STRUCTURAL ORGANIZATION  Rough endoplasmic reticulum

 Golgi apparatus
OF CELL  Cytoskeleton
 Smooth endoplasmic reticulum
A. Structural Level
 Mitochondria
 Vacuole cytosol
 Lysosome
 Centriole

A cell is the basic structural and functional unit of

living organisms. So, when you define cell proper-
ties, you are in fact defining the properties of life.
A cell is the smallest independently functioning The activity of an organism depends on the
unit of a living organism. Even bacteria, which are collective activities of its cells.
extremely small, independently living organisms,
have a cellular structure. According to the principle of complementarity, the
activities of cells are dictated by their structure
A human cell typically consists of a variety of tiny (anatomy), which determines function
functioning units called organelles. In humans, (physiology).
as in all organisms, cells perform all functions of
life. A tissue is a group of many similar cells Continuity of life has a cellular basis.
(though sometimes composed of a few related
Although no one cell type is exactly like all
types) that work together to perform a specific others, cells do have the same basic parts,
function. An organ is an anatomically distinct and there are certain functions common to all
structure of the body composed of two or more cells. In general, all cells have three main
tissue types. Each organ performs one or more regions or parts—a nucleus (nu′kle-us), a
specific physiological functions. An organ plasma membrane, and the cytoplasm (si′to-
system is a group of organs that work together to plazm′′). The nucleus is usually located near
perform major functions in the body. the center of the cell. It is surrounded by the
semifluid cytoplasm, which in turn is enclosed
•An organelle is a subcellular structure that by the plasma membrane, which forms the
has one or more specific jobs to perform in outer cell boundary.
the cell, much like an organ does in the body.
NUCLEUS

Types of Organelles  a large double-membraned organelle That

is sometimes referred to as the “central
 Nucleolus
unit” of the cell because it contains the
 Nucleus
chromosomes that bear the genetic
 Ribosome
material.
 Vesicle
 NUCLEAR ENVELOPE
  NUCLEOLUS the fertilized egg divides to become an
 CHROMATIN embryo.
 PLASMA MEMBRANE  Sperm (male). This cell is long and
 The flexible plasma membrane is a fragile, stream-lined, built for swimming to the
transparent barrier that contains the cell
egg for fertilization. Its flagellum acts
as a motile whip to propel the sperm.
contents and separates them from the
surrounding environment.
 CYTOPLASM
TISSUES
 The cytoplasm is the cellular material
outside the nucleus and inside the plasma Groups of cells that are similar in structure
membrane. and function are called tissues and
represent the next level of structural
SPECIALIZED CELLS organization.
EPITHELIAL TISSUE
Cells that connect body parts
Epithelial tissue, or epithelium (ep′′ ̆ ı-the′le-
 Fibroblast. It has an abundant rough um; epithe = laid on, covering; plural
ER and a large Golgi apparatus to epithelia), is the lining, covering, and
make and secrete the protein building glandular tissue of the body.
blocks of these fibers.
 Erythrocyte (red blood cell). This cell Epithelial functions include protection,
carries oxygen in the blood. absorption, filtration, and secretion.

