UNIT – II

CHARGING SYSTEM, LIGHTING

AND ACCESSORIES
 DC Generators and Alternators their characteristics.

 Control unit – cut out, electronic regulators.

 Vehicle interior lighting system. Vehicle exterior lighting

system.
 Wiring requirements.

 Lighting design.

 Dashboard instruments. Horn, trafficator.

 PURPOSE OF CHARGING SYSTEM
 CONVERT MECHANICAL ENERGY INTO ELECTRICAL ENERGY

 RECHARGE BATTERY

 PROVIDE POWER FOR ELECTRICAL ACCESSORIES

 RESERVE POWER WHEN NEEDED

THE CHARGING SYSTEM MUST MEET THE FOLLOWING
CRITERIA
( when the engine is running)

 Supply the current demands made by all loads

 Supply whatever charge current the battery demands
 Operate at idle speed
 Supply constant voltage under all conditions
 Have an efficient power-to-weight ratio
 Be reliable, quiet and have resistance to contamination
 Require low maintenance
 Provide an indication of correct operation
 VEHICLE CHARGING SYSTEM

BATTERY BATTERY

VEHICLE VEHICLE
ELECTRICAL ELECTRICAL
LOAD LOAD

ALTERNATOR ALTERNATOR
 CHARGING SYSTEM – BASIC PRINCIPLES
 When the alternator voltage is less than the battery
(engine slow or not running), the direction of flow is
from the battery to the vehicle loads.
 The alternator diodes prevent current flowing into the
alternator.
 When the alternator output is greater than the battery
voltage, current will flow from the alternator to the
vehicle loads and the battery.
 From this it is very clear that the alternator output
voltage must be greater than the battery voltage at all
times when the engine is running.
Ideally the alternator output > battery voltage

The figure of 14.2 ± 0.2 V is the accepted charging

voltage for a 12V system
COMPONENTS OF CHARGING SYSTEM

 BATTERY

 ALTERNATOR

 DRIVE BELT

 VOLTAGE REGULATOR

 CHARGE INDICATOR (LAMP OR GAUGE)

TYPICAL CHARGING SYSTEM
 ALTERNATING CURRENT OPERATION
 ELECTROMAGNETIC INDUCTION TO PRODUCE
ELECTRICAL POWER

 VOLTAGE WILL BE PRODUCED IF MOTION BETWEEN A

CONDUCTOR AND A MAGNETIC FIELD OCCURS.

 AMOUNT OF VOLTAGE IS AFFECTED BY:

 SPEED OF CONDUCTOR PASSING THROUGH FIELD

 STRENGTH OF MAGNETIC FIELD

 NUMBER OF CONDUCTORS PASSING THROUGH

MAGNETIC FIELD
 CHARGING SYSTEM
Major Parts

•Battery

•Alternator

•Regulator
 Charging Circuit

B is out-put and supplies current to the battery

IG is ignition input, it turns on the alternator/regulator assembly.

S is used by the regulator to monitor charging voltage at the battery.

L is the wire that regulator uses to ground the charge warning lamp.
 ALTERNATOR
•Provides power to the electrical components and accessories,
When the vehicle is running.

•Converts mechanical energy to electrical energy

(Driven by Crankshaft, with the help of a drive-belt)

•The out put of alternator is DC, but actually AC voltage is generated

and then converted to DC.
 ALTERNATOR INTERNAL CIRCUITS

 CHARGING CIRCUIT

 STATOR WINDINGS AND RECTIFIER

 EXCITATION CIRCUIT

 FIELD COIL AND CONNECTIONS

 PRE-EXCITATION CIRCUIT

 SUPPLIES INITIAL CURRENT FOR FIELD COIL

 COMPONENTS OF ALTERNATOR
 FRONT HOUSING ( DRIVE END )
 REAR HOUSING ( COM END )
 STATOR
 ROTOR
 REGULATOR
 BRUSHES
 RECTIFIER ASSEMBLY
 BRUSH HOLDER
ALTERNATOR
 ALTERNATOR
S senses battery voltage

IG ignition switch signal turns the

regulator on.

L grounds the warning lamp

B alternator out-put terminal

F regulator full-field bypass

 Alternator Contains

•A rotating field winding called the rotor.

