective
Human Growth and experiences, feelings and private concepts as
Development well as his personal views of the world and
the self.
Psychoanalysis : Theory of personalit) structure and
development developed by Freud. ft places
heavy emphasis on the role of biological and
unconscious factors in the determination of
behaviour.
Reinforcement : An association that is formed when an operant
response is followed by a reinforcing stimulus.
Self-actualization : The desire to become all that one is capable of
becoming-to become the kind of person that
one wants to become and thus live a meaningful
and fulfilling life.
Self-esteem need : Basic need that motivates an individual to gain
recognition and esteem from others.
Self concept : An individual's conception of the kind of person
'

hetshe is.
Unconscious : That aspect of mind that contains one's
unacceptable conflicts and desires. These 'can
be brought to the conscious mind through some
techniques like free association and dream
interpretation.

4.9 SUGGESTED READINGS

Hall Calvin S. and Lindzey Gardner (1998), Theories of Personality, John
Wiley and Sons Inc, New York.
Hjelle Larry A, and Ziegler Damiel J. (198 I), Personality Theories, Mc Graw-
Hill Book Co.. New Delhi.
Pervin Lawrence A. (1984), Personality :Theory and Research; John Wiley
and Sons Inc., New York.

4.8 ANSWERS TO CHECK YOUR PROGRESS

Check Your Progress I
1) Now as the individual is no longer a child and not yet an adult, he is
confronted with various social demands and role changes. On one hand,
he is expected to assimilate himself into an adult pattern of life while on
the other hand, one is denied the sexual freedom of an adult. It is during
this period that one decides about his vocational plans and also what one
wants to be in future. This is the stage of identity formation, however,
one may also end up in identity confusion leading to the feelings of
isolation, emptiness and indecisiveness.
 Theories o f Pel-sor~ality

1) The individual perceives the world in :I itniq~~c way. These perceptions

makc up the indiv~dual'sphenomenal field. The phenomenal ticld of an
individual includes both conscious and unconscious perceptions. those of
which the individual is aware and those of which he is not aware. So the
phenomenal ficld essentially is a world private to the individual himself.
That is, I~owIIC thinks, ~~nderstands and fcels ;ibout the reality as against
his own internal frame of refcrence. It includes evetything in his awareness
at a moment of time.
Check Your Progress I11

1) At thc lowcst level are the most basic needs of sex, sleep, hungcr and
thirst. In the second category come the needs for safety, certainty, order
and security. The third category needs are the needs of belongingness
and love. These are the needs of making intinlate relationships. When
these needs are satisfied, the need for self-esteem cmcrgcs. These include
the needs for self respect, sclf regard, csteenl and rcspect from others. At
the top of Maslcw's hierarchy are the needs of self-actualization,
completeness or perfection.
Check Your Progress IV