Cells that cover and line body organs CONNECTIVE TISSUES

 Epithelial cell. Connective tissue, as its name suggests,

connects body parts.
Cells that move organs and body parts
 Bones
 Skeletal, cardiac, and smooth muscle  Cartilage
cells. These cells are elongated and  Dense Connective Tissues
filled with abundant contractile
 Blood
filaments, so they can shorten
 Tendon
forcefully and move the bones, pump
blood, or change the size of internal  Loose Connective Tissues
organs to move substances around the  Blood
body.
MUSCLE TISSUE
Cell that stores nutrients
are highly specialized to contract, or shorten,
 Fat cell. The huge spherical shape of a which generates the force required to
fat cell is produced by a large lipid produce movement. There are three types of
droplet in its cytoplasm. muscle tissue: skeletal, cardiac, and
smooth.
Cell that fights disease
NERVOUS TISSUE
 White blood cells
Nervous tissue is found in the brain, spinal
Cell that gathers information and controls
cord, and nerves. It is responsible for
body functions
coordinating and controlling many body
 Nerve cell (neuron) activities.
Cells of reproduction
 Oocyte (female). The largest cell in the
body, this egg cell contains several
copies of all organelles, for distribution
to the daughter cells that arise when
THE HUMAN ORGANISM: ORGAN
SYSTEM
An organ system is a group of organs
working together to perform specific functions
and tasks within an organism's body.
 Produces body movements, maintains posture,
Organ Systems of the Body and produces body heat. Consists of muscles
attached to the skeleton by tendons.
• Integumentary System
• Lymphatic System
Provides protection, regulates temperature,
prevents water loss, and helps produce vitamin D. Removes foreign substances from the blood and
Consists of skin, hair, nails, and sweat glands. lymph, combats disease, maintains tissue fluid
balance, and absorbs dietary fats from the
• Skeletal System
digestive tract. Consists of lymphatic vessels,
Provides protection and support, allows body lymph nodes, and other lymphatic organs.
movements, produces blood cells, and stores
• Respiratory System
minerals and adipose tissue. Consists of bones,
associated cartilage, ligaments, and joints. Exchanges oxygen and carbon dioxide between
the blood and air and regulates blood potential of
• Muscular System
hydrogen (pH). Consists of the lungs and
respiratory passages.
• Digestive System
Performs the mechanical and chemical processes Produces and transfers sperm cells to the female
of digestion, absorption of nutrients, and and produces hormones that influence sexual
elimination of wastes. It consists of the mouth, functions and behaviors. Consists of the testes,
esophagus, stomach, intestines, and accessory accessory structures, ducts, and penis.
organs.
Vital Organs
• Nervous System
The human body contains five organs that
A major regulatory system that detects sensations are considered vital for survival. They are the
and controls movements, physiological heart, brain, kidneys, liver, and lungs. If any of the
processes, and intellectual functions. Consists of five vital organs stops functioning, the death of
the brain, spinal cord, nerves, and sensory the organism is imminent without medical
receptors. intervention.

• Endocrine System 1. The heart is located in the center of the

chest, and its function is to keep blood flowing
A major regulatory system that influences
through the body. Blood carries substances to
metabolism, growth, reproduction, and many
cells that they need and carries away waste from
other functions. Consists of glands, such as the
cells.
pituitary, that secrete hormones.
2. The brain is located in the head and
• Cardiovascular System
functions as the body’s control center. It is the
Transports nutrients, waste products, gases, and seat of all thoughts, memories, perceptions, and
hormones throughout the body; plays a role in the feelings.
immune response and the regulation of body
3. The two kidneys are located in the back
temperature. It consists of the heart, blood
of the abdomen on either side of the body. Their
vessels, and blood.
function is to filter blood and form urine, which is
• Urinary System excreted from the body.