•A stationary induction winding called the stator.
•A diode assembly called the rectifier bridge.
•A control device called the voltage regulator.
•Two internal fans to promote air circulation.
 Alternator Drive Pulley
•Alternator drive pulleys either bolt on or are pressed on the rotor shaft.

•Both 'V' and Multi-grove types are used.

•Note this alternator does not have an external fan as part of the pulley
assembly.
 Regulator
•Regulator is the brain of the alternator.

•It controls the alternator out-put (Typically 13V to 15V).

•It monitors both battery and stator voltages and depending on the measured
voltages, the regulator will adjust the amount of rotor field current to control
alternator output.

•Electronic voltage regulator introduces more resistance between the

rotor windings and battery to reduce the alternator out-put.

•Mounted internally Externally

 Diode Rectifier
•The Diode Rectifier Bridge is responsible for the conversion or rectification
of AC voltage to DC voltage.

•Six or eight diodes are used to rectify the AC stator voltage to DC voltage.

•Half of these diodes are use on the positive side and the other half are on
the negative side.(mounted on a heat-sink)
 Diode Rectifier
Forward Biased acts as a conductor (Current passes through)

Reverse Biased acts as an insulator (Current does not pass)

DIODE RECTIFIER BRIDGE
 CHANGES NEGATIVE CURRENT INTO POSITIVE
OUTPUT
 CONVERTS AC (ALTERNATING) VOLTS TO PULSING DC
VOLTS
 3 POSITIVE BIASED DIODES

 3 NEGATIVE BIASED DIODES

 NUMBER OF POLES ON ROTOR AND NUMBER OF

PHASES ON STATOR WILL DETERMINE HOW SMOOTH
OUTPUT IS.
AC VOLTAGE EFFECT WITH DIODE
OPERATION
 Rotor

•The rotor field winding creates the magnetic field that induces voltage into
the stator.

•The rotor spins creating an alternating magnetic field, North, South,

North, South, etc.

•Each end of the rotor field winding is attached to a slip ring. Stationary
brushes connect the alternator to the rotor.

•The rotor assembly is supported by bearings.

 ROTOR
 COPPER WIRE WOUND
AROUND A IRON CORE

 CURRENT PASSING THROUGH

ROTOR CREATES A
MAGNETIC FIELD

 MAGNETIC FIELDS PRODUCE

A VOLTAGE BY INDUCTION
IN STATOR WINDINGS
ROTOR FIELD CIRCUIT

 CONTROLS ALTERNATOR
OUTPUT
 INCREASED FIELD CURRENT
RESULTS IN INCREASED
ALTERNATOR OUTPUT
 TWO BRUSHES PROVIDE
CONNECTION TO FIELD COIL
 STATOR

 THREE SETS OF WINDINGS AROUND LAMINATED CORE

 SMALL GAP BETWEEN ROTOR AND STATOR PERMITS FIELD

CIRCUIT TO ENERGIZE WINDINGS OF STATOR AT THE SAME
TIME.
STATOR WINDINGS

 STATOR WINDING CONNECTIONS

 WYE
 DELTA
 OVERLAPPING STATOR WINDINGS
PRODUCE 33 PHASE ANGLES
 Stator

•The alternating magnetic field from the spinning rotor induces an alternating
voltage into the stator winding.

•The strength of the magnetic field and the speed of the rotor affect the amount of
voltage induced into the stator.
 Stator Design
DELTA
Delta wound stators can be identified because they have only three stator
lead ends.
•Delta stators allow for higher current flow being delivered at low RPM.

•The windings are in parallel

 Stator Design
Wye (Y) wound stator have three windings with a common neutral junction.

•Can be identified by 4 stator leads.

•Used in alternators that require high voltage output at low alternator speeds.

