GOVERNMENT COLLEGE UNIVERSITY

LAHORE

SUBMITTED BY: Muhammad Yousuf Sher

CLASS: BH-E-CHEM-18(sem-4)

ROLL NO: 0081

SUBMITTED TO:

Ma’am Maryam Mukhtar

Final Paper Zoology

QUESTION NO :2

Thermoregulation in Birds and Mammals

Thermoregulation is defined as the maintenance of internal temperature within tolerable
range. For example in man 37 Centigrade is a temperature that is within tolerable range.
Mechanism in Mammals and Birds
Birds and mammals have endothermic characteristics. They have characteristics to maintain
temperature between 25-42 centigrade.
Heat Loss Mechanism in birds
Birds have a mechanism of losing heat by evaporative cooling. It is called as panting. As
birds have no sweat glands so they lose heat by panting.

Gular Pouch:
There are some other species that lose heat by highly vascularized pouch called as gular
pouch that is present in their throat and they increase evaporation and lose excess heat.
Mechanism to prevent heat loss
Some birds prevent heat loss by different organs and different mechanism. Feathers: These
are responsible to prevent heat loss from skin by trapping air in between because they are
excellent insulator.
Aquatic Organisms:
Aquatic species lose heat from legs and feet. They posses heat exchange vessels called as
rete mirabile in legs to prevent heat loss. Animals of the cold regions such as arctic fox and
barren ground caribou also have these rete.
Animals in hot regions have large ears to dissipate excess heat . Jackrabbits have this
mechanism.
Marine Animals:
Blubber is an insulating layer of fat that is present under the skin helps in the maintenance of
body temperature to marine animals from 36-38 centigrade. Such as seals and whales.
Those animals which do not posses blubber like tail and flipper prevent heat loss by a
network of arteries and veins.
Thus birds and mammals have a mechanism to face external change of temperature. Some
animals protect themselves from temperature and heat and some huddle to keep them warm.
Heat production in Birds and Mammals:
Birds and mammals produce heat by contraction of muscles i.e. Thermogenesis. There are
following ways to produce heat;
1: Thermogenesis
2: ATPase pump enzymes
3: Oxidation of fatty acids
4: Metabolic wastes
1: Thermogenesis
The process of production of heat is called as thermogenesis. There are two types of
thermogenesis
1: Shivering Thermogenesis
2: Non-Shivering Thermogenesis
Shivering thermogenesis:
Muscle contraction causes the actin and myosin filaments to slide over each other and
produce heat by hydrolysis of ATP. Voluntary and involuntary muscular work can generate
heat. Heat generation by shivering is called as Shivering thermogenesis.
Non-Shivering Thermogenesis:
The heat production by hormonal triggering is known as non-shivering thermogenesis.
2: ATPase Pump Enzymes
ATPase enzymes is present in the cell membrane of most cell. Birds and mammals produce
heat by using this enzyme. In cold state thyroxine is released by thyroid gland. Sodium ions
leak into cell by increased permeability of many cells. ATPase pump out sodium ions and in
this case ATP is hydrolyzed and heat energy is released.
3: Oxidation of fatty acid
Mammals living in cold state posses a special type of fat called brown fat. It is found in
newborn mammals and in mammals that hibernate. It contains a large number of
mitochondria with iron containing cytochromes that give it brown color. Brown fat is
deposited in shoulder and beneath the ribs.
Brown fat oxidize fatty acid cell because little ATP is produced associated with the
production of large amount of heat. Blood flowing through it becomes warm and warm the
body.
4: Basal Metabolic Rate
Basal metabolic rate of birds and mammals is very high so they can produce by metabolic
activities and also produce useful products.
Hypothalamus:
Hypothalamus is a control center. Special cells found in control center of brain i.e.
hypothalamus control thermoregulation in amphibians, birds and mammals etc.
Areas:
Two hypothalamic thermoregulatory areas are
 Heating center
 Cooling center
Heating Center:
Heating center controls the;
 Vasoconstriction of blood vessels
 Hair’s erection
 Shivering and non-shivering thermogenesis
Cooling Center:
It controls the
 Vasodilation of blood vessels
 Panting
 Sweating
So body temperature is controlled by feedback mechanism.
There are specialized receptors in the skin that detect body temperature and control body
temperature within tolerable range.
If temperature is high the cooling center is triggered to control temp and if temperature is
low then heating mechanism is triggered.
Hibernation
The brown fat is present in all hibernating animals. During winter season the animals
hibernate and their metabolic rate slows down, and heart and breathing rate also slow downs.
Animals grow fate reserves and long winter pelts. Decrease in the length of the days
stimulate both increased fat deposition and fur growth.
Aestivation
It is period of slow metabolic rate and inactivity. Mammals live at high temperature and low
water supply. Some animals do not show true hibernation and they undergo a long period of
sleeping e.g. bears and raccons etc.
References
1. ^ "Global Warming: Future Temperatures Could Exceed Livable Limits, Researchers
Find".
2. ^ "Hypothermia". Mayo Clinic. Retrieved 1 May 2017.
3. ^ "Hypothermia: Causes, Symptoms, and Treatment". WebMD. Retrieved 1
May 2017.
4. ^ Chisholm 1911, p. 48.
5. ^ a b "Khan Academy". Khan Academy. Retrieved 3 April 2017.
6. ^ a b Boundless (20 September 2016). "Homeostasis: Thermoregulation". Boundless.