Removes waste products from the blood and 4. The liver is located on the right side of the
regulates blood pH, ion balance, and water abdomen. It has many functions, including
balance. Consists of the kidneys, urinary bladder, filtering blood, secreting bile that is needed for
and ducts that carry urine. digestion, and producing proteins necessary for
blood clotting.
• Reproductive System
5. The two lungs are located on either side of
The reproductive system is responsible for the upper chest. Their main function is
producing offspring and maintaining the species. exchanging oxygen and carbon dioxide with the
It differs between males and females and includes blood.
organs such as the gonads (testes in males and
ovaries in females), ducts, glands, and external Organism Level
genitalia. Functions include producing gametes
An organism is any living thing considered as a
(sperm and eggs), facilitating fertilization, and
whole, whether composed of one cell, such as a
supporting fetal development.
bacterium, or of trillions of cells, such as a
• Female Reproductive System human. The human organism is a complex of
organ systems that are mutually dependent on
Produces oocytes and is the site of fertilization one another.
and fetal development; produces milk for the
newborn; produces hormones that influence CHARACTERISTICS OF LIFE
sexual function and behaviors. It consists of the
ovaries, uterine tubes, uterus, vagina, mammary 1. Structural characteristics - this category
glands, and associated structures. encompasses traits related to the physical
and organizational aspects of living
• Male Reproductive System organisms, such as cellular organization
and hierarchical structure.
 2. Functional characteristics - these traits glucose and oxygen, providing energy for
involve the processes and functions that growth and maintenance.
enable living organisms to carry out  Responsiveness - is the ability of an
essential life activities, such as organism to sense changes in the
metabolism, reproduction, and response environment and make the adjustments
to stimuli. that help maintain its life.
3. Regulatory characteristics - this
Here are the examples of responsiveness as a
category includes traits that help
characteristic of life:
organisms maintain internal stability and
respond to changes in their environment,  Movement in Response to Stimuli -
such as homeostasis and adaptation. movement and response to stimuli are
4. Organization - refers to the specific both components of responsiveness,
interrelationships among the parts of an which is the ability of an organism to
organism and how those parts interact to detect and react to changes in its
perform specific functions. environment.
 Behavioral Responses - behavioral
Here are three examples of organizations in
responses are a crucial aspect of
characteristics of life:
responsiveness in living organisms. These
 Cell - all living organisms consist of one or responses involve actions or behaviors
more cells, which serve as the that an organism exhibits in reaction to
fundamental structural and functional units various stimuli or changes in its
of life. environment.
 Immune System Response - the immune
 Tissues - cells with similar structure and
system plays a crucial role in
function can form tissues like muscle or
responsiveness by detecting and
nervous tissue to perform specific tasks.
responding to foreign substances or
 Organ - organs, such as the heart, liver, pathogens in the body.
and brain, are complex structures made  Reproduction - is the formation of new
up of various tissues that perform cells or new organisms.
essential functions for life.
Here are three examples of reproduction as a
 Metabolism - is the ability to use energy characteristic of life:
to perform vital functions, such as growth,
 Sexual Reproduction - is a fundamental
movement, and reproduction. Plants
characteristic of life that contributes to the
capture energy from sunlight. and humans
diversity, adaptation, and evolution of
obtain energy from food.
organisms.
Here are three examples of metabolism in
 Asexual Reproduction - is another
characteristics of life:
fundamental characteristic of life that
 Digestion - food digestion involves involves the production of offspring from a
breaking down food into smaller molecules single parent without the fusion of
through mechanical and chemical gametes.
processes like chewing and enzymatic
 Spore Formation - is a reproductive
reactions to extract nutrients for energy
strategy observed in various groups of
and growth.
organisms, including bacteria, fungi,
 Respiration - oxygen utilization is a
algae, plants, and some protozoa.
biochemical process where organisms use
oxygen to release energy from nutrient HOMEOSTASIS
molecules like glucose and produce ATP
as usable energy. The word homeostasis (ho”me-o-sta’sis)
 Photosynthesis - green plants and some describes the body’s ability to maintain relatively
microorganisms utilize light energy to stable internal conditions even though the outside
convert carbon dioxide and water into world is continuously changing. Although the
literal translation of homeostasis is
“unchanging” (homeo = the same; stasis =
standing still) the term does not really mean an
unchanging state. Instead, it indicates a dynamic Feedback Mechanisms
state of equilibrium, or a balance in which internal
conditions change and vary but always within Positive Feedback
relatively narrow limits.