•Two windings are in series at any one time during charge output.
 Brushes

Two stationary carbon brushes ride on two

rotating slip rings. Bushes are either
soldered or bolted.
UNDERSTAND THE A/C GENERATOR
(ALTERNATOR)
Identify the following components
Rotor
Stator
Slip rings
Brushes
Diodes or Rectifier
Rotor, creates spinning magnetic field
Stator, creates alternating current
Slip Rings, allow field current into the rotor
Brushes, allow field current into rotor
High tech brush installation tool
 HOW DOES THE A/C CURRENT
CHANGE INTO D/C CURRENT
 Diodes are used for Full Wave Rectification

 Diodes are often called rectifiers

A/C
D/C
Full Wave Rectification …
... one stator winding
A/C
D/C
Full Wave Rectification …
... one stator winding
A/C
D/C
Full Wave Rectification …
... one stator winding
Full Wave Rectification …
... three stator windings
Actual voltage trace of each stator
winding after full wave rectification
voltage trace on oscilloscope
(diode pattern)
Stator

Rectifier (Diode
pack)
 B+
Positive Diode
Main Charge Terminal
Heat-sink

Negative Diode
Heat-sink

Voltage Regulator

Stator Wires
 Rotor (Field)
Negative
Stator Diodes
windings

B+

Positive Diodes
STATOR CURRENT FLOW PHASE 1
A AND B POSITIVE
STATOR CURRENT PHASE 2
A AND C NEGATIVE
STATOR CURRENT PHASE 3
B AND C POSITIVE
 HOW DOES THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CONTROL THE A/C GENERATOR?
 The regulator will turn on/off current to the field
windings (rotor)
 Increasing current to the rotor…
 …will increase generator output
 HOW DOES THE VOLTAGE REGULATOR
CONTROL THE A/C GENERATOR?
 Regulators are wired to the Ground side of the Rotor
in an A type circuit

 and wired to the Battery side of the Rotor in a B type

circuit
“A” circuit regulator
“A” circuit regulator
“B” circuit regulator
“B” circuit regulator
HOW CAN YOU INCREASE THE AMPERAGE
COMING OUT OF THE GENERATOR?
 Increase engine RPM
(This is limited to about 2500 RPM)

 Increase the rotor’s magnetic field strength

 Use a Delta stator winding

 Y stator = lower output
Delta stator = higher output
HOW CHARGING SYSTEM
INDICATORS WORK
(Circuit Diagram)
LIGHTING SYSTEM
FUSES
WIRING CIRCUIT
WIRES
LIGHTS & DAZZLING
FUSES

Fuses have a thin strip of

material that once
heated by high
amperage it melts
creating an open circuit.
􀂆 Common types used:
􀂆 Standard Blade
􀂆 Auto-fuse
􀂆 Miniature Blade
􀂆 Mini-fuse
􀂆 High amperage
􀂆 Maxi-fuse
􀂆 Mega-fuse
􀂆 Fusible link cartridge
SWITCHES

Switches are used to

control circuit
operation.
􀂆 Types:
􀂆 Single pole single throw
􀂆 Single pole double throw
􀂆 Ganged switch
􀂆 Momentary contact
􀂆 Temperature activated
􀂆 Pressure activated
􀂆 Position activated
SOLENOIDS

Solenoids are use to perform some

mechanical function.
Will also produce voltage spikes
due to there design.
 RELAYS OR CUT OUTS
Relays are used to control a high amperage circuit with a low
amperage control from a module or switch.
 The low amperage circuit is used to create a magnetic field to close or
open contacts on the high amperage circuit.
 Types:
 Standard mini-ISO 5pin relay
 Micro-ISO 5 pin
 Symmetrical 4 pin
STEPPED RESISTORS

Stepped resistors allow two or more

fixed value resistors to be placed in
series to control load operation (speed
or illumination)
 Selecting different switch positions
on the control panel adds or subtracts
resistors in Series.
POTENTIOMETER

A potentiometer uses a variable resistor

to provide a voltage signal to indicate
the wiper’s position to a module or
computer
RHEOSTAT

Variable resistor used in

series with loads to control
the amount of voltage
supplied to the load.
(continuously variable)
SWITCHES AND RELAYS
OTHER ELECTRICAL SYMBOLS
PRODUCTION PROCESS OF AUTOMOTIVE WIRE
LIGHTING
CIRCUIT
 AUTOMOTIVE WIRING

 Insulated cables were used.

 With the use of earth return system, the wiring is much simplified

 Nowadays the wiring system become quite complex

 This can be handled with the use of colored cables, wiring harness,
plastic fibre optics, printed circuits, and improved cable
connections.
Automotive Cables
 While selecting the cable size , the voltage drop is considered.