QUESTION NO :3

Asexual and Sexual Reproduction in Invertebrates:

Reproduction:
Reproduction is a process of the production of offspring that may or may not be identical to
their parents.
It is a continuous series of events in which animals show growth, development and
reproduce according to the information encoded in the DNA that is inherited from their
parents. There are two types of reproduction.
 Asexual reproduction
 Sexual reproduction

1: Asexual Reproduction in Invertebrates

It is a reproduction that takes place without union of sex cells or gametes. It is a common in
protozoa and lower invertebrates like sponges and flatworms. It is uncommon in higher
invertebrates.
Methods:
 Fission
 Budding
 Fragmentation
 Parthenogenesis
1: Fission
The process in which a cell, body or body part is divided into two is called as fission. It
occurs in protists and multicellular organisms like annelids and cnidarians etc.
Mechanism:
The cell is pinched inward into two parts by forming a cleavage furrow of the cell
membrane.
Binary fission: It is an equal division in which each offspring contains equal amounts of
protoplasm and associated structures. It is common in protozoa. There are some planes of
division
 Asymmetrical
 Longitudinal or transverse
Planaria reproduce by longitudinal fission.
Multiple fission: A series or chain of daughter individual is resulted by reproduction by
forming membranes constrictions along the length of body.

2: Budding
The process of formation of bud external to body is called as budding. It occurs in lower
invertebrates such as cnidarians and hydra etc. The bud cell is then proliferated to form
cylindrical structures to form a new individual and break away from parents.
If bud remain attached to parents they make up a colony. A colony is a group of member of
one species that are closely related. Gemmules are produced by internal budding. Gemmules
are in fact cluster of many cells surrounded by a body wall. A new individual is formed from
gemmules when parent’s body die or degeneration.

3: Fragmentation
A process where a body part is lost and then developed into a new organism. It occurs in
some Platyhelminthes and cnidarians. Sea anemone develop a new organism from each

broken part when it walks.