In general, the body demonstrates homeostasis

when its needs are being adequately met and it is
functioning smoothly. Virtually every organ system
plays a role in maintaining the constancy of the
Internal environment. Adequate blood levels of
Vital nutrients must be continuously present, and
heart activity and blood pressure must be
constantly monitored and adjusted so that the
blood is Propelled with adequate force to reach all
body tissues. Negative Feedback

Additionally, wastes must not be allowed to

accumulate, and body temperature must be
precisely controlled. Communication within the
body is essential for homeostasis and is
accomplished chiefly by the nervous and
endocrine systems, which use electrical signals
delivered by nerves or bloodborne hormones,
respectively, as information carriers.

Components of Homeostatic

Control Systems TERMINOLOGY AND THE

Three Components: BODY PLANES
A receptor, control center, and effector (Figure 1. DIRECTIONALTERMS
1.9)
A. Right & Left
 The receptor is a type of sensor that
The Sagittal Plane- is a vertical plane that
monitors and responds to changes in the
passes through the body longitudinally. It divides
environment. It responds to such changes,
the body into left and right section. A specific
called stimuli, by sending information
sagittal plane that passes down the midline of the
(input) to the second component,
body, separating it into equal halves.
 The control center, information flows
from the receptor to the control center B. Inferior & Superior
along the afferent pathway. The control
Superior or Cranial- toward the head and of the
center determines the level (set point) at
body; upper. (Example: The hand is part of
which a variable is to be maintained. This
superior extremity)
component analyzes the information it
receives and then determines the Inferior or Caudal- away from the head; lower.
appropriate response or course of action. (Example: The foot is part of the inferior
 The third component, the effector, extremity)
provides the means for the control
C. Dorsal & Ventral
center’s response (out-put) to the
stimulus. Dorsal (i.e posterior)- refers to the back part of
the body.
 Ventral (i.e. anterior)- refers to the front part of -it passes through the body at an angle between
the body. the transverse plane and either sagittal or frontal
plane.
D. Proximal & Distal

Proximal- toward or nearest the trunk on the BODY REGIONS AND CAVITY
point of origin of a part. (e.g. "proximal end of the
Division
femur join with the pelvic bone")
Limbs - is a jointed or prehensile (chiefly or
Distal- away from the farthest from the trunk on
mainly) appendage of human or another animal.
the pt of origin of a part. (e.g "the hand is located
at the distal end of the forearm. Human body - upper and lower limbs, includes
the shoulder and hip girdle, the arms and legs are
E. Lateral & Medial
connected by the torso or trunk.
Lateral- away from the midline of the body. (e.g.
Head part - includes the ear, brain, forehead,
the middle toe is located at the medial side of the
cheeks, lips, eyes, nose and mouth. Most senses
foot)
are taste, smell, hearing and sight.
Medial- toward the midline of the body. (E.g. the
Neck - the start of the spinal column and spinal
little toe is located at the lateral side of the foot)
cord, the spinal column contains about 2 dozen
F. Superficial & Deep interconnected, oddly shaped, bony segments
called the Vertebrae.
Superficial- means closer to the surface of the
body. (e.g. the skin is superficial to the bone) The neck contains seven of these known as
cervical vertebrae, they are the smallest and
Deep- means away from the body surface. (e.g. uppermost vertebrae in the body.
the brain is deep to the skull.)
Part of the throat and neck
PLANES AND SECTIONS
● Hard palate - separate the nose and mouth.
Sagittal/Midsagittal Plane
● Soft palate - back roof of the mouth.
Sagittal Plane- is a vertical plane that passes
● Epiglottis - keeps the food and liquid out of the
through the body longitudinally. It divides the
trachea when swallowing.
body into left and right section. A specific sagittal
plane that passes down the midline of the body, ● Larynx - also known as voice box, makes
separating it into equal halves. sounds used for speaking.