 Generally, the voltage drop permitted for a particular length of cable

under its full current loading capacity is of the order of 10%.

 Nowadays the multi-stranded cables were used instead of single

conductor type.

 The size of the cable is designated by the no. of strands and the diameter
of each wire used.

 Eg: a cable having 37 strands of wire, each of 0.875mm diameter

is designated as 37/0.875
 Three major classifications
 Starting system cables

 (37/0.900 , 61/0.900, & 61/1.100)

 General Purpose cables

 (9/0.350 – 120/0.350)

 (9/0.350 – 35/0.350)

 (9/0.350)

 High-tension cables. (6000 – 22000 V)

 Overall dia. 7-12mm

 (35/0.350 – 44/0.350)
Considerations
1. Cable runs must be as short as possible.

2. The loom must be protected against physical damage.

3. The number of connections should be kept to a minimum.

4. Modular design may be appropriate.

5. Accident damage areas to be considered.

6. Production line techniques should be considered.

7. Access must be possible to main components and sub-

assemblies for repair purposes.
 Cable Colours
 In order to quickly identify and also to simplify the wiring system , the cables are
colored.

 In addition color lines and threads are also used.

 The seven color code system as follows:

 Brown cables – Battery circuit, Cranking motor, Electric clock, inspection sockets

 Yellow cables – Generator circuit

 White cables – Ignition, Fuel pump, Solenoids

 Green cables – Accessories, Trafficators, wipers, tail lamps

 Blue cables – Head lamp circuits

 Red cables – Side lamps, Fog lamps, Panel lights

 Black cables – earth circuits

Cable Colours
Wiring Harness
•A cable harness, also known as a wire harness, cable assembly, wiring
assembly or wiring loom, is an assembly of electrical cables or wires which
transmit signals or electrical power.
•The cables are bound together by straps, cable ties, cable lacing, sleeves,
electrical tape, conduit, a weave of extruded string, or a combination thereof
Layouts
Cable Connectors
Cable Connectors
Fuses
 Fuses are used to protect the electrical equipments & circuits
from excessive currents.
LIGHTING SYSTEM
LIGHTING SYSTEM
 Vehicle lighting systems are very important, particularly where road
safety is concerned.

 If headlights were suddenly to fail at night and at high speed, the

result could be catastrophic.

 Many techniques have been used, ranging from automatic

changeover circuits to thermal circuit breakers, which pulse the
lights rather than putting them out as a blown fuse would. Modern
wiring systems fuse each bulb filament separately and even if the
main supply to the headlights failed, it is likely that dim-dip would
still work.
Lucas 'King of the road'
 These were acetylene lamps!
VEHICLE HEAD LIGHTS
 A key point to remember with vehicle lights is that they must allow the

driver to:

 See in the dark.

 Be seen in the dark (or conditions of poor visibility).

 Sidelights, rear lights, brake lights and others are relatively

straightforward.

 Headlights present the most problems, because on dipped beam they

must provide adequate light for the driver, without dazzling other road

users.

 Many techniques have been tried over the years and great advances

have been made, but the conflict between seeing and dazzling is

difficult to overcome.
BULBS
 Joseph Swan in the UK invented and patented the first light bulb in 1878 and had
demonstrated it some ten years earlier.

 Thomas Edison tends to get the credit for some reason.

 Much incremental development has taken place since that time.

 The number, shape and size of bulbs used on vehicles is increasing all the time.

 Figure 11.1 shows a common selection.

 Most bulbs for vehicle lighting are either conventional tungsten filament bulbs or
tungsten halogen.
BULB
 In the conventional bulb the tungsten filament is heated to

incandescence by an electric current.

 In a vacuum the temperature is about 2300 "C.

 Tungsten is a heavy metallic element and has the symbol W; its

atomic number is 74; and its atomic weight 2.85.

 The pure metal is steel grey to tin white in colour.

 Its physical properties include the highest melting point of all

metals: 3410 "C.

 BULB
 Pure tungsten is easily forged, spun, drawn and extruded,
whereas in an impure state it is brittle and can be fabricated
only with difficulty.