 4: Parthenogenesis
It is a process of production of offspring without sperm and normal fertilization. Flatworms,
rotifers, insects can reproduce by parthenogenesis. It is a spontaneous activation of mature
egg followed by normal egg divisions and related embryonic development. The
parthenogenetic egg do not receive male chromosomes and are not fertilized. In some
animals the meiosis is suppressed and only mitosis occurs but in other animals the meiosis
occurs but unusual mitosis takes place. The offspring would have haploid set of
chromosomes in this process. But the animals that produce by this process are less variable
genetically and they are well adapted to the stable environment. It play a key role in social
organization in colonies of certain bees and ants etc. By this process in these animals a great
number of drones/males are produced. However female workers and queens are produced by
sexual reproduction.
Advantages and disadvantages of Asexual reproduction
 It usually occurs in the stable environment because the genes combination that
resembles to unchanging environment is an advantage over other which do not match
the environment.
 It is seasonal and occurs in season when environment is hospitable and all identical
characteristics possessing individuals are produced. A large number of animals can be
produced even from a single parent.
 If there are some mutations then these mutations go generation to generation in this
reproduction. It is a major disadvantage of it.
 Variation in next generation cannot pass through the asexual reproduction.
2: Sexual Reproduction in Invertebrates:
In sexual reproduction the offspring posses a special combination of genes that comes from
both parents. Offspring such produced by sexual reproduction are different from their parents
and siblings. They posses genetic variations. One gamete from each parent during
fertilization is responsible for the variations in next generation.
External Fertilization:
The fertilization which occurs outside the body is called as external fertilization. The
gametes are released into the water and external fertilization occur. It occurs in corals and
sponges and their gonads are simple. The structures that release gametes from body are
sperm ducts, oviducts and metanephridia etc.
Internal Fertilization:
The fertilization which occurs inside the body is called as internal fertilization and special
organs are used to transfer sperm from male to female for the fertilization to occur. The
sperms produced in the testes of male are then transferred to storage area called seminal
vesicle through sperm duct. Some invertebrates protect their sperms by a specific casing
called a spermatophores that protect the loss of sperms during transfer. Some
spermatophores are motile and carry sperms independently. The sperms are then transferred
to the ejaculatory organs and then to copulatory organs. The copulatory organ is used for
transfer of sperm into female reproductive system.
The ovaries produce eggs or ova in the female and then transferred to the oviduct. Sperms
reach to the oviduct and fuse with the egg and fertilization takes place at the proximal area of
the oviduct and zygote produced is developed into new individuals.
Hermaphroditism: It happens when an animal has both male and female reproductive
system. It is also called as monoecious. It means an organism with dual sexes.
Hermaphrodites posses this character and mate with another member of the same species.
Hermaphroditism is effective for sessile organisms.
Sequential hermaphroditism occurs only when an animals is one sex during one part of its
life cycle and opposite sex during another phase of its life cycle.
The animals in hermaphroditism may be
 Protandrous means that animal is male in its early life and female in the next life
part.
 Protogynous means that animal is female in its first phase of life and male in the next.
Advantage and disadvantage of sexual reproduction
 It can cause genetic variation and recombination.
 It makes animals more adaptive to the environment against sudden changes.
 It cause an evolution
 It remove lethal mutation.
Disadvantage
 It changes the genetic material and animal never transfer exact set of genetic material
to its progeny.
 Many of the gametes that are released cannot be fertilized leading to loss of metabolic
efforts.
References:
1. Narra, H. P.; Ochman, H. (2006). "Of what use is sex to bacteria?". Current
Biology. 16 (17): R705–710. doi:10.1016/j.cub.2006.08.024. PMID 16950097.
2. ^ "Cell reproduction". Encyclopædia Britannica.
3. ^ Britannica Educational Publishing (2011). Fungi, Algae, and Protists. The Rosen
Publishing Group. ISBN 978-1-61530-463-9.
4. John Maynard Smith & Eörz Szathmáry, The Major Transitions in Evolution, W. H.
Freeman and Company, 1995, p 149
5. ^ "Fertilization". Merriam-Webster. Retrieved 2013-11-03.
 QUESTION NO :1

Osmoregulation in aquatic environments

Introduction
Osmoregulation is defined as the maintenance of body fluid like water and salts.
Maintenance of water and solute concentration is in fact the Osmoregulation.
So, osmoregulation is the maintenance of water and ion concentrations in the body.
Regulation of water and ions is linked with the excretion, the removal of nitrogenous wastes
from the body.
Different organisms live in different environments such as aquatic which includes fresh
water and marine environment, and terrestrial environment.
Mechanism of Osmoregulation:
The water supply in the organism leads to hypotonic and hypertonic urine. If supply of
water is high i.e. excess water is present in the body then less water is absorbed a more
water is excreted in the form of diluted urine. There are two process for removal or
absorption of water. One is hormonal control and other is counter current multiplier
mechanism. If water is in limited supply then more water is absorbed and less water is
excreted in the form of concentrated urine.
Kidney plays an excretory as well as an osmoregulatory role in many organisms. There are
millions of nephron in each kidney for the excretion of nitrogenous wastes. The blood is
filtered in the network of capillaries called glomerulus and the nitrogenous wastes are
passed through the different parts and then from collecting duct to pelvis and then outside
the body by removing nitrogenous wastes as well as water. It means kidney function is both
as osmorrgulatory and excretory as well. Two hormones, aldosterone and antidiuretic hormone,
maintain the amounts of salt and water reabsorbed.
,Osmoconformers and Osmoregulators

Osmoconformers are those which do not require actively to

adjust their internal environment.
Osmoregulators are those animals which require actively to
adjust their internal environment.