Midsagittal Plane- it passes through the midline. ● Eustachian tube - connect the middle ear to
the back of our nose and throat. They help drain
Transverse/Horizontal Section
fluid and equalize air pressure in our ears.
- The Superior (Upper) and Inferior (Lower)
● Nasopharynx - upper part of the throat, behind
portions of the body.
the nose; an opening on each side of the
Coronal/Frontal Section nasopharynx leads into the ear function is to
connect our nasal passage to the rest of our
- A vertical plane running from side to side; respiratory system. It also allows air to get from
divides the body or any of its parts into anterior your nose to our lungs and control pressure
and posterior portions. between our nasopharynx and middle ear.
Longitudinal Section Trunk - contains the chest, abdomen, pelvis, and
- It is the opposite of cross section, longitudinal back. Most of the body organs and backbone are
section that is cut along. found in the trunk; also called the “torso”.

Oblique Section Abdomen- The upper abdomen contains the right

hypochondriac, epigastric and left hypochondriac
region. The middle part contains the right lumbar,
umbilical cord and left lumbar region. The lower 1. Pericardial Membrane - it is a protective fluid
abdomen contains the right iliac, hypogastric and - filled that surrounds your heart and helps it
left iliac region. function properly. It also covers the roots of

The four quadrants of the abdomen your major blood vessels as they extend from
your heart aka. “great vessels” and they include
● Right Upper Quadrant - right portion of the
your Aorta (the largest blood vessel in the body)
liver, gallbladder, right kidney, and small of the
responsible for transporting O2 (oxygen) and rich
stomach, portion of the ascending and transverse
body from your heart to the rest of the body.
colon, and part of the small intestine.
2. Pleural Membrane - a pleura is a serous
● Left Upper Quadrant - left portion of the liver,
membrane that folds back on itself to form two
the large portion of the stomach, the pancreas,
layered membranous pleural sacs. The outer
left kidney, spleen, portion of the transverse and
layer is called the parietal pleura and attaches to
descending colon and parts of the small intestine.
the chest wall. The inner layer is called the
● Right Lower Quadrant - appendix, upper visceral pleura and covers the lungs, blood
portion of the colon, right ovary, fallopian tube. vessels, nerves, and bronchi.

● Left Lower Quadrant - parts of the small 3. Peritoneum - is the serous membrane that
intestine, the distal descending and sigmoid lines the abdominal cavity. It is composed of the
colon, Sigmoid colon a S shape last part of the mesothelial cells that are supported by a thin
large intestine leading to the rectum. layer of the fibrous tissue and is embryologically
derived from the mesoderm.
The major organs of the abdomen- Stomach -
Gallbladder - Liver - Pancreas - Intestine - 4. Parietal Peritoneum - lines the internal walls
Urinary system of the abdominal cavity forming a sac known as
the peritoneal cavity.
Body Cavities
● Mesentery - is a double layer of peritoneum
Thoracic Cavity - is the anterior or ventral body and attaches and vasculature and nerves to the
cavity found within the rib cage in the torso or intraperitoneal organ. A ligament made up of two
trunk. It houses the primary organs of the layers of visceral peritoneum and supports one
cardiovascular and respiratory system and other organ or structure within the peritoneal cavity.
organs for example, esophagus and the thymus.
● Retroperitoneal Membrane - lines the
Abdominal Cavity - the abdominopelvic cavity abdominal cavity and supports the abdominal
can be divided into the abdominal cavity, organs.
enclosed by the rib cage and the pelvic contains
the kidney, uterus, stomach, intestine, liver, 5. Visceral Peritoneum - the layer of tissue that
gallbladder, and pancreas. The pelvic cavity is covers the outer surface of most organs in the
enclosed by the pelvis and contains the bladder, abdomen including the intestine.
anus, and reproductive system.

Pelvic Cavity - is a bowl-like structure that sits

below the abdominal cavity. The true pelvis or
lesser pelvis lies below the pelvic brim. This
landmark begins the level of the sacral
promontory posteriorly and pubic symphysis
anteriorly.

Serous Membrane - is a smooth tissue

membrane of mesothelium lining content and
inner wall of body cavities, which secrete serous
fluid to allow lubricated sliding movements
between opposing surfaces.