 Tungsten oxidizes in air, especially at higher temperatures, but

it is resistant to corrosion and is only slightly attacked by most
mineral acids.

 Tungsten or its alloys are therefore ideal for use as

filaments for electric light bulbs.

 The filament is normally wound into a 'spiralled spiral' to

allow a suitable length of thin wire in a small space and to
provide some mechanical strength. Figure 11.2 shows a typical
bulb filament.
 BULB
 If the temperature mentioned above is exceeded even in a vacuum, then the filament will
become very volatile and break.

 This is why the voltage at which a bulb is operated must be kept within tight limits.

 The vacuum in a bulb prevents the conduction of heat from the filament but limits the
operating temperature.

 Gas-filled bulbs are more usual, where the glass bulb is filled with an inert gas such as
argon under pressure.

 This allows the filament to work at a higher temperature without failing and therefore
produce a whiter light.

 These bulbs will produce about 17 Im/W compared with a vacuum bulb, which will
produce about 11 Im/W.
 HALGEN BULBS
 Most vehicles now use tungsten halogen bulbs for their headlights as these are able to
produce about 24 Im/W (more for some modern designs).

 The bulb has a long life and will not blacken over a period of time like other bulbs.

 This is because in normal gas bulbs, over a period of time, about 10% of the filament
metal evaporates and is deposited on the bulb wall.

 The gas in halogen bulbs is mostly iodine.

 The name halogen is used because there are four elements within group VIIA of the
periodic table, known collectively as the halogens.

 The name, derived from the Greek hal- and -gen, means 'salt producing'.

 The four halogens are bromine, chlorine, fluorine and iodine. They are highly reactive and
are not found free in nature.

 The gas is filled to a pressure of several bar (7-8 ATM).

 HALGEN BULBS
 The glass envelope used for the tungsten halogen bulb is made from
fused silicon or quartz.

 The tungsten filament still evaporates but, on its way to the bulb wall,
the tungsten atom combines with two or more halogen atoms forming a
tungsten halide.

 This will not be deposited on to the bulb because of its temperature.

 The convection currents will cause the halide to move back towards the
filament at some point and it then splits up, returning the tungsten to the
filament and releasing the halogen.

 Because of this the bulb will not become blackened, the light output will
therefore remain constant throughout its life.

 The envelope can also be made smaller as can the filament, thus
allowing better focusing. Figure 11.3 shows tungsten halogen headlight
bulbs.
OTHER TYPES OF BULBS
 Festoon
 Miniature centre contact (MCC)
 Capless bulb
 Single contact, small bayonet cap (SBC)
 Double contact, small bayonet cap (SBC)
External Lights
 Regulations exist relating to external lights, the following is a
simplified interpretation and amalgamation of current
regulations.

 The range of permissible luminous intensity is given in

brackets after each sub heading.
 Sidelights (up to 60 cd)
Sidelights (up to 60 cd)

 A vehicle must have two sidelights each with wattage of less than 7 w.

 Most vehicles have the sidelights incorporated as part of the headlight

assembly.
Rear lights (up to 60 cd)

Rear lights (up to 60 cd)

 Again, two must be fitted each with wattage not less than 5 w.

 Lights used in Europe must be 'E' marked and show a diffused light.

 Their position must be within 400 mm from the vehicle edge and over 500
mm apart, and between 350 and 1500 mm above the ground.
Brake lights (40-100 cd)
Brake lights (40-100 cd)
 There two lights are often combined with the rear lights.

 They must be between 15 and 36 W each, with diffused light and must
operate when any form of first line brake is applied.

 Brake lights must be between 350 and 1500 mm above the ground and at
least 500 mm apart in a symmetrical position.

 High-level brake lights are now allowed and, if fitted, must operate with the
primary brake lights.
Reversing lights (300-600 cd)
Reversing lights (300-600 cd)

 No more than two lights may be fitted with a maximum wattage each of 24 W.

 The light must not dazzle and either be switched automatically from the
gearbox or with a switch incorporating a warning light.

 Safety reversing 'beepers' are now often fitted in conjunction with this circuit,
particularly on larger vehicles.
Day running lights (800 cd max)

Day running lights (800 cd max)

 Volvo use day running lights as these are in fact required in Sweden and
Finland.