Osmoregulation in Aquatic environment:

Aquatic organisms include

 Marine environments

 Freshwater environments
Osmoregulation in marine environments:

Osmoregulation in aquatic organisms takes place in marine animals which involves the
removal of water and attaining of salts to regulate a suitable and same internal
environment. These organisms inhabit a hypertonic environment. It means that their
internal water level is greater than the surrounding environment. They remove water by
osmosis and then they take salts from the seawater. The fluid loss is compensated by
marine fishes by drinking a lot of sea water, and salt is excreted through the gills and also
produce a small amount of urine thereby osmoregulation of body fluids takes place.
Cartilaginous fishes:
Marine cartilaginous fishes i.e. sharks and rays have their own mechanism of
Osmoregulation. They have variable adaptations that enable them to tolerate the solute
concentration of their environment.
 These organisms accumulate urea and concentration of urea is high in their kidney
and thus they take in water to osmoregulate their internal hypertonic environment.
 They also produce dilute urine and excess salt is removed from the kidneys.
 In most species by a rectal gland, osmoregulate the body fluids.
Marine snakes: They maintain body fluids by using salivary sublingual gland to excrete
excess fluids leaving a normal blood concentration. In addition to it, some reptiles, snakes
and marine birds take in sea water and take in salt in their food. To control the
concentration of salts and water they have glands in their heads which are responsible for
the excretion of excess salts.
Marine birds, and some reptiles posses a structure called a salt gland to release sodium
chloride ( NaCl) from their bodies. These animals need a less internal NaCl concentration
than the external seawater, which results in concentration gradient and causing the influx
of salt. The fluid is secreted by glands in the rectum of sharks and the skulls of marine
birds and reptiles which excrete a concentrated salt solution. These galnds are responsible
for excretion of sodium ions.
The shark rectal gland, bird nasal gland, fish gill, and the thick ascending Loop
of Henle in the kidney all have salt-secreting cells that transfer NaCl by the same
mechanism. Active transport produces an increase in the chloride concentration
in cytoplasm. This results in the diffusion of chloride ions out of the cell across
the apical surface. The build-up of chloride ions at the apical surface attracts
sodium ions to diffuse between the cells .

Osmoregulation in freshwater organisms

The organisms which live in fresh water regulate the concentration of fluids of
bodies through the mechanism of gaining water and losing salts. Fresh water
organisms in hypotonic medium. These organisms have a less water potential
than the surrounding environment. There is a constant tendency for water to
enter the cells by osmosis.
Freshwater fish, cannot generate hyperosmotic urine. Surrounded by water,
they produce large amount of dilute urine to remove their metabolic wastes.
Among mammals, the ability to concentrate the urine is also little developed in
aquatic forms such as beavers and muskrats. Kangaroo rats, by contrast, are
desert rodents that need never drink water and can concentrate their urine to
as much as fourteen times the osmolarity of their blood plasma.
 In fresh water organisms such as fishes following changes occur
 Release of excess water through the gills.
 Excretion of of large amounts of dilute urine.
 organisms lose salts by diffusion through the gills into the water.
 In addition to this, some amphibians such as frogs have adaptations lik
producing large amounts of dilute urine and also active transport of salts
into the body by specialised cells in the skin compensates for the loss of
salt through the skin and urine.

Osmoregulation is the process by which organisms control the concentration

of water and salts in the body so that their body fluids are maintained within
homeostatic limits. This process takes place in organisms depending on the
environment in which an organism inhabit.e.g. aquatic which include fresh water and
marine water, and also terrestrial environment.
References:
1. ^ "Diffusion and Osmosis". hyperphysics.phy-astr.gsu.edu. Retrieved 2019-06-20.
2. ^ Ortiz, Rudy M. (2001-06-01). "Osmoregulation in Marine Mammals". Journal of
Experimental Biology. 204 (11): 1831–1844. ISSN 0022-0949. PMID 11441026.
3. ^ Malakpour Kolbadinezhad, Salman; Coimbra, João; Wilson, Jonathan M.
(2018-07-03). "Osmoregulation in the Plotosidae Catfish: Role of the Salt
Secreting Dendritic Organ". Frontiers in Physiology. 9:
761. doi:10.3389/fphys.2018.00761. ISSN 1664-042X. PMC 6037869. PMID 300
18560.
4. ^ Wood, Janet M. (2011). "Bacterial Osmoregulation: A Paradigm for the Study of
Cellular Homeostasis". Annual Review of Microbiology. 65 (1): 215–
238. doi:10.1146/annurev-micro-090110-102815. ISSN 0066-4227. PMID 21663
439.
5. ^ Cai, SJ; Inouye, M (5 July 2002). "EnvZ-OmpR interaction and osmoregulation
in Escherichia coli". The Journal of Biological Chemistry. 277 (27): 24155–
61. doi:10.1074/jbc.m110715200. PMID 11973328.

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