 These lights come on with the ignition and must only work in conjunction
with the rear lights.

 Their function is to indicate that the vehicle is moving or about to move.

 They switch off when parking or headlights are selected.

Rear fog lights (150-300 cd)
Rear fog lights (150-300 cd)

 One or two may be fitted but, if only one, then it must be on the offside or
centre line of the vehicle.

 They must be between 250 and 1000 mm above the ground and over 100
mm from any brake light.

 The wattage is normally 21W and they must only operate when either the
sidelights, headlights or front fog lights are in use
 Front spot and fog lights
 If front spot lights are fitted (auxiliary driving lights), they must be between 500
and 1200 mm above the ground and more than 400 mm from the side of the
vehicle.

 If the lights are non-dipping then they must only operate when the headlights are
on main beam.

 Front fog lamps are fitted below 500 mm from the ground and may only be used
in fog or falling snow.

 Spot lamps are designed to produce a long beam of light to illuminate the road in
the distance.

 Fog lights are designed to produce a sharp cut off line such as to illuminate the
road just in front of the vehicle but without reflecting back or causing glare.
Vehicle Lighting design
HEAD LIGHTS
TO ILLUMINATE THE ROAD AHEAD WITH SUFFICIENT INTENSITY

DOUBLE FILAMENT LIGHT AND A REFLECTOR IS USED

SPHERICAL AND PARABOLIC REFLECTORS ARE USED

MAIN FILAMENT WILL BE PLACED AT THE FOCUS POINT AND THE

DIPPER FILAMENT WILL BE PLACED SLIGHTY ABOVE IT

VARIOUS TYPES OF HID(HIGH INTENSITY DISCHARGE) LAMPS:

MERCURY VAPOUR TYPE

METAL HALIDE TYPE (XENON LAMPS)

LOW PRESSURE AND HIGH PRESSURE SODIUM TYPES

 DAZZLE
 Dazzle may be defined as the brightness in the field of vision that will
cause interference with vision.

 Dazzle depends upon three factors, namely

 contrast,
 brightness and
 the angle which the bright area subtends at the eye.
Dazzle may be prevented by
 Reducing the contrast between the headlights and the surrounding area.

 In this respect a wide distribution of light of uniform and lower intensity is

very much more desirable than an intense concentration of light limited to
the road surface.

 Not only is dazzle minimized but the drier’s vision is improved by these
conditions.

 Reducing the brightness of the headlights by methods such as dimming in

which resistance is inserted in series with the headlamps.

 Stopping light of high intensity from entering the eyes of oncoming persons.

 This may be done by so projecting the headlight beams that the light flux
above a horizontal level of say 3 to 4 ft is very low intensity.
Headlight Reflectors
 Light from a source, such as the filament of a bulb, can be projected in the
form of a beam of varying patterns by using a suitable reflector and a lens.

 Reflectors used for headlights are usually parabolic, bifocal or homifocal.

 Lenses, which are also used as the headlight cover glass, are used to direct the
light to the side of the road and in a downward direction.

 The object of the headlight reflector is to direct the random light rays
produced by the bulb into a beam of concentrated light by applying the laws
of reflection.

 Bulb filament position relative to the reflector is important, if the desired

beam direction and shape are to be obtained.
 Headlight Reflectors (Contd)
 First, the light source (the light filament) is at the focal point, so the reflected
beam will be parallel to the principal axis.

 If the filament is between the focal point and the reflector, the reflected beam
will diverge - that is, spread outwards along the principal axis.

 Alternatively, if the filament is positioned in front of the focal point the reflected
beam will converge towards the principal axis.
Headlight Reflectors (Contd)
 A reflector is basically a layer of silver, chrome or aluminium deposited on a

smooth and polished surface such as brass or glass.

 Consider a mirror reflector that 'caves in' - this is called a concave reflector.

 The centre point on the reflector is called the pole, and a line drawn

perpendicular to the surface from the pole is known as the principal axis.

 If a light source is moved along this line, a point will be found where the

radiating light produces a reflected beam parallel to the principal axis.

 This point is known as the focal point, and its distance from the pole is known

as the focal length.

Headlight Reflectors
 Parabolic reflector (a)

 Bifocal reflector (c)

 Homifocal reflector (d)

 Poly-ellipsoidal headlight system (PES)

Parabolic reflector
 A parabola is a curve similar in shape to the curved path of a stone thrown
forward in the air.

 A parabolic reflector has the property of reflecting rays parallel to the

principal axis when a light source is placed at its focal point, no matter
where the rays fall on the reflector.

 It therefore produces a bright parallel reflected beam of constant light

intensity.

 With a parabolic reflector, most of the light rays from the light-bulb are
reflected and only a small amount of direct rays disperses as stray light.
 Bifocal reflector
 The bifocal reflector as its name suggests has two reflector sections with different
focal points.

 This helps to take advantage of the light striking the lower reflector area.

 The parabolic section in the lower area is designed to reflect light down to
improve the near field area just in front of the vehicle.

 This technique is not suitable for twin filament bulbs, it is therefore only used
on vehicles with a four-headlight system.

 With the aid of powerful CAD programs, variable focus reflectors can be made
with non-parabolic sections to produce a smooth transition between each area.
Bifocal reflector
Homifocal reflector
 A homifocal reflector is made up of a number of sections each with a
common focal point.

 This design allows a shorter focal length and hence, overall, the light unit
will have less depth.

 The effective luminous flux is also increased.

 It can be used with a twin filament bulb to provide dip and main beam.

 The light from the main reflector section provides the normal long range
lighting and the auxiliary reflectors improve near field and lateral lighting.
Homifocal reflector
Poly-ellipsoidal headlight system (PES)
 The poly-ellipsoidal system (PES) was introduced in 1983.

 It allows the light produced to be as good, or in some cases better than

conventional lights, but with a light-opening area of less than 30 cm2,

 This is achieved by using a CAD designed elliptical reflector and projection

optics.

 A shield is used to ensure a suitable beam pattern.

 The newer PES Plus system, which was intended for larger vehicles, further

improved the near-field illumination.

 These lights are only used with single filament bulbs and must form part of a

four-headlamp system.
Poly-ellipsoidal headlight system (PES)
Complex shape reflectors
 The surface of the reflector is calculated through advanced computer analysis using
a minimum of 50 000 individual points, each specific to the head-lamp model under
design.

 Complex shape reflectors control beam cut-off and pattern as well as homogeneity.

 Headlamp lenses can be perfectly clear or with striations purely for decorative
purposes.

 Jewel aspect signal lamps are based on the complex shape technology widely used
in head lamps.

 Beam pattern is no longer controlled by the lens but by the reflector which, in some
cases, may be in conjunction with an intermediary filter.

 Conventional lens optics using prisms is minimized, giving the impression of

greater depth and brightness.
Headlight lenses
 A good headlight should have a powerful far-reaching central beam, around
which the light is distributed both horizontally and vertically in order to
illuminate as great an area of the road surface as possible.

 The beam formation can be considerably improved by passing the reflected

light rays through a transparent block of lenses.

 It is the function of the lenses partially to redistribute the reflected light

beam and any stray light rays, so that a better overall road illumination is
achieved with the minimum of glare.

 Lenses work on the principle of refraction - that is, the change in the
direction of light rays when passing into or out of a transparent medium,
such as glass (plastic on some very recent headlights).
Headlight lenses
 The headlight front cover and glass lens, is divided up into a large number of small
rectangular zones, each zone being formed optically in the shape of a concave flute or a
combination of flute and prisms.

 The shape of these sections is such that, when the roughly parallel beam passes through
the glass, each individual lens element will redirect the light rays to obtain an improved
overall light projection or beam pattern. The flutes control the horizontal spread of
light.

 At the same time the prisms sharply bend the rays downwards to give diffused local
lighting just in front of the vehicle.

 Many headlights are now made with clear lenses, which means that all the light
directionality is performed by the reflector.
Headlight lenses
ANTI-DAZZLE DEVICES
 VERTICAL AND SIDE CONTROL OF HEADLAMP BEAM
SPLIT PARABOLA PATTERN

By displacing the lower and upper halves of the reflector by an amount equal
to the filament length as shown in figure C, the light rays are projected parallel
and downwards, but not upwards.
 DIPPING REFLECTOR
 Dipping of the headlight beam is effected by movement of the reflector within the
headlight casing.

 The movement of the reflector is controlled by means of a solenoid mounted on a

bracket astride the back of the reflector.
 BIFOCAL BULBS

The main or driving filament was located at the focus of the reflector and gave a parallel
type of driving beam.
 When the main beam was switched off and auxiliary (axial) filament switched on, the
screen cut off all the light rays that would otherwise have been reflected upwards by the lower
part of the reflector, leaving the upper part of the reflector to produce the downwardly
projected non-dazzle beam.
This type of beam had a certain lateral spread which illuminated the road nearer to the car.
Manual Headlight Leveling
Automatic Head light Adjustment
Head light Alignment
 Head light Alignment
To set the headlights of a car using an aiming board the following procedure should be
adopted.

1. Park the car on level ground square on to a vertical aiming board at a distance of 10m if
possible.

2. The car should be unladen except for the driver.

3. Mark out the aiming board as shown .

4. Bounce the suspension to ensure it is level.

5. With the lights set on dip beam, adjust the cut-off line to the horizontal mark, which will
in most cases be 1 cm below the height of the headlight centre for every 1 m the car is
away from the board.* The break-off point should be adjusted to the centre line of each
light in turn.

*Note: If the required dip is 1% then 1 cm per 1 m. If 1.2% is required then 1.2 cm per 1m,
etc. Always check data for actual settings.
Dash Board Instruments
 Fuel Gauges
Balancing coil type fuel gauge
Thermostatic type fuel gauge
Single Thermostatic Blade type fuel gauge
Balancing type oil pressure gauge
Balancing coil type temperature gauge
Thermostatic type temperature gauge
Electronic Fuel Gauge
Electronic Fuel Gauge
Electronic Oil Pressure
Electronic Oil Pressure
Electronic Coolant temperature Gauge
Speedometers
Mechanical Type Speedometer

•It consists of a flexible shaft which connects the output shaft of gear box
through a worm gear unit to the speedometer unit on the instrument panel.
•By this arrangement , the speed of the drive shaft is conveyed to the
speedometer unit.
Mechanical Type Speedometer
•The principle of magnetic induction is made use of in the operation of the speedometer.
•It has a speed cup made of aluminium or iron.
•The flexible shaft drives the permanent magnet which in turn induces current in the cup
situated above it.
•The cup is made to rotate against the tension of spring due to interaction of the magnet
with the magnetism caused by the induced currents in the cup.
•The speedometer has a total kilometer recorder which is also operated by the drive shaft
through the gearing arrangement.
•The present day vehicles are provided with push-and-pull knob underneath the dash unit
for resetting all the tripped figures to zero on its scale.
Electrical Type Speedometer
•The electrical speedometer operates on the principle that when an electrical
generator is driven off the gear-box output shaft, it generates a voltage which is
practically proportional to the speed.
•This voltage is supplied to a voltmeter whose scale is calibrated to read in
kilometers per hour.
•This principle can also be applied to the tachometer or revolution counters
used in racing cars in order to show the revolutions of the engine.
Electrical Type Speedometer
Electrical Type Speedometer
 Small permanent magnets are embedded in a brass wheel which is rotated by a

shaft at the gear box output shaft speed.

 A pick-up coil is placed near it.

 These small voltage pulses are amplified by transistorized circuits and then

transformed into a direct current voltage exactly proportional to the number of

impulses per second received from the coil.

 This final voltage is applied to an instrument calibrated as a speedometer to

indicate the speed of the vehicle or a tachometer to indicate the number of

engine revolutions.
Electronic Speedometer Speed
Electric Horn
HORNS
 Horns are devices that
emit a loud sound, and
vehicles are equipped with
one or two horns.

FIGURE 24-1 The two horns on this vehicle

were finally located under the front bumper.
They were not visible until the vehicle was
hoisted.
Electric Horn
HORNS
 With a relay, the horn button on the steering wheel or
column completes a circuit to ground that closes a relay,
and the heavy current flow required by the horn then
travels from the relay to the horn.

FIGURE 24-2 A typical horn

circuit. Note that the horn button
completes the ground circuit for
the relay.
Trafficator
Flashing indicator wiring diagram